the ground, usually without ceremony, though if he chose he might pass
this through the same series of motions as the twigs carried in his
hand. He next took off his entire head-gear at once. This he held in
his left hand and passed from his right shoulder up over his head four
times, repeating the same motions with the right hand on the left side.
He then placed this with the other paraphernalia on the ground.
He next left the drum and went directly back to the foot of the center
pole, where he rejoined the rest of the ghost-dancers. The remaining
dancers went, one by one, or in small groups, and performed exactly
the same ceremony as that just described. When all had disrobed, each
took his costume and retired to the woods or brush, redressed himself,
endeavoring to change his painting to one as different as possible from
that which he wore before. Later the same performance was repeated:
the calling by the crier, entry of the dancers, series of dances, and
ceremonial disrobing.
On the first day this entire series of dances was repeated four times
in all--at about 5 a.m., 10 a.m., 2 p.m., and 5 p.m., respectively.
After the ceremonial disrobing at the end of the fourth series, the
ghost-dancers left their suits in the dance-house and repaired to the
river or lake to swim, after which they returned to the dance-house.
During the other three days of the ceremony they might appear any
desired number of times during the day.
The dancers were forbidden to eat or drink on any particular day as
long as the dance continued, but as soon as they had gone down to swim
this restriction was removed.
As a rule, fire-eating and fire-handling were only incidental
to the ghost dance proper. However, if occasion arose, the
ghost-dancers themselves might handle fire, though they could not
eat it. This privilege was especially reserved to the ash-devils,
nō' xahlūīgak (E). In case something was done to offend
the ghost-dancers, such as an inadequate provision of wood or some
inattention on the part of the officials, they might attempt to show
their displeasure by throwing fire about the dance-house. It then
became the duty of the two fire-tenders to hold sticks of wood across
the fire. This operated as a taboo to the ghost-dancers, who were
prevented from touching the fire. If there were any of the ash-devils
present, even though not regularly participating in this particular
ceremony, they at once brought their special bird-shaped staffs,
which served as their badges of authority,[19] and gave them absolute
control over the entire assemblage, including even the head captain.
This caused the fire-tenders to remove their restriction, and the
ghost-dancers were then privileged to do as they wished as long as they
were under the patronage of the ash-devils.
While serving, during the regular ghost dance, as messengers,
sergeants-at-arms, and collectors of fines, the ash-devils were called
katsa´tala (E), and were the special clowns who performed all manner
of antics in their endeavors to provoke an outward expression of mirth
from some unfortunate spectator. Should he so forget himself as to
laugh or even smile at the antics, one of these katsa´tala ran at him
with his wand and levied tribute in the form of a payment of beads or
some other commodity, or imposed a penalty requiring the offender to
bring wood or water for the dancers. Furthermore, if some one of the
dancers should see a spectator in possession of something desirable, he
sent one of these katsa´tala with his wand to this spectator to demand
the desired article. The spectator must then bring it to the foot of
the center pole and deposit it for the dancers.
In order to provoke the spectators to mirth, these katsa´tala did many
odd things and made themselves as grotesque as possible. For instance,
one of them would prop his eyelids open with small wooden pegs (an
action called ū´ībatak (E)), or he would hold his mouth open and
stretch it out of shape (an action called katsī´da batak (E)), or he
would fill his cheeks very full and puff them out with grass (called
kawe´ts kale (E)).
These ash-devils never actually danced in the ghost dance proper, but
accompanied the regular ghost-dancers when they appeared. The intervals
between dances were filled and greatly enlivened by their antics, and
it was during these intervals that they made good their name by rolling
in the ashes of the fire, and by sometimes throwing live coals about,
and "eating" them.
From time to time during the "rests," or ceremonial pauses, one of
these katsa´tala would seize a cocoon rattle, run four times about
the fire and center pole, and throw the rattle at the chief singer,
calling upon him for a song. This must be at once forthcoming, and the
ghost dance itself was then resumed. If some one in the audience wished
to have the singing and dancing resumed, he threw a cocoon rattle at
one of the fire-tenders, who passed it to one of the katsa´tala, who
then ran about the fire and presented it to the chief singer as just
described.
Songs were sometimes sung independently and unaccompanied by dancing.
This was especially the case in what may be termed singing contests.
Upon receiving the rattle, a singer was obliged at once to sing some
song. He then passed the rattle to another singer, who did likewise.
Thus each of the renowned singers was given an opportunity to prove his
merit. Each man's song was accompanied by a parade of the performers,
which carried the party, including the singer, four times around the
dancing area.
FIRE EATING
Fire-eating was restricted, as above stated, to the ash-devils, and,
while sometimes practiced during intermissions in the regular ghost
dance, it was usually held as a separate ceremony in the evening and
was preceded by a short dance.
The dress of the ash-devils consisted of a coat of paint and a very
simple headdress.[20] In addition, however, they carried special
ceremonial staffs called tōa bīla´t (E), kasa´ūsaūa (E),
and kasa´Isala (E). To one end of this ceremonial staff was fixed the
head of a crane. Grass was used to stuff the neck part, bits of abalone
(_Haliotis_) shell made the eyes, and bluejay feathers were made into a
topknot. It was permissible to use wands of slightly different forms,
but all were crooked in some way, and the crane-headed staff was the
recognized variety.
When this special ceremony commenced, the ash-devils became supreme
and took precedence over everybody. A guard was posted at the foot of
the side post to the east of the door, and no one was permitted to
leave the dance-house after the ceremony had begun except upon payment
of a certain sum of what was termed upon this occasion "bead money"
(cata´ne (E)). As a matter of fact, two or three stems of rush, from
four to six feet in length, were bound together and were given to the
guard as payment. He took this "money" and hung it on the wall near
the drum, after having danced a few quick steps upon the drum with it
in his hands. These rushes were legal tender during this ceremony; and
if the dancers asked a favor of any one else in the dance-house they
paid him for the service in this same legal tender. Their authority was
especially shown by their use of the crane-head wands, which no one
else was permitted to touch. They could be handled only after a long
fast involving complete abstinence from water and from meat or grease
in any form.
As soon as the ash-devils entered the dance-house absolute silence
fell upon all. Except the ash-devils, no one, not excepting the head
captain, was permitted to speak during the ceremony. The rule was that
the ash-devils themselves must consult one another in low tones.
Immediately upon entering the dance-house the main group of ash-devils
took up a position at the foot of the center pole and, in case some one
of the spectators did not almost immediately start a song for their
dance, they might jump into the fire and begin to throw brands and live
coals about among the spectators. This drastic action quickly called
forth a protest, and some one volunteered to sing.
The actual dancing lasted for perhaps half an hour, after which the
ash-devils sat down and began to "eat fire," jump into it, and perform
other miraculous feats with it. They, to all appearances, actually
picked up live coals, which they called bū (E), and devoured them,
preferring the coals of manzanita wood, as these were the strongest
and hottest. This term bū is translated by the Pomo as "potatoes,"
a term applied to the many species of bulbs and corms formerly an
important part of their food supply. The word for coals is masi´k (E).
During the progress of the dancing a fire-tender had been preparing
the fire for the special benefit of the ash-devils, and had selected a
considerable quantity of live coals, which he had piled at one side of
the main fire. Suddenly one of the fire-dancers put his hand into these
coals and scattered them out over the dancing floor. Then he pretended
to be burned and danced about as if in pain. Finally, however, he
struck the center pole with his hand and evinced great satisfaction,
for to him the center pole was as cold water. During this fire-eating
ceremony many other feats were performed, such as catching with the
mouth a live coal which had been thrown into the air, then running
back to the drum and dancing upon it. The dancer usually turned toward
the audience, opened his mouth, and exhaled his breath in such a way
as to cause the coal to glow between his teeth or farther back in his
mouth. Such comical antics would in ordinary life provoke an outburst
of merriment, but the rules of the ceremony absolutely forbade a sound
of any kind, mirthful or otherwise, from the audience, and if the rule
were violated a fine was exacted.
During this ceremony, and apparently as an initiation of novices,
little boys were thrown by the ash-devils back and forth a number of
times through the blaze of a large fire.
Finally, after about half an hour of this eating and handling of
fire, the ash-devils formed at the drum and danced over a course such
as that shown in figure 5. This was repeated four times, and as each
dancer stepped upon the drum he danced a few short, quick steps, as
did the regular drummer in producing music for an ordinary dance. Upon
completing this cycle of four, the dancers reversed their direction and
traveled over the same course four times. They next passed over the
course represented in figure 6, stopping at the four points marked I,
where each dancer waved his wand, which he held with both hands, above
and in front of his head in such a manner as to describe with it a
semicircle, while the spectators cried "hee´...."
[Illustration: Fig. 5 Fig. 6
Fig. 5--Course in first part of final fire dance. Fig. 6--Course in
second part of final fire dance.]
The dancers then returned to the drum, removed their head-dresses and
nets, and danced back and forth four times along the line indicated
in figure 7. At the end of each journey along this line, the dancers
blew their breath forcibly through their lips and waved their hands
from their mouths. At the end of this cycle they sat down and became
ordinary persons[21] once more. The spectators were then permitted
to do as they wished. They could resume their normal ways, including
smoking, which had been prohibited because the fire and everything
pertaining to it belonged exclusively to the fire-dancers during this
ceremony.
THE PURIFICATION RITE
During the first three days and nights of the ghost ceremony, either
the ghost dance itself or some other dance associated with it might
be held. On the fourth night it was necessary that the entire night
be spent in dancing, and near dawn there occurred a purification
rite accompanied by special songs. Every ceremonial object about the
dance-house, whether it had been used during the preceding days or
not, had to undergo this purification, and in case the owner of such
a ceremonial object was not present, some near relative performed the
ceremony with it.
[Illustration: Fig. 7--Course in third part of final fire dance.]
Just before sunrise each dancer, holding up his personal ceremonial
paraphernalia in his right hand, danced back and forth in time to the
songs. He danced four times looking toward each of the six cardinal
directions in the following order: east, north, west, south, up, down.
All the ceremonial objects were then hung up in the dance-house and
later stored away secretly by the chief Gū´ksū doctor.
The ceremony ended during the following forenoon with a grand feast,
which differed materially from other feasts held at times during the
ceremony, in that each separate class of individuals dined by itself in
the order of rank--captains, fire-tenders, singers, drummers, masters
of ceremonies, ash-devils, ghost-dancers, and spectators. The food
served to each class was, however, of the same kind and quality.
Certain restrictions were imposed upon the dancers after the ceremony
was over. The regular ghost-dancers were not allowed to eat meat for
eight days. Those who wore the chaplet of twigs upon the head were
obliged to abstain from meat for four days. The Gū´ksū doctor
who assisted a dancer in dressing might ask him for some article, such
as a powerful poison. This had to be given the Gū´ksū and, in
that case, the dancer was forced to abstain from meat for eight days.
A dancer who wore certain kinds of feather ornaments abstained from
meat for a month. The chief Gū´ksū doctor, who knew all about
the ghost dance and who was called yō´mta bate (E), was compelled
to abstain from meat for several months. It was his duty to care for
the ceremonial paraphernalia between dances. This had to be carefully
hidden away in some lonely spot where no one could find it except this
chief Gū´ksū doctor and his two or three assistants.
Whenever any one of these individuals ate meat or fish for the first
time after this period of restriction had expired he was enjoined to
say a short prayer over it.
SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF THE GHOST CEREMONY
The following are the most characteristic features of the ghost or
devil ceremony:
1. The ceremony is supposed to have had its origin in mythical times
and to have been instituted as an atonement for an offense against the
dead.
2. It lasted four days, ending with an all-night dance, and, on the
morning of the fifth day, a purification rite followed by a feast in
which each class of individuals dined by itself.
3. The participants were several ghost-or devil-dancers personating
the spirits of the departed and accompanied frequently, though not
always, by one or more ash-devils or ash-ghosts, who filled the double
office of clown and sergeant-at-arms, and who usually performed their
special fire dance and fire-eating ceremony.
4. The officials particularly concerned with the ceremony were two
head singers, an indefinite number of burden-singers, a drummer, two
fire-tenders, and two masters of ceremonies. The village captains
retained their full authority in this ceremony except when the
ash-devils were performing.
5. The audience consisted of initiated men only, and silence was the
rule. Any exhibition of mirth was absolutely prohibited under penalty.
6. The attire of the ghost-dancer consisted of several pieces of
headgear, supplemented in some cases by a chaplet of leaves, a girdle,
and sometimes a neck-ring of leaves. The body was otherwise nude except
for very elaborate painting in black, white, and red. The dancers
dressed secretly in the woods and came to the village carrying bunches
of grass or twigs in their hands, behind which they at times pretended
to hide.
7. The ash-devils wore only a simple head-dress and a coat of paint.
8. The special crane-head shaped wand of the ash-devil gave him
absolute authority.
9. The dancers entered the village at the call of a crier stationed on
top of the dance-house, performed an elaborate ceremony in front of the
dance-house, and finally entered it backwards, groping their way, using
an inverted style of speech, and in every other manner showing that the
spirits of the departed were unaccustomed to the ways of mortals.
10. The dancing was elaborate and was characterized by the occurrence
of movements in cycles of four, followed by an elaborate ceremonial
disrobing at the drum, and then by swimming.
11. During the fire dance the ash-devils initiated novices.
12. The dancers were subject to certain restrictions for varying
periods of time following the ceremony.
FOOTNOTES:
[7] Contr. N.A. Ethn., III, 158-160, 1877.
[8] _Loc. cit._
[9] _Op. cit._, pp. 193-194.
[10] See below, p. 414.
[11] The exact identity of this supernatural being could not be
determined from informants.
[12] According to one informant, two feathers instead of one were worn
by these dancers. These were placed so that they projected laterally
from the forehead.
[13] One informant stated that each dancer was ablaze on his back,
head, and arms, and that smoke issued from his mouth. This accords with
Power's statements, quoted above.
[14] According to one informant, some of these dancers carried stones,
long sticks, or even snakes with which to frighten the spectators.
Note also Power's reference to the use of the rattlesnake in the ghost
dance, quoted above.
[15] Two or three dancers sometimes came together.
[16] Mibax bōl malīdai (E).
[17] This expression was said by informants to be untranslatable,
simply an expression used to start the song. This jumping upon the drum
and calling by the drummer were called tehe´sba (E).
[18] Compare below, p. 419.
[19] See below, p. 418.
[20] See below, p. 420.
[21] According to the above information, which was obtained from an
Eastern Pomo informant, the fire-dancers evidently did not make an
attempt to hide their identity. However, a Central Pomo informant
was very specific in his statements that the dancers of his locality
were more particular in this respect, and instead of remaining in the
dance-house after the ceremony they ran out and returned to their
respective places of seclusion, there to dress in daily attire and
return to the village.
THE GUKSU CEREMONY
Gū´ksū or kū´ksū, as he is called in the different Pomo
dialects, was a supernatural being living at the end of the world
toward the south, one of six supernatural beings living at the ends of
the world in the six cardinal directions. The term is also applied to a
large mosquito-like insect, called locally "gallinipper."
Toward the east lived Ca´lnis, the only one of these deities who was
associated especially with Gū´ksū in the ceremonies of the Pomo.
Toward the north lived Sū´ūpadax (whirlwind).
Toward the west lived Xa´-matū´tsī (water-occupation). The
connection is here very readily seen when we know that the territory
of the Pomo reached to the Pacific Ocean, and that this great body of
water formed an important element in certain phases of their mythology.
It was only toward the west that the world was supposed by the Pomo to
be bounded by water.
Above lived Kalī´-matūtsī (sky-occupation).
Below lived Ka´i-matū´tsī (earth-occupation).
Some of these terms really referred to groups of several deities each.
The deities of all six quarters were particularly concerned with
medicine practices. Healing was, however, especially the province of
the Gū´ksūs, and the Pomo medicine-men, or "doctors," made their
prayers particularly to them, although all the remaining deities of the
cardinal points were invoked.
Nothing very definite seems to be known concerning the places of abode
or manners of living of most of these deities. Each was supposed to
dwell, at his own "end of the world," in a sweat-house or dance-house
of one kind or another. Each was also supposed to be distinctly
malevolent at times and to be a man-killer unless properly placated.
Under the proper circumstances they were regarded as benevolent, as was
indicated by the prayers of the medicine-men invoking the aid of these
deities in curing the sick.
Concerning the personal appearance of Gū´ksū and Ca´lnis, more
was known than of the others. Gū´ksū himself was said to be of
about normal human size and his most characteristic feature was a
very long, large, sharp, red nose. He was usually very good natured.
Ca´lnis, on the other hand, while resembling Gū´ksū in most
respects except that of the abnormal nose, was at all times a testy
individual, and in the Gū´ksū ceremony his impersonator pursued
people and tripped them up.
Gū´ksū was impersonated by a number of dancers, while only a
single one represented Ca´lnis. Those personating Gū´ksū were
dressed as follows: They painted their entire bodies black, according
to some informants; according to others, with horizontal red, white,
and black stripes. The feet were painted black and the under side of
the chin and the sides of the face were painted white. On their heads
they wore either a "big-head" headdress (a very bulky type of feather
bonnet) or a large feather tuft on top of the head, and a yellow-hammer
feather forehead-band. The large nose of Gū´ksū was represented
by one made of feathers and of such a size as completely to cover
the nose and mouth of the dancer. When painted red, this was said to
represent very well this characteristic of the deity as he existed in
the imagination of the Indians. The connection with the proboscis of
the gallinipper is especially apt. Each Gū´ksū-dancer carried a
cakō´ik (E), or staff, about two inches in diameter and from six
to eight feet in length, on the top of which was a feather tuft. The
Gū´ksū-dancer, being supposedly a supernatural being, never
spoke. The only sound made by him throughout this ceremony was produced
by his whistle.
The Ca´lnis-dancer was painted entirely black and carried a black staff
very much like that of the Gū´ksū, except that it was somewhat
shorter and bore no feathers. On his head he wore an ordinary feather
cape so drawn together that it formed an immense feather topknot which
normally fell in all directions over his head. This was held in place
by means of skewers passing through a headnet. Another point in which
these two dancers differed was that while the Gū´ksū-dancer was
provided with a double bone whistle the Ca´lnis-dancer had none.
The Gū´ksū ceremony itself, called gū´ksū xaikilga
(E), gaxa´gaxaū xaixilga (E), kūksū haitcilaū (C), and
djaka´djakaū (N), lasted for six days, during the first and the last
two of which there was celebrated the special ceremony called gaxa´gaxa
(E), in which the children of the village were scarified.
THE SCARIFYING CEREMONY
Two or three days before the time appointed for the scarifying ceremony
the men of the village went into the woods and cut a pole, perhaps
from thirty to forty feet in length, which they trimmed and peeled
preparatory to its erection. A hole a foot or two deep and large enough
to receive the pole was dug directly in front of, and a short distance
from, the dance-house.
On the morning of the first ceremonial day a considerable number of
men went out from the village dressed in a special ceremonial attire.
This consisted of a body-painting either of black stripes or spots (no
particular number being prescribed), and of a head decoration composed
of a headnet, a down headnet, two trembler plumes, a yellow-hammer,
feather forehead-band, and a small feather tuft.