LITERARY INSTITUTIONS OF
CHINA--EXAMINATIONS--SCHOOLS--TEACHERS--SCHOOL-ROOM
CEREMONIES--COLLEGES--DOMESTIC COMMERCE--POPULATION OF THE
PROVINCES--IMPORTS--EXPORTS.
The _Literary Institutions_ of China, are the pillars that give
stability to the government. Her military forces are utterly inadequate
to hold together the numerous and extensive provinces and territories,
that constitute the wide dominions of the reigning dynasty. With great
difficulty the Tartar troops overrun the country; conquering province
after province, and gradually extending their authority over the
territories on the west of China Proper. But for a long period both the
discipline and the energies of the Chinese soldiery have been on the
wane: and at this moment the imperial hosts present nothing formidable
but their numerical amount; the recent insurrections at Leen-chow and
Formosa, have afforded the most complete evidence of this imbecility.
Not only in this part of the empire, but along the whole coast up to
the great wall on the north, and even beyond that in Mantchou Tartary,
both the land and naval forces have become so exceedingly enervated and
dissolute, that they exercise no salutary influence or control, except
over a few, who are equally debased with themselves. As police-men,
in the capacity of lictors, thief-takers, and executioners, they are
not less detested than feared by the common people; they are in fact,
for all purposes of defence, little better than _dead men_; were they
stricken from the catalogue of the living, we can scarcely doubt that
the stability of the empire would remain unimpaired.
There are many who look with astonishment at the magnitude of this
empire, and believe it strong and immoveable as the everlasting hills.
But an examination of its history and present organization, would show
them that it has been frequently rent and broken by rebel chieftains,
ambitious statesmen, and haughty kings; and that its present greatness
is chiefly attributable to its peculiar literary institutions. These,
though they are the glory and strength of the nation, are, except for
mere purposes of government, amazingly deficient; and it is their
relative rather than intrinsic value, that renders them worthy of
special notice. Wealth and patronage have great influence here; they
often control the acts of government, stay the course of justice, cover
the guilty, and confer honours and emoluments on the undeserving.
But as a general rule, _learning_, while it is an indispensable
prerequisite for all those who aspire to places of trust and authority
in the state, is sure to command respect, influence, and distinction.
Thus, without the dreadful alternative of overthrowing the powers that
be, a way is opened to ambitious youth, by which he may reach the
highest station in the empire; the throne only excepted. Usually the
most distinguished statesmen are those who have risen to eminence by
intellectual efforts: they are at once the philosophers, the teachers,
and rulers of the land. These distinctions they cannot however
maintain, without yielding implicit obedience to the will of the
monarch, which is most absolute and uncontrolled. Let them honour and
obey the power that is over them, and they stand; dependant indeed on
the one hand, but on the other, in proud and envied distinction.
[Sidenote: LITERARY EXAMINATIONS.]
High rank in the state is the brightest glory to which this people
aspire; with them, learning derives its chief value from the simple
fact, that it brings them within the reach of that dazzling prize.
Strict examinations, regulated by a fixed code of laws, have been
instituted and designed solely to elicit from the body of the community
the “_true talent_” of the people, with the ulterior intention of
applying it to purposes of government. At these examinations, which
are open to all except menial servants, lictors, players, and priests,
it is determined who shall rise to distinction and shed glory on their
ancestors and posterity--who shall live on in obscurity and die and be
forgotten. The competitors of the Olympic games never entered the arena
before the assembled thousands of their countrymen, with deeper emotion
than that which agitates the bosoms of those who contest the palm of
these literary combats. The days on which they are held, and their
results published in Canton, are the proudest which its inhabitants
ever witnessed. A brief notice of them may be interesting to the
reader, and at the same time enable him to understand more fully the
nature and object of the schools and colleges of the provincial city.
The highest literary examinations in the empire are triennial, and take
place at Peking. Besides these, there are also occasional examinations
granted by special favour of the emperor. Up to these contests, the
most distinguished scholars go, from all the provinces. This privilege
is not gained without long, patient, and successful endeavour; the
examinations at which it is determined who shall enjoy it, occur also
triennially and are held in the metropolis of each province. These
examinations are of incomparable interest to great multitudes of the
people, in every department and district of the empire. High honours,
rich emoluments, and in a word, every thing that the young aspirant
and his numerous kindred most esteem, are at stake; a long season of
preparation has been endured, heavy expenses incurred; and now the
decisive hour approaches.
Two examiners are chosen from distinguished officers at Peking, under
the immediate superintendance of the emperor; within five days after
they are chosen, they must leave the capital. They are allowed the use
of the post-horses belonging to government. Upon those who come to
Canton six hundred taels are conferred, to defray their expenses while
on the road; two hundred of which are paid when they commence their
journey from Peking, and the remainder by the governor of the province,
when they are about to return after the examination is completed.
The above examiners are assisted by ten others, who are selected from
the local officers over whom the foo-yuen presides. Besides these there
are many inferior officers, who are employed as inspectors, guards,
&c. All these, together with the candidates, their attendants, &c.,
amounting to ten thousand and upward, assemble at the Kung-yuen, a
large and spacious building designed solely for these occasions. It
contains numerous apartments, so that each candidate may be seated
separately from his competitors. All the seats are numbered. The
apartments are low and narrow, have only a single entrance, and no
furniture except a chair and a narrow writing-desk.
The number of candidates who assemble in Canton is between seven and
eight thousand. They are often attended by their friends, and continue
here for several weeks, and sometimes for months; during which time the
hum and bustle of the city are greatly increased, and every kind of
mercantile business receives a new impulse. These candidates are always
persons of some distinction, which they must have gained, either at
previous examinations or by the payment of large sums of money. They
are all called _sew-tsae_, a title not unlike that of master of arts;
they are divided into several classes; those who have purchased their
degree are often despised by the others, and are generally regarded
with less respect than those who have gained it by their own merits.
They meet on equal terms, and their “true nobility” is to be determined
by personal efforts, which are to be made during a fixed period and
under fixed circumstances. The candidates assemble on the eighth moon;
but none are allowed to enter the examination except those who have
been previously enrolled by the literary chancellor of the province.
The age, features, place of residence, and lineage, of each candidate
must be given in the chancellor’s list, and a copy of it lodged in the
office of the “foo-yuen.” They must all attend at the examinations in
their native province; and those who give in a false account of their
family and lineage, or place of nativity, are expelled and degraded;
for no candidate can be admitted at any place without proving that his
family has been resident there for three generations.
The examination continues for several days, and each student must
undergo a series of trials. The first is on the ninth of the moon,
the second on the twenty-second, and the third on the fifteenth.
The candidates are required to enter their apartments, on the day
preceding the examination, and are not allowed to leave them until the
day after it has closed. Thus they must pass two nights in close and
solitary confinement. On the first day of their examination, _three_
themes, which are selected from the “_Four books_,” are proposed to
them, and they are required to give the meaning and scope of each,
to which a fourth is added, on which they must compose a short _poem
in rhyme_. On the second day, a theme is given them from each of the
“_Five classics_;” and on the third day, five questions, which shall
refer to the history or political economy of the country. The themes
must be sententious, and have a meaning which is refined and profound.
They must not be such as have often been discussed. Those which are
given out for poetry, must be grave and important. In the themes for
essays on political economy, the chief topics must be concerning things
of real importance, the principles of which are clear and evidently
of a correct nature. “There is no occasion to search and inquire
into devious and unimportant subjects.” All questions concerning the
character and learning of statesmen of the present dynasty, as well as
all topics which relate to its policy, must be carefully avoided. The
paper on which the themes and essays are written is prepared with great
care; and must be inspected at the office of the poo-ching-sze. It is
firm and thick, and the only kind that may be used. The price of it is
fixed by authority. The number of characters, both in the themes and
essays, is limited. The lines must be straight, and all the characters
full and fair. At the close of every paper, containing elegant
composition, verses, or answers to questions, it must be stated by the
students how many characters have been blotted out or altered; if the
number exceed one hundred, the writer is tsee-chuh, “pasted out;” which
means, that his name is pasted up at the gate of the hall, as having
violated the rules of the examination, and he is forthwith excluded
from that year’s examination.
There are usually a hundred or more persons at every examination in
Canton subject to this punishment, for breaking this, or some other
of the regulations. The candidates are not allowed “to get drunk”
and “behave disorderly” during the examination. All intercourse of
civility between the examiners and the relations of the students
must be discontinued; and there must be no interchange of letters,
food, &c. On entering the outer gate of the kung-yuen, each candidate
must write his name in a register, kept for that purpose; if it is
afterward discovered that the name was erroneously written, then the
officer superintending the register, if it be found that he is an
accomplice in registering a spurious essay, shall, with the candidate
for literary honours who has violated the law, be tried and punished.
Moreover, the student, on entering the hall of examination, must be
searched; and if it be discovered that he has with him any precomposed
essay, or miniature copy of the classics, he shall be punished by
wearing a wooden collar, degraded from the rank of sew-tsae, and for
ever incapacitated to stand as a candidate for literary honours; and
the father and tutor of the delinquent shall both be prosecuted and
punished. All the furniture and utensils, such as the writing-desks,
inkstands, &c., in the apartments where the students write their
essays, must be searched; and also, each and all of the managers,
copyists, attendant officers, servants, porters, &c. If, in any manner,
a learned person, who is to decide on the papers, be admitted to the
apartments of the students, dressed as a servant, he shall be punished;
and the chief examiner delivered over to a court of inquiry. A watch,
composed of military officers and soldiers, is maintained day and
night, both in the inner and outer courts of the hall; and if any of
these men are guilty of conveying papers to the candidates, concealed
with their food, or in any other way, they shall be punished.
There are many other regulations and precautions which have been
adopted to prevent fraud, but a sufficient number have been stated to
show somewhat of the interest which gathers around these examinations,
and the schemes which are formed to gain distinction, without the toil
and fatigue of hard study. Of the thousands of candidates assembled at
these examinations in Canton, only seventy-one can obtain the degree
of Kew-jing; the names of the successful essayists are published by
a proclamation, which is issued on or before the tenth of the ninth
moon, and within twenty-five days subsequent to the closing of the
examination. This time is allowed to the examiners to read the essays,
and prepare their report. The proclamation, which contains the name
of the successful candidates, after it has received its appropriate
signatures, is pasted up at the office of the foo-yuen.
At a given hour three guns are fired; and the foo-yuen at the same
time comes forth from his palace, accompanying the official paper; it
is forthwith pasted up, and again a salute of three guns is fired;
his excellency then advances, and bows three times towards the names
of the “promoted men,” (hin-jir), and finally retires under another
salute of three guns. Ten thousand minds are now relieved from their
long suspense. Swift messengers are despatched by those who have
won the prize, to announce to their friends the happy result of the
long trial which they have undergone; while the _many_ return with
disappointment to their homes, the successful _few_ are loaded with
encomiums and congratulations, and their names with their essays sent
up to the emperor. To crown the whole, a banquet is prepared for these
newly-promoted men, of which the examiners and all the civil officers
of rank in the province partake. Gold and silver cups for the occasion
must be provided by the provincial treasurer. The chief examiner,
from Peking, presides; the foo-yuen, at whose palace the banquet is
given, and who is present as visiter, is seated on the right, and the
assistant-examiner on his left. The governor of the province is also
present, a train of inferior officers wait as servants, and two lads,
dressed like _naiads_, holding in their hands branches of olive, grace
the scene with a song from their ancient classics.
There are three other examinations in Canton, which occur twice in
three years, and are attended by great numbers of aspirants. At the
first, which is attended by the students of Nan-hae and Pwanyu, the
che-heens preside; at the second, which is attended by candidates from
all the districts of Kwang-chow-foo, the che-foo presides; but the
third is conducted by the literary chancellor of the province, whose
prerogative it is to confer the degree of sew-tsae upon a limited
number of the most distinguished competitors.
[Sidenote: LITERARY INSTITUTIONS.]
These are preparatory to the triennial examination, and inferior to
it in interest; they need not, therefore, be further particularized.
It may be remarked, however, that they are open to persons of all
ages; and a case very recently occurred where a hoary head of eighty,
accompanied by a son and grandson, attended the examination; all of
them were candidates for the same literary honours. To qualify the
young for these examinations, and thereby prepare them for rank and
office in the state, is a leading object of the higher schools and
colleges among the Chinese. But a great majority of the schools in
Canton are designed only to prepare youth for the common duties of
private life. These latter, as well as many of the higher schools,
are _private_ establishments. And though there are teachers appointed
by government, in all the districts of the empire, yet there are no
public or charity-schools for the benefit of the great mass of the
community. Whatever may be his object and final distinction, almost
every scholar in Canton commences his course at some one of the private
schools. These, among the numerous inhabitants of this city, assume a
great variety of form and character, according to the peculiar fancy
of individuals. The opulent, who are desirous of pushing forward
their sons rapidly, provide for them able teachers, who shall devote
the whole time to the instruction of two, three, or four pupils. A
school of this description we have repeatedly visited; it is in a hall
belonging to merchants from Ning-po, and is kept by an old man, who has
three lads under his care; one five, another seven, and a third nine
years old: he instructs them in the learned dialects, and the youngest
has already made greater proficiency than is usually accomplished by
boys at the age of ten. Sometimes the inhabitants of a single street,
or a few families who are related to each other, unite, have a teacher,
and fit up a school-room, each defraying a stipulated part of the
expenses. At other times, the teacher publishes the rules and terms on
which he will conduct his school, and seeks for scholars wherever he
can find them. Children are not generally sent to school until they
are seven or eight years old; they enter, usually, for a whole year,
and must pay for that term whether they attend regularly or not. The
wages of the teachers vary greatly: in some instances (and they are not
unfrequent in the country) the lads pay only two or three dollars, but
generally fifteen or twenty per annum. When the teacher devotes his
whole time to two or three pupils, he often receives a hundred dollars
from each.
The ordinary school-room, with all its defects, presents an interesting
scene. At the head of it there is a tablet, on which the name of the
sage--“_the teacher and pattern for myriads of ages_”--is written in
large capital letters; a small altar is placed before it, upon which
incense and candles are kept constantly burning. Every morning, when
the scholar enters the room, he bows first before the tablet, and
then to his teacher; the former is not merely a tribute of respect,
but an act of worship, which he is taught, nay, compelled, to pay to
Confucius. The boys usually continue in school from six o’clock in the
morning until six in the evening, except two or three hours, which they
are allowed for their meals. When in school, they all study aloud,
each raising his voice at the same time, and striving to outdo his
fellows, the noise of which is very great. Upon those who are idle or
disobedient, the teacher plies the _rattan_, with woful severity. Every
lesson must be committed perfectly to memory, and the lad who fails in
this, is obliged to bow down, and learn it upon his knees; those who
are the most incorrigible are made to kneel on gravel, small stones,
or something of the kind, in order to enhance their punishment. The
San-tse-king, the famous “three-character classics,” is the first book
which is put into the hands of the learner. Though written expressly
for infant minds, it is scarcely better fitted for them than the
propositions of Euclid would be, were they thrown into rhyme. But, “it
is not to be understood” at first; and the tyro, when he can rehearse
it from beginning to end, takes up the Four books, and masters them in
the same manner. Thus far the young learners go, without understanding
aught, or but little, of what they recite; and here those who are not
destined to a literary course, after having learned to write a few
characters, must close their education. The others now commence the
commentary on the Four books, and commit it to memory in the same
way; and then pass on to the other classics. The study of arithmetic,
geography, history, &c., forms no part of a “common-school” education.
The high schools and colleges are numerous, but none of them are
richly endowed, or well fitted for the purposes of education. The high
schools, which are _fourteen_ in number, are somewhat similar to the
private grammar-schools in England and America; with this difference,
that the former are nearly destitute of pupils. There are _thirty_
colleges; most of which were founded many centuries since. Several of
them are now deserted, and falling to ruins. Three of the largest have
about two hundred students each, and, like all the others, only one or
two professors. We have sought long and diligently, but thus far in
vain, for some definite information concerning the existing discipline
and regulations of these colleges; should we affirm that they are
without rules and order, we should say what we do not doubt, but
cannot prove. All those systems of instruction which have sprung up in
modern times, and are now accomplishing so much for the nations of the
West, are here entirely unknown. There are a few books in the Chinese
language which contain excellent maxims on the subject of education,
give numerous rules to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, and
detail systems of gymnastic exercises for the preservation of health.
Of the whole population of Canton, not more than one half are able
to read. Perhaps not one boy out of ten is left entirely destitute
of instruction, yet, of the other sex, not one in ten ever learns to
read or write. There is scarcely a school for girls in the whole city.
Public sentiment--immemorial usage--and many passages in the classics,
are against female education; the consequence is, that females are
left uninstructed, and sink far below that point in the scale of
being, for which they are fitted, and which they ought ever to hold.
The degradation into which the fairest half of the human species is
here thrown, affords cause for loud complaint against the wisdom and
philosophy of the sages and legislators of the celestial empire. We do
not knowingly detract from the merits of the Chinese; in comparison
with other Asiatics, they are a learned and polished race. Those who
have been educated are generally remarkably fond of books: and though
there are no public libraries in Canton, yet the establishments for
manufacturing and vending books are numerous. To supply those who are
unable to purchase for themselves the works they need, a great number
of circulating libraries are kept constantly in motion.
While the purest moral maxims are found mixed up at times, in the
Chinese language, as in ours, with gross licentiousness, the charge
does not lie against works comprising the library of the youthful
students, which, in this particular, is wholly unexceptionable.
The situation of Canton and the policy of the Chinese government,
together with various other causes, have made it the scene of a very
extensive _domestic_ and _foreign_ commerce. With the exception of
the Russian caravans which traverse the northern frontiers of China,
and the Portuguese and Spanish ships which visit Macao, the whole
trade between the Chinese empire and the nations of the West centres
at this place. Here the productions of every part of China are found,
and a very brisk and lucrative commerce is carried on by merchants
and factors from all the provinces. Merchandise is brought here from
Tonquin, (Tung-king) Cochin-China, Camboja, Siam, Malaca, or the Malay
peninsula, the eastern Archipelago, the ports of India, the nations
of Europe, the different states of North and South America, and the
islands of the Pacific. We shall briefly notice the several branches of
this extensive commerce, enumerate some of the principal commodities
which are brought to this city, as well as those which are carried from
it, and add such remarks concerning the situation and circumstances of
the trade, and those who conduct it, as seem necessary to exhibit its
full magnitude and importance.
[Sidenote: DOMESTIC COMMERCE.]
Concerning the _domestic_ commerce, we can do little more than mention
the articles which are here bought and sold for the several provinces;
each of which we shall notice separately, that we may, by taking a
view of their position and number of inhabitants at the same time, see
to what advantage the present trade is conducted, and the probability
of its future increase or diminution. The maritime provinces claim
priority of notice, after which, those on the northern, western, and
southern frontiers will pass under review, and finally, those in the
centre of China proper. The colonial trade is, in the present view,
omitted.
From _Fuh-keen_, come the black teas, camphor, sugar, indigo, tobacco,
paper, lacquered ware, excellent grass-cloth, and a few mineral
productions. Woollen and cotton cloths of various kinds, wines,
watches, &c., are sent to that province; which, with its population of
fourteen millions, might, in different circumstances, receive a far
greater amount of foreign manufactures and productions in exchange
for its own. The trade of the province is carried on under great
disadvantages. It has been shown by an accurate and detailed comparison
between the expense of conveying black teas from the country where they
are produced, to Canton, and of their conveyance from thence to the
port of Fuh-chow in Fuh-keen, that the privilege of admission to the
latter port would be attended with a saving to the East India Company
of £150,000 annually, in the purchase of black teas alone.
_Che-keang_ sends to Canton the best of silks and paper; also,
fans, pencils, wines, dates, “golden-flowered” hams, and
“_lung-tsingcha_”--an excellent and very costly tea. This province
has a population of twenty-six millions, and makes large demands for
foreign imports; these, however, by way of Canton, go to that province
at no small expense to the consumer.
_Keang-nan_, which is now divided into the two provinces of Keang-soo
and Gan-hwuy, with a population of _seventy-two_ millions, has the
resources as well as the wants of a kingdom. Notwithstanding its
distance from Canton, large quantities of produce are annually sent
hither, and exchanged for the productions and manufactures of the
western world. Green teas and silks are the principal articles of
traffic, which are brought to Canton; and they usually yield the
merchant a great profit.
From _Shan-tung_, fruits, vegetables, drugs, wines, and skins, are
brought down the coast to Canton; and coarse fabrics for clothing are
sent back in return. The carrying of foreign exports from Canton to
Shan-tung, whether over land or up the coast in native vessels, makes
them so expensive as to preclude their use among the great majority
of the inhabitants, who are poor and numerous. The population of
_Shan-tung_ is twenty-eight millions. From Chih-le, ginseng, raisins,
dates, skins, deer’s flesh, wines, drugs, and tobacco, are sent hither;
and sundry other foreign imports go back in return. The population,
amounting to twenty-seven millions, is in a great degree, dependant on
the productions of other provinces and countries for the necessaries of
life.
_Shan-se_ sends skins, wines, ardent spirits, and musk. Among its
fourteen millions of inhabitants, there are many capitalists who come
to Canton to increase their property by loaning money. Various kinds of
cloths, European skins, watches, and native books, are sent up to the
province of Shan-se.
_Shen-se_ also supports a large money trade in Canton, sends hither
brass, iron, precious stones, and drugs; and takes back woollen and
cotton cloths, books and wines. The population is about ten millions.
_Kean-suh_ sends to Canton gold, quicksilver, musk, tobacco, &c., and
receives in return, for its fifteen millions of inhabitants, a small
amount of European goods.
_Sze-chuen_ sends gold, brass, iron, tin, musk and a great variety
of other drugs; and receives in exchange, European cloths, lacquered
ware, looking-glasses, &c. Sze-chuen is the largest of the eighteen
provinces, and has a population of twenty-one millions.
_Yun-nan_ yields, for the shops of Canton, brass, tin, precious stones,
musk, betel-nut, birds, and peacock’s feathers; and receives silks,
woollen and cotton cloths, various kinds of provisions, tobacco and
books in return. The population is five millions.
_Kuang-we_ has a population of seven millions, and furnishes the
provincial city with large quantities of rice, cassia, iron, lead,
fans, and wood of various kinds; and takes in return many native
productions, and most of the articles that come to Canton from beyond
sea.
From _Kwei-chow_, one of the central provinces, are brought gold,
quicksilver, iron, lead, tobacco, incense, and drugs; a few articles,
chiefly foreign goods, find their way back to that province. Its
population is five millions.
From the two provinces, _Hoo-nan_ and _Hoo-pih_, come large quantities
of rhubarb; also musk, tobacco, honey, hemp, and a great variety of
singing-birds; the number of inhabitants is five millions. They make
very considerable demands on the merchants of Canton, both for native
productions and foreign imports.
_Keang se_ sends to this market, coarse cloths, hemp, china-ware, and
drugs; and receives in return woollens and native books. The population
is twenty-three millions. _Ho-nan_ has an equal number of inhabitants,
and sends hither rhubarb, musk, almonds, honey, indigo, &c.; woollens,
and a few other foreign goods are received in return.
[Sidenote: OPIUM.]
This account of the domestic commerce of Canton, is taken from native
manuscript. We have sought long, but in vain, for some official
document which would show at once, the different kinds, and the amount
of merchandise, which are annually brought from, and carried to, the
several provinces of the empire. The account which has been given must
be regarded only as an approximation to the truth. Some articles,
doubtless, have been omitted, which ought to have been noticed, and
vice versa; one commodity in particular, opium, known to be carried
into all the provinces, and used to the amount of more than fifteen
millions annually, is not even mentioned. Still, the statement which
we have brought into view, shows that there is, in every part of the
empire, a greater or less demand for foreign productions; a demand
which, so long as the commerce is confined to this port, will be
supplied very disadvantageously, both for the foreigner and the native;
but while it does remain thus restricted, there is reason to suppose
that it will, under all its disadvantages, gradually increase; and even
if the northern ports of the empire should be immediately thrown open,
it will not soon cease to be important.
Though the merchants and factors from the other provinces enjoy a
considerable share of the commerce of Canton, yet they do not confine
themselves to the domestic trade; they participate largely in that
to Tung-king, Cochin-China, Siam, and the islands of the eastern
Archipelago. The whole number of Chinese vessels, annually visiting
foreign ports south of Canton, is not probably less than one hundred;
of these, one third belong to Canton; six or eight go to Tung-king;
eighteen or twenty to Cochin-China, Camboja, and Siam; four or five
visit the ports of Singapore, Java, Sumatra, and Penang; and as many
more find their way to the Celebes, Borneo, and the Philippine islands.
These vessels make only one voyage in the year, and always move with
the monsoon. Many of the vessels, from Fuh-keen and the northern ports
of China, which go south, touch at Canton, both when outward and
homeward bound. But the whole amount of trade to foreign ports, carried
on by the Chinese merchants of Canton, is not very great; this is not
the case with that which is in the hands of foreigners, which we shall
notice in the following chapter.