DESCRIPTION Of CANTON--SACKING OF THE CITY--PLACE
OF HONOUR--MOURNING--COMPASS--MATERIALS FOR
BUILDINGS--HOUSES--PRINCIPAL OFFICES--DUTIES AND PENALTIES OF
GOVERNOR--FIRES--GOVERNOR’S SALARY--DIVISION OF POWER.
[Sidenote: DESCRIPTION OF CANTON.]
The name of Canton on Chinese maps, is written Kwang-tung-sang-ching,
that is, the capital of the province of Kwang-tung, but when speaking
of the city, the natives call it san-ching, the “provincial city,”
or the “capital of the province.” It is built on the north bank of
Choo-keang or Pearl river, stands inland and is in a direct line, about
sixty miles from “the great sea.” The scenery around the city, in the
adjacent country, is rich and diversified, but deficient in boldness or
grandeur.
On the north and northeast of the city, the country is hilly and
mountainous. In every other direction a wide prospect opens to the view
of the beholder. The rivers and canals, which are very numerous, abound
with fish, and are covered with a great variety of boats, which are
continually passing to and from the neighbouring towns and villages.
Southward from the city, as far as the eye can see, the waters
cover a considerable portion, perhaps a third of the whole surface.
Rice-fields, and gardens, occupy the lowlands, which are diversified
with a few hills, rising here and there, to relieve the otherwise
unbroken aspect. The extent of the city, including all within and
without the walls, is not very great; though very populous, it derives
its chief importance from its extensive domestic and foreign trade.
Canton is one of the oldest cities in this part of the empire; since
the foundations were first laid, it has undergone numerous changes.
It is not easy, perhaps impossible, to determine its original site and
name, or to ascertain the time in which it was first built. Although
either of the questions is unimportant to the reader, a brief account
of what the Chinese themselves narrate, respecting one of their
largest and most populous cities, may interest him. Their classics
speak of Canton being in existence four thousand years since; that it
was then called Nan-keaon, and Ming-too, “the splendid capital.” It
first began to pay tribute to the emperors of China in the year B. C.
1123. The historians of the empire are only able to trace the origin
of Canton to the last emperors of the Chow dynasty, two thousand years
since; it was then surrounded by a stockade, composed of bamboo and
mud. We find it was but little visited by foreign vessels till the
year one thousand before Christ, when they held intercourse with eight
“barbarous” nations, from Teeu-chuh (India.)
In the time of the western or Han dynasty, two hundred years previously
to the Christian era, persons came from Canton, Loo-whang-che and
other nations in the south. The nearest nation was about ten days’
_journey_ and the most remote, five months’; their territories were
large and populous and they possessed rare commodities. In the year
one hundred and seventy-six of Christ, vessels from India and Egypt,
or Arabia, “came with tribute;” from this time trade was carried on
with foreigners, at Canton. In the year seven hundred, an imperial
commissioner was first appointed to receive “fixed duties;” ninety-five
years subsequently, all foreign vessels (owing to gross extortion)
resorted to Cochin-China. After the fall of the Tang dynasty, A.
D. 906, five dynasties arose, reigned and fell, within a period of
fifty-three years. A tribute in gold, silver, ivory and other valuable
commodities, was sent to the successor of Tang, to the amount of five
millions of taels. In consequence of this acknowledgment, the emperor
created Lewyen, “King of Canton” or “King of the Southern sea.” At
this period, the court of Canton was cruel in the extreme--criminals
were flayed, boiled and roasted, thrown on spikes, and forced to
fight with tigers and elephants. The city was freed from the monster,
(Lewyen,) by the founder of the Shang dynasty, in the year of the
Christian era, nine hundred and sixty-four; it subsequently became more
prosperous and beautiful; witches and wizards were prohibited; sorcery
was interdicted; the temples which had been built for the practice
of superstitious rites, were thrown down; the people were forbidden
to offer the sacrifice of human life, to demons; they were enjoined
to relieve the sufferers from noxious diseases which are prevalent;
dispensaries of medicine were established; useless and extravagant
articles of apparel were discountenanced, and pearls and ornaments for
head-dresses were disallowed. In the year one thousand and sixty seven,
a wall, about two English miles in circumference, enclosed the city
to protect it against the Cochin-Chinese. In the year twelve hundred,
“_foreigners resident_” received metals, silks, &c., and in return,
they gave rhinoceros’s horns, elephant’s teeth, coral, pearls, gems,
crystals, foreign cloth, pepper, red-wood, and drugs. In the year
fourteen hundred, one hundred and twenty houses were built for the
accommodation of foreigners.--In sixteen hundred and forty seven, the
present Tartar family came into power; Canton was summoned to submit
to its new master; on refusing, its walls were beaten down with great
cannon, and on the twenty-fourth of November, sixteen hundred and
fifty, it was taken:--for six days the inhabitants “were given to the
sword,” the city was plundered--and upward of seven hundred thousand
persons were slain, during the siege, and six days’ slaughter: “every
house was left desolate!” only one house remains standing which was
built before the sacking of the old city. That part of the city which
is walled in is nearly square, and divided by a partition-wall, running
from east to west; the northern, much the largest part, is called the
“old city;” the southern portion, more recently built, the “new city.”
The circuit of the wall does not exceed six miles: its southern part,
running east and west, is parallel with the river, from which it is
removed about fifteen or twenty rods: on this side are the “_Foreign
Factories_;” on the north, the city rests on the brow of the hill, and
is at its highest point about two hundred and fifty feet above the
surface of the river. The foundation and lower part of the wall, the
arches and the gates, are formed of coarse sandstone; its remaining
portion is built with soft brick. The walls are from twenty-five to
forty feet high, and from twenty to twenty-five feet thick; the north
side being the most substantial; on the east side the elements have
made great havoc: a line of battlements with embrasures surmounts
the walls, in the rear of which is a broad pathway. Two short walls,
designed to block up the narrow space between the main wall and the
ditches of the city, extend from its southeast and southwest corners;
through each of these there is a gate.
The city has sixteen gates, of which twelve are outer, and four open
through the wall which separates the old from the new city; they are
all guarded by soldiers, closed at an early hour in the evening, and
opened at dawn of day. The streets and buildings in the suburbs are
similar to those in the city, the houses of which occupy the whole
space between the _wall and the river_ on its southern side; on its
eastern quarter they are much less extensive; and in its northern
division there are only a few solitary huts. The houses on the south
are generally built against the wall which they overlook.
The suburbs are scarcely less extensive and populous than the city,
in which there are upward of six hundred streets, flagged with large
stones, chiefly of granite; they vary in width from two to sixteen
feet, the medium and most usual breadth being from six to eight.
These narrow streets are usually thronged by a numerous motley group;
through many of them, the pedestrian in the rear is liable to tread
on the heels of the leader; the stout, half-naked, vociferating
porters, carrying every description of merchandise, and the nimble
sedan-bearers, make up, in noise and bustle, for the deficiency of
carts and carriages: these, together with the numerous travellers,
various kinds of retailers, pedlars, and beggars, present before the
spectator a scene of great animation and endless variety. Many of the
visiters and much of the merchandise are conveyed into the city by
means of canals or ditches, of which there are several; one of the
largest extends along the whole length of the wall on the east, and
another on the west side of the city, so that boats can pass through
and out by either canal. The eastern, western, and southern suburbs of
the city are also furnished with large canals, into which a number of
smaller tributaries flow: the Chinese term these ditches “the veins of
the city.” Reservoirs are found here, but none of them are extensive:
much of the water is supplied from the river and canals; wells are not
unfrequent, and rainwater is used for making tea, &c.; fine wholesome
water is also furnished from numerous springs, which rise in the north
of the city, both within and without the walls. Several bridges (some
of which are of stone) are thrown over the canals.
The Chinese of the present day have seldom ventured or desired to step
beyond the limits which circumscribed the efforts of their remote
ancestors; they have been equally slow and unwilling to adopt or
imitate the usages and improvements of distant foreigners, and glory
in this, their prominent characteristic: hence without much claim to
originality, they are exceedingly unlike the nations of the West.
[Sidenote: PLACE OF HONOR.]
In giving a description of this people, or any thing which appertains
to them, we must not therefore form our estimate by the criterion of
European taste or usage. With the Chinese the left, as the place of
honour, takes precedence of the right; white is the badge of mourning.
From the peculiar construction of their compass, called Chenan, chay,
“a chariot pointing towards the south,” they do not number the cardinal
points in our order, but almost always mention the south before the
north; the west before the east; instead of saying north, they say,
west-north; west-south, &c. Without attempting to account for this
contrariety, it is obvious that the fact itself should be kept in mind,
while surveying the various works, occupations, institutions and habits
of the Chinese.
It is generally supposed that the remote ancestors of this people, in
the migration eastward, dwelt in _tents_; their circumstances would
require such habitations; when they became stationary, their wants
would prompt them to seek a more substantial covering; but their
houses, pagodas, and temples, of the present day, bear evident proofs
that this early covering from the heat and storm, was the only model
which presented itself for imitation, in the erection of more secure
and permanent habitations. The roof, concave on its upper side; and the
veranda, with its slender columns, show most distinctly the original
features of the tent; the whole fabric of the ordinary buildings is
light and slender, retaining the outlines of its primeval simplicity.
They therefore, will seek in vain, who expect to find here stately
edifices, built after the Grecian or the Gothic model.
Barrow, after having visited the imperial palaces, and travelled from
north to south, through the whole breadth of the empire, affirms, that
all the buildings of the Chinese are without elegance or convenience
of design, without any settled proportion; mean in their appearance,
and clumsy in their workmanship. Macartney was much better pleased
with their architecture; though it is totally unlike any other, and
irreconcilable to our rules, yet, in perfect consistence with its own,
it frequently produces a most pleasing effect.
The buildings of Canton present as great a variety in structure and
style as can be found in the whole empire.
A large part of the city and suburbs, is built on low ground or flats.
Special care is therefore required to secure a solid basis, for houses
and temples.
Near the river, and in all the most loose and muddy situations, houses
are raised on wooden piles, which make the foundation as secure as
brick or stone, perhaps, even more so. In some cases the piles rise
above the surface of the ground, the buildings constructed of wood,
resting directly upon them: in other instances, the piles reach only
within a few feet of the surface, and the remaining part of the
foundation is made of mud, brick, or stone; when this is finished, the
walls are usually carried up and completed with the same material. Many
of the houses are nearly baseless, or have only a slender foundation
composed of mud, of which also the walls are composed; hence, in
severe rain, storms, and overflowings of the river, of which some have
recently taken place, many of the walls are thrown down.
Bricks are in most general use for the walls of houses; three fifths of
those in the whole city are composed of them; the remaining part being
mostly constructed of mud; most of the Tartars in the old city are said
to inhabit dwellings of the latter kind.
Stone and wood are rarely employed in erecting the walls of houses:
the first is frequently employed in making gate-ways and door-posts,
and the second for columns, beams, and rafters. Many of the floors in
houses and temples are formed of indurated mud; marble flags and tiles
are likewise used for roofs; they are laid in rows on the rafters,
alternately concave and convex, forming ridges and furrows, luted by a
cement of clay.
Windows are small and rarely supplied with glass; paper, mica, shell,
or some other translucent substance, supplies its place; very little
iron is employed in building.
The materials above named, for buildings, are procured here at moderate
prices and in great abundance. Wood, usually a species of the fir, is
floated down the rivers, and brought to the city in large rafts. Bricks
are made in the neighbourhood of Canton, brought hither in boats, and
sold at various prices, from three to eight shillings a thousand.
These bricks are of a leaden blue or of a pale brown colour; a few
being red; the variation of teint is produced by the different modes
of drying and burning them; the red bricks are those most thoroughly
burned; the leaden blue have received only a partial action of the
fire, the pale brown, the sun’s action alone.
Excellent stone for building is found in the hilly country on the north
of the province, and also in several of the islands, south of the city.
Granite and sandstone are those principally found and in great variety.
Such is the general style and usual material of the buildings in
Canton. In passing through the city, the spectator is struck with the
great contrast between them, though this diversity does by no means
fully exhibit the relative condition and circumstances of the people: a
few only are rich, and the external appearance of their houses does not
exceed, in elegance, the dwellings of the middle class; many are very
poor--and the aspect of their abodes affords abundant evidence of their
abject state.
[Sidenote: STATE OF THE POOR.]
The poorest people are to be found in the extreme parts of the suburbs,
along the banks of the canals, and in the northern part of the old
city; their houses are mere mud-hovels; low, narrow, dark, unclean,
and without any division of apartments. A whole family, consisting of
six, eight, ten, and sometimes twice the number, is crowded into one
of these dreary abodes; yet we meet with individuals, enjoying health
and long life under these circumstances. To pass through the streets or
lanes of such a neighbourhood, is sufficient to reconcile a person to
any ordinary condition of life.
Neither intelligence or industry could ever be confined in such
miserable cells. In habitations, a little more spacious and cleanly
than these, perhaps one third part of the people in Canton have their
abodes: these stand close on the street, and have usually but a single
entrance, which is closed by a bamboo screen, suspended from the top
of the door; within these houses, there are no superfluous apartments:
a single room is allotted to each branch of the family, while a third,
which completes the number within the whole enclosure, is used by all
the household as a common eating-room.
[Sidenote: HOUSES.]
Chinese houses usually open towards the south; but in these, as also in
the poorer kind, this favourite position is disregarded. Dwellings of
this description, are rented at four or five dollars a month. Another
class of houses, inhabited by a more wealthy but less numerous part of
the community, are the residences of those in easy circumstances, who
enjoy plenty without any of the accompaniments of luxury; these houses
together with the plot of ground on which they stand are surrounded by
a wall, twelve or fourteen feet high, that rises and fronts the street,
so as completely to conceal all the buildings from the traveller, as he
passes by.
The prospect, in passing along the narrow streets which are lined with
these houses, is very cheerless. If allowed to enter some of these
dwellings more pleasing scenes will be presented. A stranger enters the
outer enclosure through a large folding door into an open court, thence
he is conducted by a servant to the visiters’ hall; which is usually a
small apartment, furnished with chairs, sofas, tea-stands, &c.; here
the host presents himself to introduce his guest to the younger members
of the family.
These halls are open on one side, the others being ornamented with
carved work, or hung with various scrolls presenting in large and
elegant characters, the moral maxims of their sages: or perhaps,
exhibiting rude landscapes, or paintings of birds and flowers. The
remaining portion of the enclosure is occupied with the domestic
apartments; a garden and, perhaps, a small school-room.
The houses occupied by a few of the most opulent in Canton are by
no means inferior to the imperial palaces, excepting it be in the
space which they fill. The family residences of some among those
merchants, who are licensed by government to trade with foreigners,
furnish good specimens of this description of buildings. The seat of
the late Consequa, now half in ruins, was once superb; that of the
present senior hong-merchant, is on a scale of great magnificence; it
is a villa or rather palace, divided into suites of apartments, which
are highly and tastefully decorated. The dwellings occupied by the
government offices, and the numerous temples of the city, need not
be particularized in this place; suffice it to remark, that they are
usually more spacious than private houses, and that, at present, most
of them are in a very ordinary condition; very few of the houses or
temples in Canton, have more than one story, the halls of which are of
the whole height of the fabric, without any concealment of the beams or
rafters of the house. Terraces are often built above the roofs, and
when surrounded by a breastwork, afford in the cool of the day, a very
pleasant and secure retreat, to which the inmates can ascend, in order
to breathe a pure air, enjoy a wider prospect, or to witness any event
that transpires in the neighbourhood. These terraces are not perhaps
unlike the _flat-roofs_ of other orientals. In some other points there
is also a coincidence between the houses of the Chinese, and those
which are noticed in the sacred writings.
Professor Jahn in his Biblical Archaeology, when referring to the
buildings described in the Scriptures, says: “The gates not only of
houses, but of cities, were customarily adorned with an inscription
which was to be extracted from the law of Moses; a practice in which
may be found the origin of the _modern_ Mezuzaw or piece of parchment
inscribed with sacred texts, and fastened to the door-posts. The gates
were always shut, and one of the servants acted the part of a porter:
the space immediately inside of the gate, called the porch, is square,
and on one side of it is erected a seat for the accommodation of
those strangers who are not to be admitted into the interior of the
house. From the porch we are introduced through a second door into
the court, which is commonly paved with marble, and surrounded on all
sides. Sometimes however only one side is enclosed, with a peristyle or
covered walk, over which, if the house has more than one story, there
is a gallery of the same dimensions, supported by columns and protected
by a balustrade.
In the church, large companies are received at nuptials and feasts: on
such occasions, a large veil of thick cloth is extended by ropes over
the whole court, to exclude the sun’s heat. The back part of the house,
called in Arabic, the harem, and in Hebrew, by way of eminence, _the
palace_, is allotted to the females. Behind the “harem,” is a garden
into which the women can enjoy the pleasure of looking from their
apartments. In the smaller houses the females occupy the upper story;
the place assigned them also, by Homer in the “Iliad” and “Odyssey.”
In the buildings of the Chinese, the various inscriptions are seen
on the door-posts: the porter at the outer gate; the porch and court
within; the peristyle with its columns and perhaps a gallery above;
the palace, Kin-tee or “forbidden ground,” with its garden, bears a
striking resemblance to those of the above description. The inner
apartments of the emperor are in like manner, by way of eminence,
called _Kung-teen_, or the “palace.”
[Sidenote: DUTIES OF GOVERNOR.]
The government of Canton now claims our notice. Here, as in every other
place throughout the dominions of the Mantchow Chinese, all power
emanates from one man, honoured as the vicegerent of “High heaven;”
hence the present line of monarchs have not been satisfied with the
dignity of sovereigns but have laid claim to the character of sages.
The sovereign of men, say they, “is heaven’s son; nobles and statesmen
are the sovereign’s children; the people are the children of nobles
and statesmen. The sovereign should serve heaven as a father, never
forgetting to cherish reverential thoughts, but exciting himself to
illustrate his virtues, and looking up to receive from heaven, the
vast patrimony which it confers; thus the emperors will daily increase
in felicity and glory. Nobles and ministers of state should serve
their sovereign as a father, never forgetting to cherish reverential
thoughts, not harbouring covetous and sordid desires, nor engaging in
wicked and clandestine thoughts, but faithfully and justly exerting
themselves; thus their noble rank will be preserved. The people should
never forget to cherish reverential thoughts towards the nobles and
ministers of state, to obey and keep the laws; to excite no secret or
open rebellion; then no great calamity will befall their persons.”
In accordance with these views, a spacious hall called _Wan-show-kung_
is dedicated to the emperor, in every province of the empire, the walls
and appertenances of which are _yellow_, which is the imperial colour.
In Canton the _Wan-show-kung_ stands near the southeast corner of the
new city, within the walls. It is used solely for the honour of the
emperor and his family, and, annually, three days prior and subsequent
to the imperial birth days, all the civil and military officers of
the government, together with the principal inhabitants of the city,
assemble in it, and there pay him adoration.
The same solemnities are required on these occasions as if the monarch
were present; no seats are allowed in the sacred place; every one
who repairs there, takes with him a cushion upon which he sits,
cross-legged, on the ground. So much is done for _absent_ majesty.
Among the principal officers, who exercise authority in the
city of Canton is first, Tsung-tuh: this officer is styled
Leang-kwang-tsung-tuh, or the governor of the province of Kwang-tung
and Kwang-se. He is clothed with high authority, and in many cases
independent of all the other officers within the limits of his
jurisdiction; usually, however, he acts in concert and confers with
them who like himself, have been sent hither from the capital. He has
no power to originate or carry into execution any law or regulation,
without the sanction of the emperor, and is required to act according
to precedents and existing statutes. In certain cases pointed out by
law, he can, with the concurrence of foo-yuen, inflict immediate death.
New regulations are frequently proposed to the emperor by the governor
and his council; when these have received the imperial sanction,
(which they generally do,) they have the force of law. The governor is
ex-officio, an honorary president of the supreme tribunal at Peking,
and occasionally, a member of the imperial cabinet. His commands are
most peremptory, and his authority can never be slighted or resisted
with impunity. The responsibilities of his office are great: he is
accountable to the emperor for the good management of all affairs in
the two provinces; the prosperity of the people and the fruitfulness
of the seasons are also items in the vast account which he must render
to his sovereign: he is required to make a faithful report of every
calamity which may come within the pale of his jurisdiction, whether
occasioned by fire, pestilence, earthquake, or famine, to the emperor
and the supreme tribunal, under penalty of being dismissed from office.
Any real or supposed deficiency in his capacity, subjects him to the
most severe punishment. The late governor of the province, Le, may be
adduced to prove this fact, who, during the last year for the “untoward
affair” of Leen-chow, was deprived of all rank and honours, chained,
imprisoned, condemned, and sent into banishment.
In case of fire breaking out in the provincial city, and consuming more
than ten houses, the governor is fined nine months’ pay; if more than
thirty houses are consumed, he forfeits one year’s salary, if three
hundred are destroyed, he is degraded one degree.
Fires occurring in the suburbs, do not subject him to the same
punishments. All the principal officers and a few of the most
respectable private citizens, frequently wait on his excellency. These
“calls” are visits of business or ceremony, according to circumstances,
and more or less frequent, as the disposition of the parties may
direct. On certain occasions, such as the arrival of a new governor,
all the civil and military officers of both provinces, are required to
send to him “an accurate and conspicuous account of themselves, their
term of service, and the condition of their respective districts.”
“But whoever,” said one of the late governors, “of the superior or
inferior officers, or the salt or hong merchants, or any other persons,
shall represent himself to be intimate with me and in my confidence,
or if persons shall write to each other to that effect, or shall
suffer themselves to be thus deceived; he or they shall be arrested
and brought to trial; and those who conceal such reports shall be
considered as equally guilty with those who give rise to them.”
All ultimate appeals in the two provinces, are made to the governor.
At the gate of his palace are placed six tablets, in which are written
appropriate inscriptions for those who wish to appeal to his authority;
the _first_ is for those who have been wronged by covetous, corrupt, or
sordid officers: the _second_, for those who have suffered by thieves
or robbers; the _third_ for such as have been falsely accused; the
_fourth_, for those who have been injured by swindlers and gamesters;
the _fifth_, for such as have suffered by wicked persons of any
description, and the _sixth_ is for those who wish to give information
concerning any secret schemes or machinations.
On the _third_ and _eighth_, the _thirteenth_ and _eighteenth_, the
_twenty-third_ and _twenty-eighth_ days of each month, the people are
allowed to take these tablets in their hands, and to enter one of the
outer apartments of the palace, where they may, in person, present
their complaints to his excellency. This mode of proceeding is however
seldom adopted: to send or carry up a petition to his gate, is the most
common method of seeking redress from the hands of the governors. When
all these means fail, an appeal may be made to Peking.
The mode of appeal by entering the gate of the magistrate, is allowed
also at the offices of foo-yuen, and an-cha-sze.
The governor’s house stands in the new city, near the yew-lan gate; it
is spacious and belongs to the government. The salary of this officer
is fifteen thousand taels, annually. It is generally believed that
his extra emoluments during the same period, amount to more than
twelve times that sum; although presents of every kind, to officers of
government, are disallowed.
Loo-kwan, the present governor, is an aged man, and a native of one of
the northern provinces. He seems to belong to that class of persons
who are fond of ease and pleasure, very ambitious--but desirous that
all under their authority should know their places and perform their
respective duties. He has a large number of persons employed about him,
as advisers, secretaries, servants, &c. A small number of troops, who
serve as a body-guard, are also attached to him, and at the same time,
constitute a part of the city-police.
Foo-yuen, the second officer, who is also called seun-foo, is usually
styled, by foreigners, “lieutenant-governor.” His jurisdiction is
confined to this province, in which he is second in authority. The
title of _Choo_, the present foo-yuen, as it appears in the government
papers, runs thus: “An attendant officer of the military board; a
member of the court of universal examiners; an imperial censor;
patrolling soother of Canton; a guide of military affairs and a
controller of taxes.”
[Sidenote: DIVISION OF POWER.]
Division of power, when it is to be intrusted to those who have been
selected from the people, is the policy of the Mantchow family. The
foo-yuen, though second to the governor, is not under his control; and
in certain cases, acts independently of him.
They often confer together, and in matters in which they cannot agree,
refer for a decision to Peking. The foo-yuen holds the _wang-ming_,
“king’s order,” or death warrant, by virtue of which criminals, in
cases of great emergency, can be put to the sword without a reference
to the emperor. His residence is in the old city, in a palace built
in the reign of Shwn-che, by one of the Tartar generals, who was sent
hither to “pacify” the rebellious subjects of the South. Choo is a
native of Keeang-soo and a thorough-bred son of Han--stern, resolute,
and even obstinate--rather careless about emolument, a comtemner of
bribes--a terror to bandits, a hater of “divine vagabonds”--respected
by few, and feared by all. In his person, he is tall and well formed;
his looks show that he has “gone hither and thither,” discharging the
functions of public life, without toil and anxiety. His origin is very
humble and he has grown old in the service of his country. He has one
son who is a source of grief to his parent; like the governor, he has
a small body of soldiers under his command, but the number of persons
kept in his immediate employ, is small. In his habits of living--we
have his own word for it--the patrolling soother of Canton is both
simple and an example to the people.
Tseang-keun, the third officer, usually denominated the Tartar general,
is commander of the Tartar troops in Canton, and is answerable for
the defence of the city. In most cases he acts independently of the
tsung-tuh and foo-yuen. The soldiers under his immediate command,
except a small detachment stationed on the river, are quartered in the
old city, where the general keeps his court and camp. He is always,
we believe, a mantchow and not unfrequently a member of the imperial
family.
Subordinate to the tseang-keun, there are two foo-too-tungs or
lieutenant-generals, and a great number of inferior officers, who rank
as majors, captains, lieutenants, &c. His house, which was built by
Tsing-nan-wang, is said to exhibit some of the finest specimens of
architecture that can be found in the provincial city.
Hae-kwan-keen-tuh, the fourth officer, is known to foreigners and
often addressed by them as, “the grand hoppo of the port of Canton.”
He is generally a member of the imperial household, and receives
his appointment direct from the emperor. His jurisdiction (he being
commissioner of customs) is limited to the maritime commerce of Canton.
We shall have occasion, subsequently, to speak of this department, when
the commerce of the city is referred to.
Heo-yuen, the fifth officer, holds the highest literary appointment
in the province; he is usually spoken of, as “the literary chancellor
of Canton.” His office is one of great influence and respectability,
inasmuch as literary rank, of which he is judge and dispenser, is
necessary for preferment to all civil offices in the state. He has
a general supervision of all public schools, colleges, and literary
examinations, within the province. On some occasions his authority
extends to the military department.
The sixth officer, Poo-ching-sze, is the controller of the revenue
of the province; under the foo-yuen, he directs the appointment and
removal of all the subordinate officers of the local government. The
principal officers under him, are the king-leih or secretary, and a
koo-ta-sze or keeper of the treasury.
Gan-cha-sze or an-cha-sze, the seventh officer, is criminal judge of
the province; all the criminal cases which occur within its limits,
are brought before him for trial. Sometimes he sits in judgment alone;
but in cases involving the life of the accused, he is usually assisted
by other chief officers of the province. A degree of civil power, at
times, appertains to him in conjunction with the poo-ching-sze. The
government posts are under his control;--among other officers attached
to this department, there is a sze-yo who has the general management of
the provincial prisoners; his rank and his duties are similar to those
of the keeper of a state-prison.
Yen-yun-sze, the eighth officer, has the superintendence of the state
department: there are, under him, a yun-tung who attends to the
transportation of salt from one place to another, and several other
minor officers.
The salt-trade is a government monopoly, the duties upon which form an
important branch of the imperial revenue. This trade is limited to a
small number of licensed merchants, who are generally very rich, and
are often called upon to make liberal grants towards the support of the
provincial government.
The ninth officer, Tuh-leang-taou, has the control of all the public
granaries in the province; their superintendents are subject to his
direction and inspection. Canton and the suburbs contain fourteen
public granaries; these are required to be kept filled in order to
furnish supplies for the people, in times of scarcity.
Kwang-chow-foo-chee-foo, or a magistrate of the department of
Kwang-chow-foo, is the tenth officer in Canton; his title is often
abridged, sometimes to Kwang-chow, at others, to Che-foo: Kwang-chow
is simply the name of the foo. Chee-foo means, literally, “known of
the department (or foo),” and denotes that it is the office or duty of
this magistrate to be fully acquainted with the portion of territory
over which he is placed. Either term is sufficient to denote, pretty
nearly, what is the authority of an officer placed at the head of all
the affairs of such a division of the province. There are numerous
civil officers placed in various parts of the department, all of whom
are under his immediate inspection. He has also under his authority
a sze-yo, whose duties, as superintendent of the prisoners of the
department, are similar to those of chief jailer in a county-prison.
The eleventh principal officer in the province is
Nan-hae-heen-che-heen; this officer is subordinate to the che-foo, and
is to the district of Nan-hae what the che-foo is to the department of
Kwang-chow. As che-heen, he is required to know all the affairs of the
district. The department of Kwang-chow is divided into fourteen heens
or districts, of which Nan-hae and Pwan-yu are two of the principal,
and include the city of Canton.
The last officer whom we shall particularize, is Pwan-yu-heen-che-heen;
the rank and duties of this magistrate are the same in the district
of Pwan-yu as are the last-named officers in the district of Nan-hae:
their titles, like that of the che-foo, are commonly abridged; thus,
when speaking of the Nan-hae magistrate, the people say, Nan-hae-heen;
and when it is not necessary to mention the district, they simply say
che-heen, designating by each of their phrases, the magistrate of the
district of Nan-hae.
We have named and characterized as far as our limits will admit, and
the nature of the subject requires, the principal officers who exercise
authority in Canton; the reader will doubtless find it difficult, as
we have done, to determine the exact limitation of their respective
spheres, which, like the courses of the planets, often seem to
intersect each other. At first sight of so many bodies, all in motion
within limits so narrow, we feel surprised that they do not come
into collision, destroy each other and carry destruction through the
empire. On a close inspection, however, we are able to discover some
of the secret laws which govern this complicated system, preserve it
in being, and keep it in motion. Two influences, the one military, and
the other literary, are perhaps the principal forces which regulate and
control the measures of the Chinese government. Religion, which often
has a gigantic power over governments, is here blended with civil and
state ceremonies, and exerts but a feeble, and usually a most baneful
influence on the political destinies of the nation.
All the officers enumerated in the foregoing list, excepting the
two che-heens, the che-foo, and the tseang-keun, are general
officers--their jurisdiction extending to all other parts of the
province, as well as over the metropolis. There are likewise two other
officers, commanders-in-chief of the land and naval forces, who, like
the other members of the provincial government, act alone in certain
cases, and sometimes in concert with the other general officers. The
government is despotic as well as military; and so constructed, that
those who form the provincial government, shall, while they enjoy a
degree of independence, serve as mutual checks; while at the same
time, each superior officer is held responsible for those who are
subordinate, and accountable for himself. Even in the location of
these officers, there has been a cautious reference to “division and
balance of power.” For example: the tsung-tuh is stationed in the new
city, almost within a stone’s-throw of his majesty’s most faithful
“slave,” the hoppo; the foo-yuen and the tsang-kuen are placed in
similar positions in reference to each other: these two last are so
located in the old city, that, should circumstances require, they
could act against the two first, in the new city. The same principle
is observable likewise, if we mistake not, in the disposition which
is made of the troops. The whole land and naval force throughout the
province, has been estimated (nominally) at about one hundred thousand
men; all of whom are with fixed limitations, under the control of the
governor; he has, however, the immediate and sole command of only five
thousand, and these are stationed at a distance from the city. On all
ordinary occasions, except when he goes to a distance from Canton,
he is escorted by a detachment from the kwang-chow-hee, (the chief
military officer of Kwang-chow,) which, in the absence of his own
troops, serves him for a body-guard, and constitutes, at the same time,
a part of the police of the city. The foo-yuen has only two thousand
at his command; while the tseang-keun has five thousand, which, in
an extreme case, would enable him to become master of the city. The
proper seat of the governor is at Shaou-king-foo, several miles west of
this city; but on account of the superior advantages of Canton, he is
allowed to reside here; he cannot, however, bring his troops hither,
lest, in conjunction with the foo-yuen, they should prove more than a
match for the Tartar general-commandant and his five thousand fighting
men. It should be remarked here, that no individual can hold an office
in any province, department, or district of the empire, that includes
the place of his nativity, or that extends within several hundred _le_
of it.
The whole number of soldiers, ordinarily quartered in the city, does
not probably exceed seven thousand. There are in the immediate vicinity
of Canton, a few small forts, and the city itself is intended to be a
stronghold; but neither is in such a state that they would serve any
very valuable purposes of defence. Even the late rain-storm carried
away one of the gates of the city, and opened a wide breach in the
walls. Most of the forts are dismantled and defenceless, and present
nothing more formidable than the frightful paintings of tiger’s heads,
on the wooden lids which block up their port-holes. The two _follies_,
Dutch and French _follies_ as they are called, are situated in the
river opposite to the city, and are fair specimens of the forts about
Canton; there are likewise for the defence of the city, what have been
called cavalry, and artillery; but of these, we have heard little, and
seen nothing. Of the Tartar troops, there are two hundred chosen men,
who on state occasions, appear well clad and warlike; but, generally,
the soldiers are badly equipped, and poorly disciplined. All their
armour and accoutrements, consisting of shields and helmets, bows
and arrows, spears and javelins, short-swords and matlocks, seem ill
fitted either for defence or attack; the heavy losses sustained by the
troops of Canton, during the late highland war at Seen-chow, fully
confirm these remarks; as do also recent imperial edicts, in which the
soldiery are accused of idleness and lazy habits, and of “indulging
in all the softness of civilians;” the police of the city is on the
whole, vigilant and efficient. Besides those who act in the capacity of
constables, thief-takers, &c., constituting the regular police, there
are many neighbourhoods, as well as private individuals, which make
arrangements for a constant nocturnal watch during the night; almost
all the streets of the city are shut up by strong gates at each end;
near one of which there is usually a guard-house. The night-watches
are distinguished by bells, or some similar instruments kept by the
watchmen, in the winter months, when there is great danger from fire,
as well as thieves. Watch-towers are built on bamboo poles, high above
the roofs of the houses; thus constituting a double watch. When thieves
are discovered, or when a fire breaks out in any part of the city, the
alarm by means of the watchmen, spreads quickly from one extremity of
the city to the other. When riotous assemblies collect in the streets,
they are, in most cases, speedily dissolved by a vigorous application
of the bamboo or whip; many, doubtless, “shove by justice,” and to
the day of their death go unpunished; yet the number who are arrested
and brought to trial, annually, is very great; justice is often
administered in the most summary manner; not unfrequently, in minor
cases, the man receives the punishment, and again goes free, the same
hour in which he commits the crime.
[Sidenote: JUSTICE--JAILS.]
The forms of trial are simple: there is no jury, no pleading; the
criminal kneels before the magistrate, who hears the witnesses and
passes sentence; he is then remanded to prison, or sent to the place of
execution. Seldom is he acquitted; when witnesses are wanting, he is
sometimes tortured until he gives evidence against himself.
There are four jails in Canton; which together contain several hundred
prisoners; the jail is called te-yo, _hell_, or literally “earth’s
prison.” All capital offenders suffer just without the southern gates,
near the river; hundreds die there annually. When brought to the
fatal spot, they kneel with their faces towards the emperor’s court,
and bending forward in the attitude of submission and thanksgiving,
suddenly expire beneath the bloody sword of the executioner.