EARLY COMMERCE OF CHINA--AMERICAN
TRADE--HONG-MERCHANTS--TRANSLATORS--LINGUISTS--FOREIGN
FACTORIES--STYLE OF LIVING--MANUFACTORIES AND
TRADE--PHYSICIANS--EGG-BOATS--MANUFACTURERS--MECHANICS--POPULATION
OF CANTON.
Portugal, Spain, France, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, England, and
the United States, share in the commerce of Canton.
The Portuguese ships led the way to China in the year 1576, but,
difficulties occurring, they were restricted to Macao, to which place
they have ever since been limited, excepting at short intervals, when
they have been allowed to visit other ports.
The Chinese annals say, that in 1550, the Portuguese borrowed
Haon-king-gaon, (Macao,) which is situated in the midst of dashing
waves, where immense fish rise up, and again plunge into the deep!
the clouds hover over it, and the prospect is really beautiful--that
they (the Portuguese) passed over the ocean, myriads of miles, in a
wonderful manner; and small and great ranged themselves under the
renovating influence imparted by the glorious sun of the celestial
empire.
Spanish vessels enjoy greater privileges than those of any other
nation: they trade at Macao, a privilege denied to all other
foreigners, excepting the Portuguese; at Canton, and at Amoy.
The Falanke (French) reached Canton, in 1520; they entered the Tiger’s
mouth (the Bogue) abruptly, but were driven away, because the loud
report of their guns frightened the inhabitants. Their trade has never
been very extensive, though it has continued to the present time.
During the few past years, they have employed annually, two, three,
or four ships in this trade. In the seasons 1832-33, there were three
French ships in port.
The Ho-lan-kwo-jin (Dutch) arrived at China, in the year 1601: they
inhabited, in ancient times, a wild territory, and arrived at Macao
in two or three large ships. Their clothes and hair were red, they
had tall bodies, and blue, deeply sunken eyes, their feet were one
cubit and two tenths long, and they frightened the people with their
strange appearance; notwithstanding tribute was brought by them, they
had, in commencing trade, to struggle with many difficulties; and
their commerce, during two centuries, has fluctuated exceedingly. Its
present prospects are improving. A few years since, they had only
three or four ships, annually employed in this trade. During the year
1832, seventeen, from Holland and Java, arrived in China. The value
of _imports_, was four hundred and fifty-seven thousand, one hundred
and twenty-eight dollars. The _exports_ amounted to six hundred and
fifty-six thousand, six hundred and forty-five dollars, exclusive of
the private trade of the commanders.
_Sweden_ has never, we believe, in one season, sent more than two
or three ships to China. The trade opened in 1732: during the first
fifteen subsequent years, twenty-two ships were despatched to China, of
which four were lost.
Peter Osbeck, who was here in 1750-51, as chaplain of the Prince
Charles, a Swedish East Indiaman, relates, that there were at that
season, eighteen European ships in port: one Danish, two Swedish, two
French, four Dutch, and nine English. For the last fifteen years, no
Swedish ships have visited China.
The _Danes_ preceded the Swedes in their visits to China, but we could
not ascertain the date of the year in which their trade began. During
twelve years, commencing in 1732, they sent thirty-two ships to China,
twenty-seven of which only returned. Their flag was called Hwang-ke,
“the imperial flag,” which name it has retained to this day. Their
trade has never been extensive, though it has continued to the present
time.
The _Russian_ trading vessels are excluded from the Chinese ports;
their trade being confined to the northern provinces, by land.
The _English_ did not reach the coast of China, till about 1635. The
whole number of arrivals, during the year 1832, was eighty-seven; ten
of this number performed two or three voyages from China. Of the whole
number, nine were from London, and sixty-two from ports in India. The
vessels brought to China, broadcloths, long-ells, camlets, British
calicoes, worsted and cotton yarn, cotton piece goods, Bombay, Madras
and Bengal cotton, opium, sandal-wood, black-wood, rattans, betel-nut,
putchuck, pepper, cloves, saltpetre, cochineal, olibanum skins, ivory,
amber, pearls, cornelians, watches and clocks, lead, iron, tin,
quicksilver, shark’s fins, fishmaws, stock-fish, &c. In return, they
were laden with teas, silk, sugar, silk piece goods, cassia, camphor,
vermilion, rhubarb, alum, musk and various other articles. The value of
these exports and imports is as follows:--
In 1828-29, imports, twenty-one millions, three hundred and thirteen
thousand, five hundred and twenty-six dollars; exports, nineteen
millions, three and sixty thousand, six hundred and twenty-five
dollars: in 1829-30, imports, twenty-two millions, nine hundred and
thirty-one thousand, three hundred and seventy-two dollars; exports,
twenty-one millions, two hundred and fifty-seven thousand, two hundred
and fifty-seven dollars: in 1830-31, imports, twenty-one millions,
nine hundred sixty-one thousand, seven hundred and fifty-four dollars;
exports, twenty millions, four hundred and forty-six thousand, six
hundred and ninety-nine dollars: in 1831-32, imports, twenty millions,
five hundred and thirty-six thousand, two hundred and twenty-seven
dollars; exports, seventeen millions, seven hundred and sixty-seven
thousand, four hundred and eighty-six dollars: in 1832-33, imports,
twenty-two millions, three hundred and four thousand, seven hundred
and fifty-three dollars; exports, eighteen millions, three hundred and
thirty-two thousand, seven hundred and sixty dollars.
[Sidenote: AMERICAN TRADE.]
The _American_ trade to China, is of very recent origin; it commenced
after the revolutionary war. The first recorded facts which we are able
to obtain, carry back the trade only to the season of 1784-5, in which
two American ships were sent, laden, to Canton. In their return-cargo,
they carried eight hundred and eighty thousand, one hundred pounds of
tea: in the following season, but one vessel was sent, which exported
six hundred and ninety-five thousand pounds: in 1786-7, there were
five American ships, engaged in the trade: they exported one million,
one hundred and eighty-one thousand, eight hundred and sixty pounds of
this plant. One of these ships, was the “Hope:” other ships, which were
in port during this, and the following season, were the “Washington,”
“Asia,” and “Canton;” the last two, from Philadelphia.
The number of American vessels, which arrived in China, during the
seasons of 1832-33, ending in June, 1833, was fifty-nine. Some of these
ships did not, however, take in cargoes at this port.
These vessels brought quicksilver, lead, iron, South American copper,
spelter, tin plates, Turkey opium, ginseng, rice, broadcloths,
camlets, chintzes, long ells, long cloths, cambrics, domestics,
velvets, bombazettes, handkerchiefs, linen, cotton drillings, yarn and
prints, land and sea otter-skins, fox-skins, seal-skins, pearl-shells,
sandal-wood, cochineal, musical-boxes, clocks, watches, and sundry
other articles.
In return, they were laden with teas, silks, cassia, camphor, rhubarb,
vermilion, china-ware, &c. These articles were carried to the United
States, Europe, South America, Sandwich islands, and Manila. The
following statement will afford some idea of the progress in that
trade, and show its present amount:--
In 1805-6, imports, five millions, three hundred and twenty-six
thousand, three hundred and fifty-eight dollars; exports, five
millions, one hundred and twenty-seven thousand dollars: in 1815-16,
imports, two millions, five hundred and twenty-seven thousand, five
hundred dollars; exports, four millions, two hundred and twenty
thousand dollars: in 1825-26, imports, three millions, eight hundred
and forty-three thousand, seven hundred and seventeen dollars;
exports, four millions, three hundred and sixty-three thousand, seven
hundred and eighty-eight dollars: in 1830-31, imports, four millions,
two-hundred and twenty-three thousand, four hundred and seventy-six
dollars; exports, four millions, three hundred and forty-four thousand,
five hundred and forty-eight dollars: in 1831-32, imports, five
millions, five hundred and thirty-one thousand, eight hundred and
six dollars; exports, five millions, nine hundred and ninety-nine
thousand, seven hundred and thirty-one dollars: in 1832-33, imports,
eight millions, three hundred and sixty-two thousand, nine hundred and
seventy-one dollars; exports, eight millions, three hundred and seventy
two thousand, one hundred and seventy-five dollars.
[Sidenote: COMMERCE.]
It appears, from the foregoing statements, that the China trade,
employing, annually, one hundred and forty first-rate vessels, and a
large amount of capital, constitutes a very important branch of modern
commerce: this trade has always been carried on, and still exists,
under circumstances peculiar to itself: it is secured by no commercial
treaties, regulated by no stipulated rules: mandates, and edicts not
a few, there are on “record,” but these all emanate from one party;
still, the trade lives, and, by that imperial favour which extends to
“the four seas,” flourishes and enjoys no small degree of protection.
All vessels arriving on the coast of China, are, unless destined for
the harbour of Macao, or the port of Canton, considered by the Chinese
authorities, as intruders, and as such, must instantly depart. Year
after year, however, vessels have found a safe and convenient anchorage
at Lintin and its vicinity, where a large amount of business, including
nearly the whole of the opium-trade, is transacted.
Those vessels that are to enter the Bogue, must procure a permit, and
a pilot, at the Chinese custom-house, near Macao: the pilots, having
received license to act, must proceed on board immediately, and conduct
the vessel to the anchorage, at Whampoa.
As soon as the ship is officially reported at Canton, arrangements are
made for discharging and receiving cargo, the whole business of which
is sometimes accomplished in three weeks, but usually, it extends to
two or three months. Before this business can proceed, the consignee,
or the owner of the ship, must obtain for her a _security merchant_, a
_linguist_, and a comprador; and a declaration must be given, except by
those of the East India Company, that she has no opium on board. The
security merchant, or individual who gives security to government for
the payment of her duties, and for the conduct of the crew, must be a
member of the _co-hong_; this company is composed at present, of twelve
individuals, usually called _hong-merchants_: some of these men rank
among the most wealthy and respectable inhabitants of Canton: they pay
largely for the privilege of entering the co-hong: when they have once
joined that body, they are seldom allowed to retire from the station,
and, at all times, are liable to heavy exactions, from the provincial
government. Formerly, the whole, or nearly the whole foreign trade,
was in their hands: within a few years, it has extended to others who
are not included in the co-hong; and who are commonly called _outside
merchants_.
The linguists, so called, hold the rank of interpreters: they procure
permits for delivering and taking in cargo; transact all business at
the custom-house, keep account of the duties, &c.
The comprador provides stores, and all the necessary provisions for the
ship, while she remains in port.
The _port-charges_ consist of measurement-duty, cumshaw, pilotage,
linguist and comprador’s fees. The measurement-duty varies: on a vessel
of three hundred tons, it is about six hundred and fifty dollars,
and on a vessel of about thirteen hundred tons, it is about three
thousand dollars: the tonnage, however, affords no fixed criterion for
the amount of measurement-duty. But, for all ships, the _cumshaw_,
_pilotage_, _linguist_ and comprador’s fees, are the same, amounting to
two thousand, five hundred and seventy-three dollars.
Those vessels that enter the port, _laden only with rice_, are not
required to pay the measurement-duty and cumshaw, but they are liable
to other irregular fees, amounting to nearly one thousand dollars.
The management and general supervision of the port-charges, are
intrusted to an imperial commissioner, who is sent hither from the
court of Peking. In Chinese, he is called hae-kwan-keen-tuh, but, by
foreigners, he is usually styled the hoppo: his regular salary is about
three thousand taels per annum, but his annual income is supposed to be
no less than one hundred thousand dollars.
The arrangements between the native and foreign merchants of Canton for
the transaction of business are, on the whole, convenient and pretty
well calculated to promote despatch, and to secure confidence in the
respective parties.
The Chinese merchants have a well-earned reputation as shrewd dealers:
they have little confidence in each other; every contract of importance
must be “fixed,” and made sure by the payment of a stipulated sum: but
they place the most unlimited confidence in the integrity of their
foreign customers.
Among the _outside_ merchants the trade is very limited, and their
number being unlimited, there is often much competition between them.
The whole of the East India company’s business, a large portion of the
English private trade, and that of other foreigners, are confined to
the hong-merchants and those who transact business in connexion with
them.
The establishments of the principal hong-merchants are extensive; they
have numerous and convenient ware-houses in which they store goods, and
from whence export-cargoes are conveyed, in lighters, to the shipping
at Whampoa.
The names of the hong-merchants are Howqua, Mowqua, Puankhequa, Goqua,
Fatqua, Kingqua, Sunshing, Mingqua, Saoqua, and Punhoqua. The Rev.
Robert Morrison, D. D., is Chinese translator to the British East India
company, and Mr. G. R. Morrison, his son, to those termed the _outside
British merchants_. The four linguists are named, Atom, Achow, Atung,
and Akang.
[Sidenote: FOREIGN FACTORIES.]
The _foreign factories_, the situation of which has already been
noticed, are neat and commodious buildings: the plot of ground on which
they stand is circumscribed by narrow limits, extending about sixty
rods from east to west, and forty rods from north to south: it is
owned, in common with most of the factories, by the hong-merchants.
The factories are called shih-san-hang, “the thirteen factories;”
with the exception of two or three narrow streets, they form a solid
block; each factory extends in length, through the whole breadth of the
block, and has its own proper name which, if not always appropriate,
is intended to be indicative of good fortune: the first, commencing
on the east, is e-ho-hang, the factory of “justice and peace;” it
communicates with the city ditch: the second is the Dutch; it is
called paon-ho-hong, “the factory that ensures tranquillity:” Hog-lane
separates this from the fourth, which is called fung-tae-hang, “the
great and affluent or chow-chow factory;” it derives the latter name
from its mixture of inhabitants, viz.:--Parsees, Moormen, &c.: the
fifth, being the old English factory, is named bung-shan-hong: the
sixth, the Swedish factory, is called suy-hang: the seventh, commonly
called the imperial factory, ma-ying-hang: the eighth, paon-shun-hang,
or “the precious and prosperous factory:” the ninth, the American
factory, is termed kwang-yuen-hang, “the factory of wide fountains.”
A broad street, called China-street, separates kwang-yuen-hang from
the tenth factory, which is occupied by one of the hong merchants: the
eleventh is the French factory: the twelfth, the Spanish factory: the
thirteenth, and last, is the Danish factory. The twelfth and thirteenth
are separated by a street occupied by Chinese merchants, generally
called New China-street.
Each factory is divided into three, four, or more houses, of which
each factor occupies one or more, according to circumstances. Brick or
granite is the material used in the erection of these buildings, which
are two stories high, and present a moderately substantial front. They
form, with the foreign flags which wave above them, a pleasing contrast
to the national banner and architecture of the celestial empire.
Besides the British East India company’s establishment, there are
nine British merchants and agents, seven American, one French, and
one Dutch. Between Canton, Macao, and on board the stationary ships
at Linting, there are distributed one hundred and forty residents,
exclusive of twenty-five belonging to the East India company’s
establishment, viz.: Sixty-three British, thirty-one Asiatic British
subjects, twenty Americans, eleven Portuguese, three Dutch, four
Danish, three Swedish, three Spanish, one French, and one Genoese.
Messrs. Markwick and Lane keep a European bazar, and the British hotel
is kept by C. Markwick in the imperial hong; the European ware-house
and hotel is kept by Robert Edwards, in the American hong.
Two newspapers are printed in the English language, the “Canton
Register,” and the “Chinese Courier;” the first, half-monthly, and the
second, weekly, accompanied by price-currents. There is also, printed
in English, a very useful and praiseworthy work, called the “Chinese
Repository,” to which I am indebted for a considerable portion of the
information relative to Canton, its commerce, &c.
The difficulty, which formerly existed in visiting and communicating
with Macao, Linting, and Cap-shuy-moon, is now happily removed by the
establishment of two excellent cutters, under British colours, which
have very convenient accommodations. Chinese boats also may be had
in abundance, either for the outer ship channel to or from Linting,
Cap-shuy-moon, or Macao, or the _inner_ passage to and from Macao, and
which foreign boats are not allowed to use.
The style of living in China (we refer to foreign society) is similar
to that of India, except that here man is deprived of that “help”
appointed to him by a divine decree, which no human authority can
justly abrogate, and enjoyed by him in every land save this.
A gentleman, fitting up an establishment in Canton, must first obtain
a _comprador_; this is an individual permitted, by special license,
to act as head-servant; to him belong the general superintendance
of domestic household affairs, the procuring of other servants,
purchasing provisions, &c., according to the wishes of his employer.
Visiters to Canton usually speak in high terms of the domestic
arrangements of the residents.
This place presents few objects of much interest to the mere man of
pleasure. Considering the latitude, the climate is agreeable and
healthy; provisions of good quality and great variety are abundant; but
the want of a purer air, and wider range, than are enjoyed in the midst
of the densely populated metropolis, to which the residents are here
confined, often makes them impatient to leave the provincial city.
[Sidenote: MANUFACTORIES.]
The _manufactories_ and trades of Canton are numerous: there is no
machinery, properly so called, consequently there are no extensive
manufacturing establishments similar to those which, in modern times,
and under the power of machinery, have grown up in Europe. The Chinese
know nothing of the economy of time. Much of the manufacturing business
required to supply the commercial houses of Canton, is performed at
Fuh-shan, a large town situated a few miles westward of the city;
still, the number of hands employed, and the amount of labour performed
here, are by no means inconsiderable.
There are annually about seventeen thousand persons, men, women, and
children, engaged in weaving silk; their looms are simple, and their
work is generally executed with neatness. The number of persons engaged
in manufacturing cloth of all kinds, is about fifty thousand; when the
demand is pressing for work, the number of labourers is considerably
increased; the workmen occupy about two thousand, five hundred shops,
averaging, usually, twenty in each.
We have heard it said, that some of the Chinese females, who devote
their time to embroidering the choicest of the fabrics, secure a profit
of twenty and sometimes even twenty-five dollars per month. Shoemakers
are numerous and support an extensive trade, the number of workmen
being about four thousand, two hundred. The number of those who work
in brass, wood, iron, stone, and various other materials, is likewise
large. Those who engage in each of these occupations form, to a certain
degree, a separate community, having their distinct laws and rules for
the regulation of business.
The book-trade of Canton is important, but we have not been able to
obtain particulars in relation to its extent. The _barbers_ form a
separate department, and no one is allowed to perform the duties of
tonsor until he has obtained a license.
According to their records, the number of this fraternity in Canton, at
the present time, is seven thousand, three hundred!
There is another body of men, which we know not how to designate or
describe; the _medical community_; which must not be passed over
without notice. That these men command high respect and esteem whenever
they show themselves skilled in their profession, there can be no
doubt; it is generally admitted, also, that individuals do now and
then, by long experience and observation, become able practitioners;
but, as a community, they are anything rather than masters of the
“healing art.” About two thousand of these “physicians” dwell in Canton.
No inconsiderable part of the multitude which composes the population
of Canton lives in boats. There are officers appointed by government
to regulate and control this portion of the city’s inhabitants. Every
boat, of all the various sizes and descriptions that are seen here, is
registered; and it appears that the whole number on the river, adjacent
to the city, is eighty-four thousand. A great majority of these are
tankea (egg-house) boats, called by some, sampans; these are generally
not more than twelve or fifteen feet long, about six broad, and so low
that a person can scarcely stand up in them: their covering, made of
bamboo, is very light, and can be easily adjusted to the state of the
weather. Whole families live in these boats, and in coops lashed on the
outside of them they often rear large broods of ducks and chickens,
designed to supply the city-markets. Passage-boats which daily move to
and from the city-hamlets, ferry-boats which are constantly crossing
and recrossing the river, huge canal-boats, laden with produce from
the country, cruisers, pleasure-boats, &c. complete the list of these
floating habitations, and present to the stranger a very interesting
scene.
[Sidenote: POPULATION.]
There has been considerable diversity of opinion in relation to the
population of Canton. The division of the city which brings a part of
it into Nan-hae, and a part into Pwang-yu, precludes the possibility of
ascertaining the exact amount of population. The facts which we have
brought into view in the preceding pages, perhaps will afford the best
data for making an accurate estimate of the number of inhabitants
in the city. There are, we have already seen, fifty thousand persons
engaged in the manufacture of cloth, seven thousand, three hundred
barbers, and four thousand, two hundred shoemakers; but these three
occupations employing sixty-one thousand, five hundred individuals, do
not, probably, include more than one fourth of the craftsmen in the
city; allowing this to be the fact, the whole number of mechanics will
amount to two hundred and forty-six thousand; these, we suppose, are a
fourth part of the whole population, exclusive of those who live on the
rivers. In each of the eighty-four thousand boats, there are not less,
on an average, than three individuals; making a total of two hundred
and forty-two thousand; if to them we add two hundred and forty-six
thousand, (which is the number of mechanics,) the amount will be one
million, two hundred and thirty-six thousand, as the probable number of
inhabitants in Canton.
This number may possibly be incorrect; no one, however, who has had an
opportunity of passing through the streets of the city, and viewing the
multitudes that throng them, will think the estimate below one million.
It only remains to remark, briefly, in conclusion, the influence which
Canton is exerting on the character and destinies of this empire.
Intelligent natives admit that more luxury, dissipation, and crime,
exist here, than in any other portion of the empire; they maintain,
at the same time, that more enterprise, enlarged views, and general
information, prevail among the higher class of the inhabitants of
Canton, than are found in most of the other large cities; the bad
qualities are the result of a thrifty commerce acting on a large
population, in the absence of high moral principles; the good, which
exist in a very limited degree, result from an intercourse with
“distant barbarians.”
The contempt and hatred which the Chinese have often exhibited towards
foreigners, and the indifference and disdain with which the nation
has looked down upon every thing not its own, ought to be thoroughly
reprobated; on the other hand, the feelings which foreigners have
cherished, and the disposition and conduct which they have too
frequently manifested towards this people, are such as never should
have existed. Notwithstanding all these disadvantages, we think the
intercourse between the Chinese and the people of the western world,
beneficial to the former; and hitherto this intercourse has been
purely commercial; science, literature, and all friendly and social
offices, have been disregarded. We trust fervently, that such a
period has departed, that men are beginning to feel they have moral
obligations to discharge, and that they are bound by the most sacred
ties to interest themselves in the intellectual, moral, and religious
improvement of their various brethren in the distant nations of the
earth.