there were priests appointed to absolve those who had fallen into
idolatry; and they were called _Presbyteri Pænitentium_. S. Marcellus
also, according to Anastasius, after the persecution raised by
Diocletian, appointed in Rome titular churches, in which penance as
well as baptism were administered by priests, the former sacrament is
conferred by the minor penitentiaries. Pope Simplicius in fine, as
we learn from the same author, destined fixed weeks at S. Peter's,
S. Paul's, and S. Laurence's, to _receive penitents_ and administer
baptism. From the usual custom of Rome in such matters, Zaccaria
argues that during the first five or six centuries, according to the
general custom proved by Thomassin, the great penitentiary was the
_bishop himself of the city_ in which they resided. It is however
certain, that in the 4th century from the numerous priests of
Constantinople one was selected called a penitentiary, who took
cognisance of crimes, to which public penance was annexed by the
canons. At Rome also there was a cardinal penitentiary long before
the fourth council of Lateran, which in 1215 prescribed that bishops
should appoint penitentiaries, for Berthod priest of Constance relates
in his chronicle, that in the year 1084 he was promoted to the dignity
of cardinal-priest and penitentiary of the Roman church.]
CHAP III.
ON THE DIVINE OFFICE, AND THE OFFICE OF TENEBRAE IN PARTICULAR.
_CONTENTS._
PART 1. _Introductory_. Breviary--Divine office, its
origin--performed by the early Christians--ancient and modern
editions of the breviary. PART 2. _Descriptive_. Office of
Tenebræ--Matins and Lauds--extinction of the lights--meaning
of this ceremony--chant, lamentations--conclusions of the
office--_Miserere_, its music--Card. Penitentiary at S. Mary
Major's. _Trinità dei Pellegrini_.
"_I will bless the Lord at all times_: _his praise shall
always be in my mouth_". Ps. XXXIII, 2.
"_He humbled himself, becoming obedient unto death, even the
death of the cross_". Phil. II, 8.
[Sidenote: P. I. Breviary.]
We shall not hesitate to borrow the following account of the church
office contained in the Roman Breviary from a Protestant divine
(Tracts of the Times no. 75). "The word _Breviarum_ first occurs
in the work of an author of the eleventh century (Micrologus) and
it is used to denote a compendium or systematic arrangement of the
devotional offices of the church. Till that time they were contained
in several independent volumes, according to the nature of each. Such,
for instance, were the _Psalteria_, _Homilaria_, _Hymnaria_, and the
like, to be used in the service in due course. But at his memorable
era, and under the auspices of the Pontiff who makes it memorable,
Gregory VII, an Order was drawn up, for the use of the Roman church,
containing in one all these different collections, introducing the
separate members of each in its proper place, and harmonising them
together by the use of rubrics.
[Sidenote: Divine office, its origin.]
"Gregory VII did but restore and harmonise these offices; which seem
to have existed more or less the same in constituent parts, though not
in order and system, from Apostolic times. In their present shape they
are appointed for seven distinct seasons in the twenty four hours,
and consist of prayers, praises and thanksgivings of various forms;
and, as regards both contents and hours, are the continuation of a
system of worship observed by the Apostles and their converts. As to
_contents_, the Breviary service consists of the Psalms; of Hymns
and Canticles; of Lessons and Texts from inspired and Ecclesiastical
authors; of Antiphons, Verses and Responses, and Sentences; and of
Collects. And analogous to this seems to have been the usage of the
Corinthian Christians, whom St. Paul blames for refusing to agree in
some common order of worship, when they came together, _every one
of them_ having a Psalm, or a doctrine, a tongue, a revelation, an
interpretation (1 Cor. XIV, 26). On the other hand, the catholic
_seasons_ of devotion are certainly derived from apostolic usage. The
Jewish observance of the third, sixth and ninth hours for prayer,
was continued by the inspired founders of the Christian church. What
Daniel had practised, even when the decree was signed forbidding it,
"_kneeling on his knees three times a day, and praying and giving
thanks unto his God_", S. Peter and the other Apostles were solicitous
in preserving. It was when "_they were all with one accord in one
place_", at "the _third_ hour of the day", that the Holy Ghost
came down upon them at Pentecost. It was at the _sixth_ hour, that
St. Peter "went up upon the house-top to pray" and saw the vision
revealing to him the admission of the gentiles into church. And it
was at the _ninth_ hour that "Peter and John went up together into the
temple", being "the hour of prayer". But though these were the more
remarkable seasons of devotion, there certainly were others besides
them in the first age of the church. After our Saviour's departure,
the Apostles, we are informed, "all _continued_ with one accord in
prayer and supplication, with the women, and Mary the mother of Jesus,
and with His brethren": and with this accords the repealed exhortation
to pray together without ceasing, which occurs in St. Paul's epistles.
It will be observed that he insists in one passage on prayer to the
abridgment of sleep (Eph. VI, 18); and one recorded passage of his
life exemplifies his precept: "And at midnight Paul and Silas prayed,
and sang praises unto God, and the prisoners heard them".
In subsequent times the Hours of prayer were gradually developed from
the three, or (with midnight) the four seasons above enumerated, to
seven, viz. by the addition of Prime (the first hour), Vespers (the
evening), and Compline (bedtime); according to the words of the
Psalm, "Seven times a day do I praise Thee, because of Thy righteous
judgment. Other pious and instructive reasons existed, or have since
been perceived for this number".[46] Thus far our Protestant author,
with whose remarks we are too well pleased to go out of our way to
dispute with him the truth of some other portions of his tract, which
are objectionable.
[Sidenote: Performed by the early Christians.]
That the early Christians continued after the time of the apostles to
observe the hours of prayer above enumerated is proved by Martene (De
Ant. Eccl. Rit. T. 3) who has collected many decisive passages from
the Greek and Latin Fathers. We shall content ourselves with one taken
from a work on prayer by S. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage in the third
century. Having mentioned Daniel's practice of praying three times
a day, he observes, that it is manifest that there was something
mysterious or symbolical in the ancient practice. "For the holy Ghost
descended on the disciples at the third hour; at the sixth hour Peter
going to the house-top was instructed by God to admit all to the
grace of salvation; and the Lord, who was crucified at the sixth
hour, washed away our sins with his blood at the ninth hour, and
completed the victory by his passion. For us however, besides the
hours anciently observed, the times and also the symbols of prayer
have increased. For we must pray in the morning, to celebrate the
resurrection of the Lord; also when the sun recedes and the day
ceases; for Christ is the true sun and the true day, and when we pray
that the light of Christ may again come upon us, we pray that his
coming may impart to us the grace of eternal light: and let us who
are always in Christ, that is, in the light, not cease from prayer at
night". See also Dr. Cave's Primitive Christianity Part. 1, c. 9.
[Sidenote: Editions of the breviary.]
"The old Roman breviary" says the author of Tract 75 above quoted
"had long before Gregory VII's time been received in various parts of
Europe; and in England since the time of Gregory the great who after
the pattern of Leo and Gelasius before him had been a reformer of it".
The people used anciently to join with the clergy in offering this,
constant tribute of praise to God; but the duty of daily reciting it
is obligatory only upon the Catholic clergy, and religious orders.
S. Benedict shortened it considerably, (as Grancolas observes, Com.
Hist. in Brev. Rom.) New editions and emendations of it were published
successively by the authority of St. Gregory VII, Nicholas III,
and Clement VII, and finally the Roman Breviary at present used was
restored by order of the Council of Trent, published by Pope Pius V,
and revised by Clement VIII, and Urban VIII. It follows closely, as
Merati observes, that first adopted by the regular-clerks in the 16th
century, and resembles the edition published by Haymo, general of the
Franciscans, and authorised by Nicholas III (A.D. 1278). Hence it
is called by the author of Tract 75 the _Franciscan_ Breviary. It is
however founded upon the old Roman Breviary, which the Franciscans
by the direction of their holy founder had adopted: for according
to Rodolfo, dean of Tongres Cap. XXII, when the Popes dwelt at the
Lateran, the _office of the Papal chapel_ was much shorter than that
of the other churches of Rome; it was composed by Innocent III, and
was adopted by the Franciscans instituted at his time. Nicolas III
ordered that all the Roman churches should use the Franciscan Breviary
as reformed by Haymo, in 1241. "Our own daily service", says the
above-mentioned minister of the church of England is confessedly
formed upon the Breviary".
[Sidenote: P. II. Office of Tenebræ.]
Having premised thus much on the office in general, we may now return
to holy-week. Besides palm-sunday, three other days in the week
are particularly devoted to the commemoration of the history of our
redemption; holy-thursday, because on it our Lord instituted the
blessed Eucharist, and his passion began; good-friday, on which He
was crucified and died; and holy saturday, on which His sacred body
remained in the tomb. The church commences her solemn service of each
of these days with that part of the divine office called matins and
lauds, and at this time Tenebrae from the _darkness_ with which it
concludes. It used of old to be celebrated at night, as it still is
by some religious communities[47]; but it now takes place on the
afternoon preceding each of those three days. Nor is this unusual:
for "the ecclesiastical day is considered to begin with the evening
or Vesper service, according to the Jewish reckoning, as alluded to in
the text. "In the evening and morning and at noon day will I pray, and
that instantly". (Tracts of the Times, No. 75).
[Sidenote: Matins and Lauds.]
The office of Matin so called from Matuta or Aurora consists at
Tenebræ of three _nocturns_. Each of these is composed of three
appropriate psalms with their anthems, followed by three lessons taken
from scripture or the fathers. Immediately after matins, Lauds or
the praises of God are sung: they consist of five psalms besides the
_Benedictus_ or canticle of Zachary, to which succeeds the _Miserere_
or 50th psalm. Some of the short prayers usually said are omitted: for
the church during this season of mourning strips her liturgy as well
as her altars of their usual ornaments[48].
[Sidenote: Extinction of the lights.]
A triangular candlestick, upon which are placed fifteen candles,
corresponding to the number of psalms recited before the _Miserere_,
is peculiar to this solemn office, and is placed at the epistle-side
of the altar. After each psalm one of the candles is extinguished by
a Master of ceremonies, and after the _Benedictus_ the candle placed
on the top of the triangular candlestick is not extinguished, but is
concealed behind the altar and brought out at the end of the service;
while that canticle is sung, the six candles on the altar also are
extinguished, as well as those above the _cancellata_ or rails[49].
[Sidenote: Meaning of this ceremony.]
Lamps and candelabra were presented to the sanctuary by the faithful
during the first ages of persecution; and in more tranquil times to
the basilicas by Constantine and others who erected or dedicated them.
They were lighted, as S. Jerome observes, in the day time "not to
drive away darkness, but as a sign of joy": and therefore the custom
of gradually extinguishing them at the office of Tenebrae we may
justly consider with Amalarius as a sign of mourning, or of the
sympathy of the church with her divine and suffering Spouse. The
precise number of lights is determined by that of the psalms, which
is the same as at ordinary matins of three nocturns.
The custom of concealing behind the altar during the last part of the
office the last and most elevated candle, and of bringing it forward
burning at the end of the service, is a manifest allusion to the death
and resurrection of Christ, whose light, as Micrologus observes, is
represented by our burning tapers. "I am the light of the world". John
VIII. 12[50]. In the same manner the other candles extinguished one
after another may represent the prophets successively put to death
before their divine Lord: and if we consider that the psalms of the
_old Testament_ are recited at the time, this explanation may appear
more satisfactory than others, which would refer them to the blessed
Virgin, the apostles and disciples of Christ[51]. In the triangular
form of the candlestick is contained an evident allusion to the
B. Trinity. This candlestick is mentioned in a MS. Ordo of the 7th
century published by Mabillon.
[Sidenote: Chant, lamentations.]
The anthems and psalms, with the exception of the _Miserere_ which is
the last psalm at Lauds, most of the lessons and other parts of the
office, are sung in plain chant. From the middle of the 15th century
the three lamentations or first three lessons of each day used to be
sung in _canto figurato_ in the papal chapel: but by order of Sixtus
V, only the first lamentation of each day is thus sung, and even it
is much shortened, as Clement XII directed: the two others are sung
in _canto piano_ according to Guidetti's method. The first lamentation
both of the first and second day is by the celebrated Pierluigi da
Palestrina: that of the third day by Allegri. Baini observes, that
the first lamentation of the second day is considered the finest:
Palestrina composed it for four voices, besides a bass, which entering
at the pathetic apostrophe 'Jerusalem, Jerusalem, be converted to the
Lord' "every year makes all the hearers and singers, who have a soul,
change colour". Bayni, Mem. Stor. T. 1. The lamentations of Jeremiah
have the form of an acrostic, that is, the verses begin with the
letters of the Hebrew alphabet in regular order, the first with
Aleph, the second with Beth, and so in succession. It was difficult
to observe a similar order in the Latin Vulgate: but to preserve
some vestige of it, the name of the Hebrew letter, with which each
verse begins in the original, is sung before the same verse in the
translation.
[Sidenote: Conclusion of the office.]
When the _Benedictus_ or canticle of Zachary and its anthem are
finished, the choir sings the verse "Christ was made for us obedient
even unto death": on the second night they add "even unto the death of
the cross": and on the third, "for which reason God hath exalted him,
and hath given him a name, which is above all names". The heart of the
christian is melted to devotion by these words, sung on so solemn an
occasion: he kneels before his crucified Redeemer, and recites that
prayer of love, that prayer of a child to his Father which He that
man of sorrows dictated to His beloved disciples; and then remembering
those sins, by which he offended that dear and agonising parent, and
touched with sorrow and repentance, yet more and more excited by the
music, I might almost call it celestial, his heart calls loudly for
that mercy to obtain which Jesus died. He joins with God's minister
in fervently repeating the prayer imploring God's blessing on those
for whom Christ suffered and died: the noise which follows it recals
to his mind the confusion of nature at the death of her creator; the
lighted candle once more appearing reminds him that His death was only
temporary: and he departs in silence impressed with pious sentiments,
and inflamed with devout affections.
[Sidenote: Miserere, its music.]
They who have assisted at the office of Tenebræ will not be surprised
at the saying of a philosopher, that for the advantage of his soul he
would wish, that when he was about to render it up to God, he might
hear sung the _Miserere_ of the Pope's chapel. In no other place has
this celebrated music succeeded. Baini the director of the Pontifical
choir, in a note to his life of Palestrina, observes that Paride de
Grassi, Master of ceremonies to Leo X, mentions that on holy wednesday
(A.D. 1519), the singers chanted the _Miserere_ in a _new_ and
_unaccustomed_ manner, alternately singing the verses in symphony.
This seems to be the origin of the far-famed _Miserere_. Various
authors, whom Baini enumerates, afterwards composed _Miserere_[52];
but the celebrated composition of Gregorio Allegri a Roman, who
entered the Papal college of singers in 1629, was the most successful,
and was for some time sung on all the three days of Tenebræ. Then one
composed by Alessandro Scarlatti, or that of Felice Anerio, used to
be sung on holy thursday: but these were eclipsed by the _Miserere_,
composed in 1214 by Tommase Bai a Bolognese, director of the choir of
S. Peter's. From that time only Allegri's and Bai's were sung in the
Pope's chapel; till Pius VII directed the celebrated Baini to compose
a new _Miserere_, which has received well-merited applause. Since the
year 1821 all three, viz. Baini's, Bai's, and Allegri's _Misereres_
are sung on the three successive days, and generally in the order in
which we have mentioned them: the two latter are sometimes blended
together. The first verse is sung in harmony, the second in plain
chant, and so successively till the last verse, which alone is sung in
harmony by both the choirs, into which the singers are divided; only
one choir sings the other verses[53].
[Sidenote: Cardinal penitentiary]
[Sidenote: Trinità dei Pellegrini]
On Wednesday-afternoon, the Cardinal great Penitentiary goes in state
to S. Mary Major's, where the minor Penitentiaries are Dominicans.
For an account of this custom see the preceding chapter. On Wednesday,
Thursday and Friday evenings, Christians may be edified at the Trinità
dei Pellegrini[54] by the sight of Cardinals, princes, prelates and
others, washing in good earnest, and afterwards kissing the feet of
poor pilgrims, while they recite with them the Our Father, Hail Mary,
Glory be to the Father, and other beautiful prayers, such as;
_Gesù, Giuseppe, Maria,_
_Vi dono il cuore e l' anima mia._
_Gesù, Giuseppe, Maria,_
_Assisteleci nell' ultima agonia, etc._
They afterwards wait on them at table, and accompany them to
their beds, reciting other devout prayers. In another part of that
establishment, princesses and other ladies practise the same offices
of charity towards the female pilgrims. Here might we fancy that the
primitive christians were before us, those men of charity, simplicity,
and lowliness: and when in the same place, a few years ago, that
devout Pontiff Leo XII on his knees washed and kissed the feet of
pilgrims, who had journeyed from afar; who that saw him did not call
to mind with tears the lowliness and charity of his predecessor Peter,
and of a greater than Peter, who "washed the feet of his disciples,
and who wiped them with the towel wherewith he was girded".
Marius mourned over the ruins of Carthage; but his was the sorrow
of disappointed, selfish ambition. Jeremiah lamented the fall and
desolation of Jerusalem: and his plaintive accents were inspired by
genuine patriotism and religion. Observe his venerable figure in the
Sixtine chapel; there he sits pensive and disconsolate, with his legs
crossed, his wearied head resting upon his hand, and his eyes rivetted
on the ground, as if nothing could engage his attention but the woes
of the daughter of Sion[55]. Then listen to the lamentations of this
inspired and afflicted prophet: they are full of deepest pathos,
and uttered in notes sweet as the warblings of philomel. Turn now, O
Christian soul, to a more sublime and mournful spectacle. Jesus in
the garden of Gethsemani and on mount Calvary mourned not for a single
city or nation: he sorrowed over the ruins of a world, not as of
old Noah may have done, when secure from danger he looked down upon
the waters which overspread the earth; but "He was wounded for our
iniquities, and he was bruised for our sins: and the Lord hath laid on
him the iniquities of us all", He suffered and died for us. The moral
ruins of the world, our sins and their awful consequences, caused all
the pangs and sorrows of Jesus. Come then let us cast ourselves at the
foot of that cross, and cry aloud for mercy with a contrite and humble
heart, which He will never despise. To _Thee_ alone, shall we say,
have we sinned, and have done evil before thee; yet have mercy on
us, O God, according to thy great mercy. And thou, O blessed Virgin
and Mother, who standest in silent anguish beneath the cross of thy
agonising Son[56], would that we could feel love and sorrow like unto
thine.
_Eja mater fons amoris_
_Me sentire vim doloris_
_Fac, ut tecum lugeam._
_Fac, ut ardeat cor meum_
_In amando Christum Deum,_
_Ut sibi complaceam. Amen._
[Footnote 46: See also Palmer's Origines Liturgicæ, Vol. 1 Antiq. of
the English ritual c. 1, p. 1. Both writers do not hesitate to admit
that the breviary is the great source of the Church of England's
Morning and Evening prayer.]
[Footnote 47: Our divine Lord sometimes passed the night in prayer;
and the early Christians, as Pliny informs his master Trajan, used to
assemble before the light to sing a hymn to Christ. Lucian as well as
Ammianus Marcellinus complained of their spending the night in singing
hymns. S. Jerome in fine writes to Eustoch. (Ep. 22) that besides the
daily hours of prayers we should rise _twice and thrice at night_.]
[Footnote 48: In the mass and office for the dead several prayers and
ceremonies otherwise prescribed are omitted: so on this occasion, says
Benedict XIV, "the church forgetting all things else thinks only of
bewailing the sins of mankind, and condoling with Christ our Redeemer
in His sufferings". As for the antiquity of this service, Martene
remarks (lib. IV, c. 22) that the order of the _nocturnal_ and diurnal
offices of holy-thursday is found, such as we now observe it, in the
ancient Antiphonarium of the Roman church, and in that of S. Gregory
published by B. Tommasi, so that there has been scarcely any variation
during the last thirteen hundred years.]
[Footnote 49: When the Pope officiates, the eight candles over the
_cancellata_ are lighted: six are lighted for a Cardinal, and four
for a Bishop. Amalarius priest of Metz in the ninth century (De ordine
antiphonarii), mentions the extinction of the lights in the office
of these three days. It would seem however, that it was not then
customary at Rome, for Theodore, archdeacon of the Roman church,
in answer to his enquiries had said to him "I am usually with the
Apostolic Lord at the Lateran, when the office of Coena Domini (Holy
Thursday) is celebrated, and it is not customary to extinguish the
lights. On Good Friday there is no light of lamps or tapers in the
church in Jerusalem (Santa Croce) as long as the Apostolic Lord offers
up solemn prayers there, or when the cross is saluted". This latter
custom is still continued.]
[Footnote 50: In confirmation of this explanation we may observe, that
the candle is placed behind the altar after the _Benedictus_ during
the anthem alluding to Christ's passion, and remains there while the
verse 'Christ became obedient unto death' the psalm _Miserere_, and
the prayer which mentions the crucifixion, are sung.]
[Footnote 51: See such opinions ap. Benedict. XIV, De festis Lib.
1, c. 5. The system of Du Vert, who would reject all mystical and
symbolical significations attributed to the church-ceremonies, has
been satisfactorily confuted by Langlet, Le Brun, Tournely and other
divines.]
[Footnote 52: Tartini's and Pisari's lasted only one year each.]
[Footnote 53: Persons, who go immediately after the service in the
Sixtine chapel to S. Peter's, are generally in time for part if not
the whole of the _Miserere_ sung in that Basilic. The compositions of
Fioravanti the late, Basili the present, master, and Zingarelli, are
sung there.]
[Footnote 54: See Reminiscences of Rome. Letter 4th. London, 1838 On
pilgrimages and pilgrims see Mores Catholici Book 4th, ch. 5th. S.
Philip Neri founded the Confraternity of Trinità dei Pellegrini.]