Beyond Balaxium is a certain river, on which there are many castles and

villages, belonging to the brother of the king of Balaxium; and after three

days journey, we came to Vachan[8], which extends three days journey in

length, and as much is breadth, The inhabitants of this country have a

peculiar language, and are Mahometans; they are brave Warriors, and good

huntsmen, as their country abounds in wild beasts. Departing from thence,

in a direction between the east and north-east, we ascended for three whole

days journey, until we came to an exceeding high mountain, than which there

is none said to be higher in the world. In this place, between two

mountains, is a plain, in which is a great lake, and a fine river runs

through the plain, on the banks of which are such excellent pastures, that

a lean horse or ox will become quite fat in ten days. It contains also

great quantities of wild beasts, and particularly very large wild sheep,

having horns six spans long, out of which they make various kinds of

vessels. This plain continues twelve days journey in length, and is called

_Pamer_, in which there are no habitations, so that travellers must carry

all their provisions along with them. This plain is so high and cold that

no birds are to be found; and it is even said, that fires do not burn so

bright in this place, and do not so effectually boil or dress victuals as

in other places[9]. From hence, the way to Kathay leads, for forty days

journey, between the east and the north-east, through mountains, hills, and

vallies, in which there are many rivers, but no villages, neither any

verdure, except that some huts and cottages are to be seen among the

mountains; but the inhabitants are savage and wicked idolaters, who live by

hunting, and are clothed in the skins of wild beasts; the country is called

Palow[10]. After this you come to the province of Caschar[11], which is

inhabited by Mahometans, who are tributary to the great khan of the Mongals

or Tartars. The soil is fertile, and the country is full of pleasant

fields, gardens, and orchards, producing vines, fruit trees, cotton, hemp,

and flax, and extends five days journey. The inhabitants have a particular

language, and have many merchants, manufacturers, and artizans, but they

are so covetous, that they do not allow themselves either good meat or

drink. Among them there are some Nestorian Christians, who also have some

churches,

[1] Called likewise Mulete or Alamut; Marco makes here a sudden

return to the north-west of Persia; and from the abruptness of the

transition, it has been probably disarranged in transcription. This

country has been likewise called the land of the Assassins; it is near

Cashbin in Dilem, on the borders of Mazenderan.--E.

[2] The last of these princes was named Moadin, who, as mentioned

in the text, was made prisoner, and put to death by Houlagu-khan. In

the sequel of this work, there will be found other and more full

accounts of this old man of the mountain, or prince of the assassins.

--E.

[3] The transition seems here again abrupt, and unconnected; at

least the intermediate country of Mazerderan and Chorassan to the

desert, probably of Margiana, is very slightly passed over.--E.

[4] In this section, Marco seems to trace his journey along with

his father and uncle from Giazza towards Tartary; but the regular

connection appears to have been thrown into confusion, by ignorant

transcribers and editors.--E.

[5] Probably Satugar of the modern maps, on the western border of

Balk.--E.

[6] Forster considers this place to be Scasse or Al-shash, on the

river Sirr or Sihon, perhaps the Tashkund of modern maps, in the

province of Shash. The distances given by Marco must be strangely

corrupted by transcribers and editors, or Marco must have forgot when

he wrote his travels, perhaps twenty-six years after he passed this

country, when only a boy. The distance between Balk, on one of the

branches of the Sihon or Oxus, and Shash on the Jihon or Sirr, is at

least 350 miles in a straight line; which he appears to have travelled

in _five_ days, but which would more probably occupy fifteen.--E.

[7] This river is probably the Sirr or Sihon; and the mountains of

Karatan and Arjun pervade the district, the two chains being separated

by the river.--E.

[8] Vochan, Vocham or Vakhan, on the river Vash.--Forst.

[9] This observation was made on the mountains of Savoy and

Switzerland, not many years ago, by M. de Luc, and published as a new

discovery. The phenomena must be owing to the diminished pressure of

the atmosphere at this great elevation, by which water boils at a much

lower temperature than is requisite for effective cookery: A digester

would effectually remove this evil, by enabling the water to become

sufficiently hot, without being dissipated.--E.

[10] Beloro, Belor, or Belur, according to Forster. This immense

extent of forty days journey through deserts, seems to include the

deserts of Sultus, Cobi, and Shamo, and to reach to the frontiers of

Kathay, or Northern China.--E.

[11] Cascar, Chascar, Cassar, Kaschgar, or Hasicar, according to

Forster. Cashgar is at the western end of the great desert, instead of

the eastern, as expressed in the text; indeed this route is most

confusedly, and almost unintelligibly laid down, probably from

corrupted transcription. The series ought to have been, the high table

land of Pamer, the province of Cashgar, and lastly, the desert of

Pelow or Belur. But care must be taken to distinguish this from the

chain of Belur-tag, which runs north and south, between Great and

Little Bucharia.--E.

SECTION VI.

_Of the city of Samarcand, the town of Lop, the Great Desert in its

Neighbourhood, and other remarkable Passages_.

Samarcand[1] is a great and famous city, in a fertile plain, and surrounded

by fine gardens. It is subject to the nephew of the great khan, and is

inhabited by a mixed population of Christians and Mahometans, among whom

there is little agreement; and in one of their disputes, the following

miracle is said to have happened, about an hundred years ago. Zagathai, the

brother of the great khan, then governed this country, and was persuaded to

become a Christian; and the Christians, through his favour, built a church

in honour of St John the Baptist, which was constructed with such skill,

that the whole roof seemed to depend for support upon one central pillar,

which was founded upon a large stone, which, by the permission of Zagathai,

had been taken from a building belonging to the Mahometans. After the death

of Zagathai, he was succeeded by a son who was not of the Christian faith,

and from him the Mahometans obtained an order, by which the Christians were

compelled to restore that stone; and though they offered a sum of money as

a compensation, the Mahometans absolutely insisted to have the stone

itself, hoping, by that means, to reduce the Christian church to ruins: But

the pillar lifted itself up, that the Mahometans, might remove the

contested stone, and still continues suspended in the air.

Departing from this city, we came into the province of Charahan[2], which

is about five days journey in length, and has plenty of provisions. The

inhabitants are mostly Mahometans, intermixed with some Nestorian

Christians, and are subject to the nephew of the great khan. They are

diligent artificers in various manufactures, but are much subject to thick

legs, and the _goitres_ or large wens on their throats, occasioned by the

bad quality of the waters of the country. The province of Cotam follows

between the east and the north-east[3]. It is subject to the nephew of the

great khan, and has many cities and towns, the chief city being called

Cotam. This province extends eight days journey in length, and possesses

every thing necessary for life, in sufficient abundance; particularly

cotton, flax, hemp, corn, and wine. The people are Mahometans, and not

warlike, but are skilful in various articles of manufacture.

Proceeding through the same country, we come to the province of Peim,

extending four days journey in length, and containing many towns and

castles, the city of Peim being the chief, near which there is a river in

which jaspers and chalcedonies and other valuable stones are found. The

inhabitants, who are Mahometans, are expert manufacturers, and are subject

to the great khan. There is a custom in this province, that when any

married man goes to a distance from home, and remains absent for twenty

days, it is lawful for his wife to marry another husband; and reciprocally,

if the wife absents herself for twenty days, the husband may take another

wife.

The next province, Ciascian[4], of which the chief city is named Sartan, is

subject to the Tartars, and has many cities and castles. In its rivers

abundance of jaspers, chalcedonies, and other fine stones are found, which

are carried by merchants all the way to Ouchach or Kathay, and sold there

with great profit From Peim to Sartem, and quite through this latter

province, the soil is very sandy, having very little water, and that

generally bad. When an army passes through this province, all the

inhabitants take their wives and children, with all their cattle and

valuables, two days journey into the sands, to places where they know that

good water is to be found, and remain there till the army has quitted the

country; after harvest also, they uniformly take all their corn into the

desert, and hide it in pits, and the wind soon obliterates all traces of

their footsteps, so that their enemies are unable to discover where they

have deposited these precious hoards. After travelling for five days

through the sands from this province, we arrive at the great city of Lop,

which is at the entrance of a great desert called the Wilderness of Lop[5].

The inhabitants of this place are Mahometans, and are subject to the great

khan. All the before-mentioned provinces, Cashgar, Yarkand, Koten, Peim,

Sartem, and Lop, are in the bounds of Turkestan.

It requires a months journey to cross this desert from south to north, but

to go through it lengthways would take up a whole year. Those who intend to

cross the desert remain for some time in Lop, on purpose to prepare all

necessaries for the journey, as no provisions are to be met with for a

whole month. These, with their merchandize, are loaded on asses and camels,

and if provisions fall short in the desert, the unfortunate travellers are

reduced to the necessity of killing their beasts of burden for sustenance,

preferring the asses for this purpose, as the camels can carry much heavier

burdens, and are satisfied with less food. This journey is entirely through

sands and barren mountains, in which water is found every day; yet at some

of the resting places it is so scanty as hardly to suffice for a caravan of

fifty of an hundred persons and their cattle. In three or four places the

water is salt and bitter, but in all the rest of the journey it is very

good. In the whole of this journey there are no beasts or birds to be seen.

It is reported, that many evil spirits reside in the wilderness, which

occasion wonderful illusions to travellers who happen unfortunately to lag

behind their companions calling them even by their names, and causing them

to stray farther from the right course, so that they lose their way and

perish in the sands. In the night time also they hear noises as of their

friends, and sometimes the sound of music is heard in the air, and people

imagine that they hear the din of drums, as if armies were marching past.

To avoid the danger of separation, the travellers in the desert keep close

together, and hang bells about the necks of their beasts; and if any one

stays behind, they set up marks in the route, that they may know how to

follow.

Having crossed the desert of Lop, we come to the city of Sachion[6] or

Sachiou, which is subject to the great khan, and is situated in the great

country of Tangut. The inhabitants of this city are mostly idolaters, who

have a peculiar language, mixed with a good many Mahometans, and some

Nestorian Christians; this people are little addicted to merchandize or

manufacture, and live on the products of their soil. In this city there are

many temples, consecrated to various idols, with monasteries of priests

devoted to the service of these false deities, to which numerous sacrifices

are offered with great reverence. When a son is born to any person, he is

immediately consecrated to the protection of some particular idol, and the

father nourishes a sheep in his house for a year with great care; and on

the anniversary day of that idol, he presents his son and the sheep as a

sacrifice, with great reverence and many ceremonies, before the shrine of

this tutelary deity. The flesh of the sheep is boiled and set before the

idol during the continuance of the prayers and invocations, as an offering

for the preservation and protection of the boy, and the idol is supposed to

inhale the savour of the meat. After the religious ceremonies are finished,

the meat is carried home to the father's dwelling, where all the kindred of

the family are convened, and feasted with great joy and devotion; but the

bones are religiously kept in certain appropriated vessels. The priests

receive the head, feet, skin, and intrails, with a portion of the flesh for

their share.

When a person of any estimation dies, his funerals are celebrated with much

ceremony. An astrologer is sent for by the kindred, and informed of the

year, month, day, and hour when the deceased was born, when he calculates

the aspect of the constellation, and assigns the day when the burial is to

take place, sometimes at the distance of seven days, or perhaps the planet

may not have a favourable aspect for six months, during all which time the

body is kept in the house. For this purpose a fit chest or coffin is

provided, which is so artificially jointed that no noisome smell can

escape, and in this the body is placed, having been previously embalmed

with spices. The coffin is ornamented with painting, and is covered over

with an embroidered cloth. Every day, while the body remains unburied, a

table is spread near the coffin, and set out with meat, bread, and wine,

which remains for as long a time as a living person would require to eat

and drink, and the soul of the deceased is supposed to feed upon the

savour. The astrologers sometimes forbid the body to be carried out for

interment at the principal door of the house, pretending to be regulated in

this by the stars, and order it to be carried out by some other way; or

will even command a passage to be broken out in the opposite wall of the

house, to propitiate the adverse planet. And if any one object to this,

they allege that the spirit of the dead would be offended, and would

occasion injury to the family. When the body is carried through the city to

be buried, wooden cottages are built at certain distances by the way,

having porches covered with silk, in which the coffin is set down, with a

table spread out with bread and wine and delicate viands, that the spirit

of the dead may be refreshed with the savour. When the body is carried to

the place of the funeral, a number of pieces of paper, made of the bark of

trees, curiously painted with figures of men and women servants, horses,

camels, money, and garments of all kinds are carried in procession, all the

instruments of music in the city sounding as the cavalcade moves along; and

all these pieces of painted paper are burned in the same funeral pile with

the body, under the idea that the deceased will have as many servants,

cattle, and garments in the next world, and as much money, as there were

pictures of these things burnt along with his body, and shall live

perpetually hereafter in the enjoyment of all these things[7].

[1] The text is here obviously transposed. While the editor endeavours to

illustrate and explain the descriptions of the author, he does not

consider himself at liberty to alter the text, even in the most

obviously faulty places.--E.

[2] Charchan, Charcham, Carcam, Hiarkand, Jarkun, Jerket, Jerken, Urkend;

such are the varieties in the editions of these travels, for the

Yarkand of modern maps. This paragraph ought obviously to have

followed the account of Cashgar.--E.

[3] Cotan, Cotam, Hotum, Khoten, Khotan, from which the useful material of

manufacture, _cotton_, takes its name. But instead of being between

the east and north-east direction from Yarkand, as in the text, or

E.N.E. it is actually E.S.E.--E.

[4] Called likewise Ciarciam, Ciartiam, and Sartam, in different editions.

--E.

[5] The journey from Sartem to Lop is obviously retrograde, and this course

must have been pursued by the Polos for commercial purposes; perhaps

for collecting those valuable stones which are mentioned by Marco as

giving so much profit when sold in China.--E.

[6] Schatscheu, Tschat-scheu, or Chat-chou, on the Polonkir, which runs

into the Hara lake.--E.

[7] It is highly probable that this emblematical representation had been

substituted by some humane legislator or conqueror, in place of the

actual sacrifice of the servants, cattle, and goods themselves, which

we are well assured was once the practice among many rude nations, in

honour of their deceased great men.--E.

SECTION VII.

_Of the Province of Chamil and several other Countries on the road from

thence to the City of Ezina; and of another great Desert_.

The province of Chamil, which abounds in all the necessaries of life, is

situated in the wide country of Tangut, and is subject to the great khan.

This province, of which the city of Chamil or Hami is the capital[1], is

bounded by two deserts; the great desert of Lop already mentioned, and

another which is only three days journey across[2]. The inhabitants are

idolaters, have a peculiar language, and appear to live only for amusement,

devoting their whole time to singing, dancing, and sports, playing upon

instruments of music, and reading and writing after their fashion. When any

traveller goes into a house for entertainment and lodging, the master of

the family receives him with great joy, and commands his wife and family to

obey the stranger in all things so long as he may choose to remain, and

even departs immediately from his own house, that he may not be any

restraint upon his guest. And while the traveller remains, he may choose a

female bed fellow every night, either the wife, daughter, or servant of the

polite host, as he feels inclined. The women of the country are very

beautiful, and are perfectly ready to obey these singular commands; and the

husbands believe that this strange hospitality is conducive to their own

honour and glory, and is an acceptable service to their idols, from whose

favour it secures prosperity and abundance to themselves and their country.

Mangu-khan having received notice of this detestable custom, issued a

peremptory order for its discontinuance, and it was accordingly laid aside

for three years; but as these years happened to be unusually barren, and

the inhabitants were vexed with some disasters in their domestic concerns,

they sent ambassadors to the khan, earnestly entreating him to revoke so

grievous a mandate, and to permit them to continue a custom which had been

handed down by their ancestors. To this the khan answered, "Since you glory

in your shame, you may go and act according to your customs." The

messengers who brought back this favourable answer, were received with

great rejoicings by the nation; and the above custom continued when I Marco

was among them.

After leaving the province of Chamil, we enter into that of

Chinchintalas[3], subject to the great khan, which is bounded by the desert

on the north, and is sixteen days journey in length. It has large cities

and many castles, the inhabitants being divided into three sects or

religions: The greater number are idolaters, a considerable number are

Mahometans, and a small proportion are Nestorian Christians. In this

province there are mountains containing mines of steel, and andanicum or

audanicum, and also a mineral substance called salamander or asbestos, from

the wool of which an incombustible cloth is manufactured, which, if cast

into the fire does not burn. This cloth is actually made of stone in the

following manner, as I was informed by a Turk named Curifar, an intelligent

industrious person of my acquaintance, who had the superintendence of the

mines in this province. A certain mineral is found in these mountains,

which yields fibres resembling wool: After being thoroughly dried in the

sun, this substance is pounded in a brass mortar, and then washed to remove

all earthy impurities; and the clean fibrous matter is spun in the same

manner as wool, and woven into cloth. When this cloth requires to be

cleaned or whitened, it is thrown into the fire for an hour, and is then

taken out unhurt, and as white as snow. It is said, there is a napkin at

Rome of this salamander wool, in which the handkerchief of the Lord Jesus

is kept wrapped up, which a certain king of the Tartars sent as a present

to the Pope. But as for the salamander or serpent, which is reported to

live in the fire, I could hear of no such creature in all the eastern

countries.

Leaving this province, we travel for ten days between the east and

north-east, during which there are few habitations or things worthy of

remark; after which we come to the province of Succir[4], in which there

are many towns and villages, the chief city being called Succir. In this

province, which is subject to the great khan, there are a few Christians

among a great number of idolaters. The best rhubarb[5] is found in great

quantities in this province, and is carried thence by merchants to various

parts of the world. Strangers dare not go to the mountains where the

rhubarb grows, on account of certain poisonous plants, which occasion any

beasts that feed upon them to cast their hoofs; but the beasts of the

country know this plant, and avoid feeding upon it Campion[6] is a great

city, and is the chief place in all Tangut. In it, besides idolaters and

Mahometans, there are a good many Christians, who have three fair churches.

The idolaters have many temples and monasteries dedicated to their idols.

These idols are very numerous, and are made of stone, wood, or clay, some

of them curiously inlaid with gold, and very artificially made: Some are

very large, almost ten paces high, standing upright, and having many

smaller idols placed around, which seem to give reverence to the great one.

The priests of these idols appear to live more regularly, and are less

addicted to voluptuousness than other idolaters. Yet wantonness is not

looked upon in this country as any great sin; for they say if a woman

invites a man, there is no harm in compliance, but if the man solicits the

woman, it is quite otherwise.

In this country they divide the year by lunations, and in every moon they

keep certain days as holy, in some five, or four, or three days, in which

they kill no beast or bird, and abstain from animal food. The people of

this country marry twenty or thirty wives, or as many as they are able to

maintain, but the first wife always has the precedence over the others. The

husband receives no portion with his wife, but on the contrary has to

assign her a dower in cattle, servants, and money, according to his

ability. If any of the wives does not live in harmony with the rest, or if

she becomes disliked by her husband, it is lawful for him to put her away.

They marry their own near relations, and even the wives of their deceased

father, excepting always their own mothers. In the manners and customs of

this country, I Marco was sufficiently experienced, having dwelt a whole

year in this place, along with my father and uncle, for the dispatch of

certain affairs of business.

In twelve days journey from Campion, we come to the city of Ezina[7], which

borders on a sandy desert towards the north. All the provinces and cities

before mentioned, viz. Sachion, Camul, Chinchintalas, Succair, Campion, and

Ezina, are comprehended in the great country of Tangut. The inhabitants of

Ezina are idolaters, who live by agriculture, and on the produce of their

flocks and herds, having great quantities of camels and other cattle, but

carry on no trade. In this country there are forests of pine trees, in

which there are wild asses, and many other wild beasts; there are likewise

abundance of falcons, particularly the lanner and sacre, which are reckoned

excellent. Such travellers as intend to pass through the great desert of

Shamo, which is forty days journey in extent, must provide all their

provisions in this place, as they afterwards meet with no habitations,

except a few straggling people here and there on the mountains and valleys.

[1] Called also Kamul, Chamul, Khami, and Came-xu.--Forst.

[2] The desert of Noman-Cobi; or Tzokurin of modern maps.--E.

[3] Called likewise Cinchincalas, Sanghin-talgin, Sankin-talai, and

Chitalas-dalai.--Forst. This appears to be the district stretching to

the S.E. of the Bogdo mountains, between the Changai ridge on the

north, and the Ungandag on the south, now occupied by a tribe of

Eluts, and in which there do not appear to be any towns.--E.

[4] Suchur, Succuir, Souk, or Suck, on the river Suck, which empties itself

into the river of Pegu to the north of Thibet.--Forst.

This I suspect to be Chioming of our modern maps, on a river which

runs north into the Soukouk lake.--E.

[5] The country of the genuine rhubarb has been described by the great

Russian traveller Palas, as situated on the river Selingol, not far

from the town of Selinga, which falls into the Chattungol, Hoang-ho,

Choango, or Karamuren.--Forst.

The travels of Palas will be found in an after portion of this work;

and it need only be remarked in this place, that there are at least

two kinds of true rhubarb, the China and Russia; and that two species

of the genus, the R. Palmatum and R. Undulatum, certainly produce the

drug nearly of the same quality, and are probably to be found in

various parts of central Asia or Tartary,--E.

[6] Kampion, Kampition, Kampiciou, Kantscheu, or Kan-tcheou, in the Chinese

province of Shensi, on the Etzine-moren, or Etchine river, which joins

the Souk.--Forst.

[7] Eziva, or Etzine, on a river of the same name, which runs into the Suck

or Souhouk.--Forst.

SECTION VIII.

_Of the City of Caracarum and of the Tartars, with some account of their

History, Monarchs, and Manners_.

Having passed over the before mentioned desert of forty days, travelling

always to the northward, we come to the large city of Charachoran, or

Caracarum[1] which is three miles in circumference, and strongly fortified

with an earthen rampart, as there is no stone in these parts. Near the city

there is a great castle with an elegant palace, in which the governor

usually resides. Near this place the Tartars used to assemble in old times,

and here therefore I shall explain the original of their empire.

They dwelt at first in the northern parts called Curza and Bargu[2], where

there are many vast plains without cities and towns, but abounding in

pastures, lakes, and rivers. They had no prince of their own nation, but

paid tribute to a certain great king, named, as I have been told, in their

language, _Umcan_, and which some people believe to signify, in the

languages of Europe, Prester-John[3]; and to whom the Tartars gave yearly a

tenth part of the increase of their flocks and herds, and of their horses.

In process of time, the Tartars so increased in numbers, that Umcan became

afraid of them, and endeavoured to disperse them into several parts of his

empire; and when any of them rebelled, he used to send parties into their

territories to reduce them to obedience; for which purpose, he even

frequently deputed some of their own nobles. At length it became obvious to

the whole nation, that their ruin was intended; and being unwilling to be

separated from each other, they retired into the northern deserts, where

they might be safe from the power of Umcan, to whom they refused the

accustomed tribute. After continuing in the north for some time, they chose

a king among themselves, named Zingis-khan, who was a wise and valiant man,

and reigned with such justice, that he was beloved and feared of all as a

god rather than as a prince, so that by his fame and prowess, he soon

reduced all the Tartars in these parts under his authority. Seeing himself

at the head of so many valiant men, he determined to leave the northern

deserts; and commanding his people to provide themselves with bows and

other weapons, he began to reduce the neighbouring cities and provinces

under his dominion, in which conquests he placed such just governors, that

the people were perfectly reconciled to his authority. In all his conquests

he carried the chief persons along with him, bestowing upon them provisions

and other gifts, and by that means attached them to his person, and

continually augmented his power. After sometime, finding himself advanced

to power and glory, he sent ambassadors to Umcan, to entreat that he would

bestow his daughter upon him for a wife. Umcan received this message with

the utmost indignation, saying to the messengers; "Does my servant presume

to demand my daughter? Begone, and tell your master, that if ever he dare

to repeat so insolent a proposal, I will make him die a miserable death."

Zingis seems only to have wanted a reasonable pretence to justify him in

the estimation of his nobles for entering into war against Umcan; he

therefore immediately levied a great army, with which he marched boldly

against Umcan, and encamped in a great plain named Tanduc[4], sending a

message to Umcan to defend himself. Upon this Umcan collected a vast army,

with which he advanced into the plains, and pitched his camp within ten

miles of that of the Tartars. Zingis commanded his astrologers to shew him

what was to be the event of the approaching battle; on which they split a

reed into two pieces, on one of which they wrote the name of Zingis, and

the name of Umcan on the other, and struck them separately into the ground,

saying to Zingis: "While we read in our holy books, it shall come to pass

through the power of the idol, that these two pieces of reed shall fight

together, and whose part shall get the better, to that king shall the

victory be given." The astrologers began to mumble their prayers and

incantations, while the multitude stood around to observe the result; and

after some time, the two pieces of reed seemed spontaneously to fight

together, and the portion inscribed with the name of Zingis got the mastery

over that of Umcan; and the Tartars being encouraged by this prodigy, went

into the battle fully assured of victory, which they actually obtained. By

this battle, in which Umcan was slain, the sovereignty of all Tangut was

transferred to Zingis, who took to wife the daughter of Umcan. Zingis

reigned six years after this, and conquered many provinces: But at last,

while he endeavoured to take a certain castle called Thaigin, he approached

too near the walls, and was wounded in the knee by an arrow, of which wound

he died, and was buried in the mountain of Altai. Zingis was the _first_

king of the Tartars; the second was Khen-khan, the third Bathyn-khan, the

fourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mangu-khan, the sixth Kublai-khan, whose power

is greater than that of all his predecessors, as, besides having inherited

all their acquisitions, he has added almost the whole world to his empire,

during a long and prosperous reign of sixty years[5]. All the great khans

and princes of the blood of Zingis, are carried for burial to the mountains

of Altai, even from the distance of an hundred days journey; and those who

attend the body, kill all whom they meet by the way, ordering them to go

and serve their lord in the other world, and a great number of fine horses

are slain on the same occasion and pretence. It is said that the soldiers,

who accompanied the body of Mangu-khan to the mountain of Altai, slew above

ten thousand men during their journey.

The Tartar women are remarkably faithful to their husbands, considering

adultery as the greatest and most unpardonable of crimes; yet it is

accounted lawful and honest for the men to have as many wives as they can

maintain, but the first married is always accounted the principal and most

honourable. These wives live all in one house, in the utmost harmony and

most admirable concord; in which they carry on various manufactures, buy

and sell, and procure all things necessary for their husbands and families,

the men employing themselves only in hunting and hawking, and in martial

affairs. They have the best falcons in the world, and great numbers of

excellent dogs, and they live upon flesh and milk, and what they procure by

hunting. They eat the flesh of horses and camels, and even of dogs, if fat;

and their chief drink is cosmos, made of mares milk in a particular manner,

and very much resembling white wine. When the father of a family dies, the

son may marry all his fathers wives, except only his own mother, neither do

they marry their sisters; and on the death of a brother, the surviving

brother may marry the widow of the deceased. The husbands receive no

portions with their wives, but must assign sufficient dowries to their

wives and mothers. As the Tartars have many wives, they often have great

numbers of children; neither is the multitude of their wives very

burthensome, as they gain much by their labour, and they are exceedingly

careful in the management of family concerns, in the preparation of food,

and in all other household duties.

The Tartars feed many herds of cattle, and numerous flocks of sheep, and

great numbers of camels and horses. They remain with these during the

summer in the pastures of the mountains and colder regions of the north,

where they find abundance of grass and wood; but in winter they remove into

the warmer regions of the south, in search of pasture, and they generally

travel forwards for two or three months together. Their houses are made of

slender rods covered with felt, mostly of a round form, and are carried

along with them in carts or waggons with four wheels, and the doors of

these moveable houses are always placed fronting the south. They have also

very neat carts on two wheels, covered so closely with felt, that the rain

cannot penetrate, in which their wives and children and household goods are

conveyed from place to place. All these are drawn by oxen or camels.

The rich Tartars are clothed in sables and ermines, and other rich furs,

and in cloth of gold, and all their apparel and furniture is very costly.

Their arms are bows, swords, battle-axes, and some have lances; but they

are most expert in the use of the bow, in which they are trained from their

infancy. They are hardy, active, and brave, yet somewhat cruel; are

exceedingly patient and obedient to their lords, and will often remain two

days and nights armed on horseback without rest. They believe in one

supreme God of heaven, to whom they daily offer incense, praying to him for

health and prosperity. But every person has a little image covered with

felt, or something else, in his house, called _Natigay_; and to this

household god they make a wife, which is placed on his left hand, and

children, which are set before his face. This image or idol is considered

as the god of earthly things, to whom they recommend the protection of

their wives and children, their cattle, corn, and other valuables. This god

is held in great reverence, and before eating any thing themselves, they

anoint the mouth of the idol with the fat of their boiled meat, and they

cast some broth out of doors in honour of other spirits; after which they

eat and drink their fill, saying, that now their god and his family have

had their due portion.

If the son of one Tartar, and the daughter of another die unmarried, the

parents meet together and celebrate a marriage between their deceased

children. On this occasion they draw up a written contract, and paint

representations of men and women for servants, of horses, camels, cattle,

and sheep, of clothes of all kinds, and of paper money; and all these

things are burned along with the contract, conceiving that these will all

follow their children substantially to the other world to serve them, and

that they will be there united in affinity, as if they had been actually

married while living.

When the Tartars go to war, the prince usually leads an army of not less

than an hundred thousand men, all cavalry; each man having usually eight or

more horses or mares. Their troops are regularly distributed into bands of

tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands; a troop of an hundred is

called a _Tuc_, and a body of ten thousand is called a _Toman_. They carry

them felt houses along with them, for shelter in bad weather. When

necessity requires, they will ride for ten days together without victuals,

subsisting upon the blood of their horses, by cutting a vein and sucking

the blood. But they likewise prepare dried milk, for taking with them in

their expeditions, in the following manner: After taking off the cream,

which is made into butter, they boil the milk and dry it in the sun into a

kind of hard curd, of which every man in the army carries about ten pounds

along with him. Every morning they take about half a pound of this curd,

which they put into a leathern bottle with a quantity of water, and as he

rides along, the motion of the horse shakes and mixes these together, and

this mess suffices for the food of one day. When they approach towards the

enemy, they send out numerous scouts on all sides, that they may not be

assaulted unawares, and to bring intelligence of the numbers, motions, and

posture of the enemy. When they come to battle, they ride about in apparent

disorder, shooting with their arrows; and sometimes make a show of

precipitate flight, discharging their arrows backwards as they fly; and

when by these means they have broken or dispersed the enemy, they suddenly

rally their forces, and make an unexpected assault, which generally decides

the victory, their horses being all so thoroughly under command, as to turn

any way merely by a signal.

If any Tartar steals a thing of small value, he is not put to death, but

receives a certain number of blows with a cudgel, according to the measure

of the offence; either seven, or seventeen, or twenty-seven, thirty-seven,

or forty-seven; though some die through the severity of this cudgelling.

But if any one steal a horse or other thing of great value, for which he

deserves to die according to their laws, he is cut asunder with a sword,

unless he redeem his life by restoring the theft nine fold. Such as have

horses, oxen, or camels, brand them with their particular marks, and send

them to feed in the pastures without a keeper.

Leaving the city of Caracarum, and the mountain Altai, we enter the

champaign country of Bargu[6], which extends northwards for about fifty

days journey. The inhabitants of this country are called Medites[7], and

are subject to the great, khan, and resemble the Tartars in their manners.

They have no corn or wine, and employ themselves chiefly, during summer, in

the chase of wild beasts, and in catching birds, on the flesh of which they

subsist in winter; and they have great abundance of a kind of stags, which

they render so tame that they allow themselves to be ridden. In the winter

this country is so excessively cold, that fowls, and all other living

things, remove to warmer regions. After forty days journey we arrive at the

ocean, near which is a mountain frequented by storks, and fine falcons, as

a breeding place, and from whence falcons are brought for the amusement of

the great khan.

[1] Caracarum, Caracorum, Taracoram, Korakarum, Karakarin, Karakum, called

Holin by the Chinese. This city was laid down by Danville, with

acknowledged uncertainty, on the Onguin-pira river, in Lat. 44°. 50'.

N. Long. 107°. E.; while others assign its situation on the Orchon, in

Lat. 46°. 30. N. Long. 108-1/2 E: about 150 miles to the N.W.--E.

[2] The original residence of the Moals or Monguis, whom Marco always calls

Tartars, appears to have been limited by the Selinga and lake Baikal

on the west, or perhaps reaching to the Bogdo Altai and Sayanak

mountains; the Soilki mountains on the east dividing them from the

Mandshurs, and the Ungar-daga mountains on the south, dividing them

from the great empire of Tangut, which they overthrew. Bargu may have

been on the Baikal, near which there still is a place called Barsuzin.

Of Cursa no trace is to be found in our maps.--E.

[3] Prester-John, Presbyter or Priest, or, as called by the Germans,

Priester Johann, from which our English denomination, was prince of

the Naymanni or Karaites, a tribe residing on tke river Kallassui or

Karasibi, which, discharges itself into the Jenisei. His original name

is said to have been Togrul, and for some services to the Chinese in

their wars, he was honoured with the title of 0ng, Uang, or Wang; from

whence arose his Tartarian style of Ung-khan, likewise erroneously

written Aunaek, or Avenaek-khan. Perhaps this prince may have been

converted by the Nestorian Christians, and may even have received

priests orders.--Forst.

It is more probable that he may have belonged to the Dalai-lama

religion, which some ignorant traveller, from resemblance in dress,

and the use of rosaries in prayer, may have supposed a Christian sect

residing in eastern Scythia.--E.

[4] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst.

[5] According to the genealogical history of the Tartars by Abulgasi

Bayadur-khan, Ugadai-khan succeeded Zingis in 1230. In 1245 he was

succeeded by his son Kajuk-khan, called Khen-khan by Marco in the

text. To him Mangu-khan succeeded in 1247, who held the empire till

1257; when he was succeeded by Koplai or Kublai-khan, who reigned

thirty-five years, and died in 1292.--Harris.

Marco probably dated the reign of Kublai-khan, which he extends to

sixty years, from his having received a great delegated government, a

long time before he became great khan, or emperor of the Tartars.--E.

[6] Bargu-fin, or Bargouin, is the name of a river on the east side of lake

Baikal, on which is a town or village named Barguzin, or Barguzinskoy

Ostrog, signifying the town of the Burguzians. But by the description

in the text, Marco appears to have comprehended the whole north-east

of Tartary, to the north of the Changai mountains, under the general

name of Bargu, in which he now includes Curza, mentioned separately at

the commencement of the preceding Section, and where the situation of

Bargu has been already more particularly described in a note.--E.

[7] Metrites, Meclites, or Markaets.--Forst. No such appellation is to be

found in modern geography; but the discontinuance of the designations,

of temporary and continually changing associations of the wandering

tribes of the desert, is not to be wondered at, and even if their

records were preserved, they would be altogether unimportant.--E.

SECTION IX.

_Of the vast Countries to the North of Tartary, and many other curious

Particulars_.

We now return to Campion, or Kantcheou, on the river Etziné. Proceeding

thence five days journey towards the east, we come to the country of

Erginul[1] in the province of Tangut, which is subject to the great khan.

In this kingdom there are many idolaters, with some Nestorians and Turks.

It contains many cities and castles, the chief place being of the same name

with the province.

Going south-east from this place towards Kathay, we come to the famous city

of Cinguy[2], situated in a province of the same name, which is tributary

to the great khan, and is contained in the kingdom of Tangut. Some of the

people are Christians, some of them Mahometans, and others are idolaters.

In this country there are certain wild cattle, nearly as large as

elephants, with black and white hair, which is short all over the body,

except on the shoulders, where it is three spans long, exceedingly fine,

pure white, and in many respects more beautiful than silk. I brought some

of this hair to Venice as a rarity. Many of these oxen are tamed and broke

in for labour, for which they are better adapted, by their strength, than

any other creatures, as they bear very heavy burdens, and when yoked in the

plough will do twice the work of others. The best musk in the world is

found in this province, and is procured from a beautiful animal, the size

of a goat, having hair like a stag, the feet and tail resembling an

antelope, but has no horns; it has two teeth in the upper jaw, above three

inches long, as white as the finest ivory[3]. When the moon is at the full,

a tumor, or imposthume, grows on the belly of this animal, resembling a

bladder filled with blood, and at this time people go to hunt this animal

for the sake of this bag or swelling, which they dry in the sun, and sell

at a high price, as it is the best of musk. The flesh also of the animal is

good for eating. I, Marco, brought the head and feet of one of these

animals to Venice.

The people of this country of Singui live by trade and manufacture, and

they have abundance of corn. They are idolaters, having fat bodies, small

noses, black hair, and no beard, except a few scattered hairs on their

chins. The women are exceedingly fair, and the men rather make choice of

their wives by their beauty than by their nobility or riches; so, that when

a great nobleman marries a poor but beautiful wife, he has often to assign

a large dowery to obtain the consent of the mother. This province extends

twenty-five days journey in length, and is very fertile. In it there are

exceedingly large pheasants, with tails eight or ten handbreadths long, and

many other kinds of birds, some of which have very beautiful and finely

variegated plumage.

After eight days farther travel to the east, we come to the district of

Egrigaia[4], which is still in the kingdom of Tangut, and subject to the

great khan; it contains many cities and castles, Calacia being the

principal city, which is inhabited by idolaters, though the Nestorian

Christians have three churches. In this city, excellent camblets are

manufactured from, white wool, and the hair of camels[5] which are exported

by the merchants to all parts of the world, and particularly to Kathay.

East from this province of Egrigaia is that of Tandach[6], in which there

are many cities and castles. The king of this nation is called George, who

is a Christian and a priest[7], and most of the people also are Christians;

he is descended of Prester John, formerly mentioned under the name of

Umcan, from whom he is the fourth in descent, and he pays tribute to the

great khan; and ever since the battle in which Umcan was slain by Zingis,

the great khans have given their daughters in marriage to the kings of this

country, who do not possess all the dominions which were formerly subject

to Prester John. There is a mixed race in this country, called Argons,

descended of idolaters and Mahometans, who are the handsomest people in

these parts, and are most ingenious manufacturers and cunning merchants.

This province was the chief residence of Prester John, and there are two

neighbouring districts, called Ung and Mongol by the natives, which the

people of Europe call Gog and Magog.

Travelling eastwards for seven days towards Kathay, there are many cities,

inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorians, who live by commerce

and manufactures, and who make stuffs wrought with gold and flowers, and

other silken stuffs of all kinds, and colours like those made among us, and

also woollen cloths of various kinds. One of these towns is Sindicin, or

Sindacui, where very excellent arms of all kinds fit for war are

manufactured. In the mountains of this province, called Idifa, or Ydifu,

there are great mines of silver.

Three days journey from Sindicin stands another city, named Iangamur[8],

which signifies the White Lake. Near this place, the khan has a palace, in

which he takes great delight, as he has fine gardens, with many lakes and

rivers, and multitudes of swans, and the adjacent plains abound in cranes,

pheasants, partridges, and other game. There are five sorts of cranes here,

some of which have black wings, others are white and bright; their feathers

being ornamented with eyes like those of a peacock, but of a golden colour,

with beautiful black and white necks; a third kind is not unlike our own,

in size and appearance; the fourth kind is very small and beautiful,

variegated with red and blue; the fifth is very large, and of a grey

colour, with black and red heads. In a valley near this city, there are

astonishing numbers of quails and partridges, for the maintenance of which

the khan causes millet and other seeds to be sown, that they may have

plenty of food; and a number of people are appointed to take care that no

person may catch any of these birds, which are so tame, that they will

flock around their keepers at a whistle, to receive food from their hands.

There are also a great number of small huts built, in different parts of

the valley, for shelter to these birds, during the severity of winter,

where they are regularly fed by the keepers. By these means, when the

emperor chooses to come to this part of the country, he is certain to find

abundance of game; and during winter, he has great quantities sent to him

on camels, or other beasts of burden.

Three days journey south-west from Iangamur is the city of Ciandu[9], which

was built by the great emperor Kublai-khan, and in which he had a palace

erected, of marvellous art and beauty, ornamented with marble and other

rare stones. One side of this palace extends to the middle of the city, and

the other reaches to the city wall. On this side there is a great inclosed

park, extending sixteen miles in circuit, into which none can enter but by

the palace. In this inclosure there are pleasant meadows, groves, and

rivers, and it is well stocked with red and fallow deer, and other animals.

The khan has here a mew of about two hundred ger-falcons, which he goes to

see once a-week, and he causes them to be fed with the flesh of fawns. When

he rides out into this park, he often causes some leopards to be carried on

horseback, by people appointed for this purpose, and when he gives command,

a leopard is let loose, which immediately seizes a stag or deer; and he

takes great delight in this sport.

In the middle of a fine wood, the khan has a very elegant house built all

of wood, on pillars, richly gilt and varnished; on every one of the pillars

there is a dragon gilt all over, the tail being wound around the pillar,

while the head supports the roof, and the wings are expanded on each side.

The roof is composed of large canes, three hand breadths in diameter, and

ten yards long, split down the middle, all gilt and varnished, and so

artificially laid on that no rain can penetrate. The whole of this house

can be easily pulled down and taken to pieces, like a tent, and readily set

up again, as it is all built of cane, and very light; and when it is

erected, it is fastened by two hundred silken ropes, after the manner of

tent cords, to prevent it from being thrown down by the winds. Every thing

is arranged in this place for the pleasure and convenience of the khan, who

spends three months here annually, in June, July, and August; but on the

twenty-eighth day of August he always leaves this, to go to some other

place, for the performance of a solemn sacrifice. Always on the twentieth

day of August, he is directed by the astrologers and sorcerers, to sprinkle

a quantity of white mares milk, with his own hands, as a sacrifice to the

gods and spirits of the air and the earth, in order that his subjects,

wives, children, cattle, and corn, and all that he possesses, may flourish

and prosper. The khan has a stud of horses and mares all pure white, nearly

ten thousand in number; of the milk of which none are permitted to drink,

unless those who are descended from Zingis-khan, excepting one family,

named _Boriat_, to whom this privilege was granted by Zingis, on account of

their valour. These white horses are held in such reverence, that no one

dare go before them, or disturb them in their pastures.

There are two sects of idolatrous priests, called Chebeth and Chesmu, who

ascend the roof of the palace in the midst of storms, and persuade the

people they are so holy, that they can prevent any rain from falling on the

roof. These people go about in a very filthy condition, as they never wash

or comb themselves. They have also an abominable custom of eating the

bodies of malefactors who are condemned to death, but they do not feed on

any who die naturally. These are likewise called Bachsi, which is the name

of their order, as our friars are named predicants, minors, and the like.

These fellows are great sorcerers, and seem to be able to do any thing they

please by magic art. When the great khan sits in his hall at a table, which

is raised several feet above the others[10], there is a great sideboard of

plate at some distance in the midst of the hall, and from thence these

sorcerers cause wine or milk to fill the goblets on the khans table,

whenever he commands. These Bachsi also, when they have a mind to make

feasts in honour of their idols, send word to the khan, through certain

officers deputed for the purpose, that if their idols are not honoured with

the accustomed sacrifices, they will send blights on the fruits of the

ground, and murrains among the beasts, and entreat, therefore, that he will

order a certain number of black-headed sheep, with incense, and aloes-wood,

to be delivered to them, for the due and honourable performance of the

regular sacrifices.

These priests have vast monasteries, some of which are as large as small

cities, and several of them contain about two thousand monks, or persons

devoted to the service of the idols, all of whom shave their beards and

heads, and wear particular garments, to denote that they are set apart from

the laity, for the service of their gods; yet some of them may marry. In

their solemnities, these men sing the praises of their idols, and carry

lights in their processions. Some of them, called Sensim, or Santoms, lead

an austere life, eating nothing but meal mingled with water, and when all

the flour is expended, they content themselves with the bran, without any

savoury addition. These men worship the fire, and those who follow other

rules, allege that these austere Santoms are heretics against the religious

law, because they refuse to worship idols, and never marry. These Santoms

shave their heads and beards, wear coarse hempen garments of a black, or

bright yellow colour, sleep on coarse thick mats, and live the severest

life imaginable, amid every conceivable deprivation and austerity[11].

[1] Erigrinul, Eriginul, Erdschi-nur; and this ought to be read _fifty_

days south-west, instead of five days east.--Forst. This may probably

be some district in the country of the Eluts of Kokonor, not mentioned

in our modern maps.--E.

[2] Singui, Sigan, or Singan-fou, in the Chinese province of Shensee.

--Forst.

[3] In the edition of Harris, it is said likewise to have two similar tusks

in the lower jaw, but this error must have been put in by some

ignorant editor.--E.

[4] According to Forster, this passage is corrupted, and ought to be thus

read: "After eight days journey _west_ from Ergimul or Erdschi-nur, we

come to Erigaia, Eggaya Organum, or Irganekon." And he names the chief

town Calacia, Cailac, Gailak, or Golka.--Forst.

[5] Perhaps, the chamois are here meant, and copied camels by mistake.

--Forst.

[6] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst

[7] This foolish story of Prester John has been explained in a former

note.--E

[8] Cianga-nor, Cianganior, Cyangamor, or Tsahan-nor, in lat. 45°. 30. N.

long. 117°. E. Marco, in these accounts of the different districts of

Tangut, seems to have followed no regular order, but goes from one to

another, as fancy or memory served.--Forst.

[9] Cyandi, Xandu, or Tshangtu.--Forst.

[10] In Harris, the elevation is said to be _eighty_ feet, perhaps a

typographical error for eight, as, in a subsequent passage, the table

of the khan is merely said to be higher than those of the rest who

have the honour to dine along with him; the particular height,

therefore, is left indeterminate in the text.--E.

[11] In all ages of the world, except the social, yet irrational ancient

superstitions of Greece and Rome, mankind have vainly thought to

propitiate the Almighty beneficence, by ridiculous acts of austere

self-torment; and even the ignorant or designing followers of the pure

and rational religion of Jesus, have copied all the monstrous mummery,

and abominable practices of the heathen, which they have engrafted

upon his law of love and harmony.--E.

SECTION X.

_Of the great power of Kublai-khan and various circumstances respecting his

Family, Government, and Dominions_.

I now propose to relate the great and marvellous acts of Kublai-khan, the

great emperor of the Tartars. His name, expressed in our language,

signifies lord of lords, and he certainly is the greatest prince in cities,

people, and treasures, that ever reigned in the world. He is lineally

descended from Zingis-khan, the first prince of the Tartars, being the

sixth emperor of that race, and began to reign in 1256, being then

_twenty-seven_ years of age[1] and he has long ruled this immense empire,

with great gravity and wisdom. He is a very valiant man, strong of body and

well exercised in arms, and evinced himself such, in many actions, before

he attained to empire, which he effected by his superior wisdom and

management, contrary to the will of his brethren. Before his accession, he

shewed himself a more valiant soldier, and a wiser general than ever the

Tartars had before his time. Yet, since he has swayed the empire, he has

always deputed his sons and other generals upon military expeditions, and

has only since then gone into the field on the following occasion.

In the year 1257, or 1258, his uncle[2] named Naiam, being then thirty

years of age, who had the command of so many countries and nations, that he

could easily have mustered 400,000 horse, became puffed up with youthful

vanity, determined to take away the empire from his lord, and drew into his

schemes another great Tartar prince, named Caydu, who was nephew to Kublai,

and commanded on the borders of great Turkey, and who engaged to bring an

100,000 men into the field, in aid of the ambitious project of Naiam. Both

of these confederates began to gather forces; but this could not be done so

secretly as not to come to the knowledge of the great khan, who immediately

set guards on all the roads into the desert, and assembled all the forces

which lay within ten days journey of Cumbalu[3], the imperial residence. In

twenty days, he had collected an army, amounting to 360,000 horse and

100,000 foot, a large part of which vast force was composed of huntsmen and

falconers, and persons belonging to the imperial household. With this army,

Kublai marched with all expedition into the province occupied by Naiam,

where he arrived at the end of twenty-five days march altogether

unexpectedly, and before Naiam had completed his preparations, or had been

joined by his confederate Caydu. After giving his troops two days rest, and

having encouraged his men in the confident expectation of victory, by means

of his astrologers and soothsayers, he advanced towards the encampment of

Naiam, and appeared with his whole army on a hill, over against the camp of

the rebels, who had not even sent out any scouts to procure intelligence.

Kublai-khan was seated on the top of a wooden castle, carried by four

elephants, and filled with archers and cross-bow men, from which the royal

standard was displayed, on which the pictures of the sun and moon were

pourtrayed. Dividing his army into three bodies, he kept one as a reserve

on the hill beside himself, and sent the two wings to attack the army of

Naiam, who resolved to stand the issue of a battle. To every ten thousand

horse in the army of Kublai, five hundred light armed footmen with lances

were assigned, who had been taught to leap up behind the horsemen on any

occasion when flight or retreat became necessary, and were instructed to

alight, and kill the horses of the enemy during battle. The two armies

joined in a well contested battle, which lasted from morning till mid-day,

when Naiam was made prisoner, and all his followers submitted themselves to

the clemency of the victor; and having renewed their oaths of allegiance,

were pardoned and dismissed, having a new governor set over them, in whose

fidelity the great khan could confide[4].

Naiam was ordered to be sewed up between two carpets, and tossed up and

down till he died, to avoid shedding the blood of any one belonging to the

imperial house of Zingis.

Naiam is said to have been secretly baptized, and to have professed himself

a Christian, having his principal ensign marked with the sign of the cross,

and to have had a great number of Christians in his army who were all

slain. On this occasion, the Jews and Mahometans, who served in the army of

Kublai, upbraided his Christian soldiers with the disaster which had

happened to the cross in this battle. The Christians complained to Kublai

of this injurious conduct, who sharply reproved the Jews and Mahometans for

their behaviour; then turning to the Christians, he addressed them as

follows: "Surely your God and his cross would not give aid to Naiam. Be not

you therefore ashamed of what has happened; seeing that God, who is good

and just, did not defend iniquity and injustice. Naiam was a traitor and a

rebel, and sought the aid of your God in his mischievous purpose: But your

good and upright God would not favour his bad designs." Kublai-khan

returned after this great victory to Cambalu; and on Easter day he called

the Christians into his presence, and kissed their gospel with great

reverence, making all his great officers and barons do the same. And he

acts in a similar manner on the great festivals of the Mahometans, Jews

[5], and heathens; that Segomamber-khan, the great god of the idol,

Mahomet, Moses, and Jesus, or whosoever is greatest in heaven, may be

favourable to him; yet he made the best shew of liking to the Christian

faith, but alleged that the ignorance of the Nestorian priests, and the

great interest of the sorcerers among the people, hindered him from making

a profession of Christianity.

For the better rewarding his brave and faithful soldiers, the khan has a

military council, composed of twelve Tartar barons, who give him notice of

the meritorious services of all commanders, that they may be promoted to

higher stations, giving to one the command of an hundred, to another the

command of a thousand, and to a third the command of ten thousand, and so

on. The captain of an hundred men has a badge or tablet of silver; the

captain of a thousand has a tablet of gold or silver gilt; and the

commander of ten thousand has a tablet of gold, ornamented with the head of

a lion. These tablets differ in size and weight, according to the dignity

of the wearers. On each tablet there is an inscription of the following

import: "By the strength and power of the Almighty God, and by the grace

which He hath given to our empire: Let the name of the great khan be

blessed, and let all die or be destroyed who will not obey his commands."

Besides these badges of distinction all officers have commissions in

writing, in which all their duties, privileges, and authorities are

recited. When the generals appear in public, they have a cloth or canopy

carried over their heads, and they give audience sitting on chairs of

silver. The badge or tablet of a general, weighs three hundred _sagi_, or

fifty ounces of gold, laving images of the sun and moon; and such as have

the representation of a ger-falcon, may take with them a whole army for

their guard.

Kublai-khan is a comely handsome man of middle stature, with a fresh

complexion, bright black eyes, a well formed nose, and every way well

proportioned. He has four lawful wives, every one of whom has the title of

empress, and the eldest born son of these wives is to succeed him in the

empire. Each of these empresses has her own magnificent palace and peculiar

court, and is attended by three hundred women, besides many eunuchs, and

the suite of each extends at least to ten thousand persons. The great Khan

has also many concubines; and every second year he sends messengers to a

remarkably fair tribe among the Tartars named _Virgut_, to make search for

die fairest young women among them for his use. These messengers usually

bring with them four or five hundred young women, more or less as they see

cause. Examiners are appointed to take a view of all their beauties, who

fix values upon them in proportion to their various merits, at sixteen,

seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, or more carats; and only those are

brought to court whose values reach to a certain appointed rate. On their

arrival at Cambalu, other examiners again view them, and choose out twenty

or thirty of the handsomest for the chambers of the khan. Those who are

thus selected, are placed for some time under the care of some of the wives

of the great barons about the court, who are directed to report whether

they do not snore in their sleep, and if they are not offensive in smell or

behaviour. Such as are finally approved, are divided into parties of five;

and one such party attends in the chamber of the khan for three days and

nights in their turn, while another party waits in an adjoining chamber to

prepare whatever the others may command them. Those who are less prized in

the course of these rigid examinations of their qualities, are employed in

cookery or other offices about the palace, or are bestowed by the khan on

his favoured officers, with large portions. The men of the country from

whence these young women are brought, deem it a great honour when their

daughters are found worthy of the khans regard, and esteem themselves

unfortunate when they are rejected at court.

Kublai had twenty-two sons by his four legitimate wives, and the first born

of his first wife, named Zingis, would have succeeded him in the empire if

he had not died before his father. Zingis left a son named Timur, who is a

wise and valiant prince of great military experience, and who is destined

to succeed his grandfather on the imperial throne, instead of his deceased

father. By his concubines he has twenty-five sons, all of whom are daily

exercised in martial employments, and are all promoted to high military

posts and governments. Seven of his sons by his lawful wives are kings of

great provinces, and rule the countries committed to their charge with

great prudence and discretion.

[1] In a former note, it has been mentioned, on the authority of Abulgazi-

khan, himself a descendant of Zingis, and prince, of Khuaresm, that

Kublai-khan was only the fifth emperor of the Tartars, and that he

ascended the throne in 1257. The difference of date in this latter

circumstance is quite unimportant, and may have proceeded, either from

a different way of reckoning, or the delay of intelligence from so

vast a distance. But Kublai died in 1292, after reigning thirty-five

years, according to Abulgazi, and is said to have been then eighty

years of age. He must therefore have been forty-five years old at his

accession, instead of twenty-seven. Harris indeed mentions in, a note,

that the age of Kublai in the MSS. and even in many of the printed

editions, was left blank.--E.

[2] In Harris, this date is 1286; but as, in a note, this war is said to

have occurred on occasion of the election of Kublai to the imperial

dignity in 1257, I have ventured to restore what seems to be the true

date. Besides Naiam, in 1286, thirty years of age, could not possibly

have been the uncle of Kublai.--E.

[3] The new city of Pekin, of which hereafter.--E.

[4] The followers of Naiam in this rebellion are said to have consisted of

four nations, or tribes of Tartars, named Ciazza, Cadi, Barscol, and

Sitinqui, but of whom no other information or notice remains.--E.

[5] This is the only notice of the Jews in the east by Marco Polo, and

serves considerably to confirm the authenticity of Rabbi Banjamin;

who, as a Jew, felt more interest in attending to his countrymen.--E.

SECTION XI.

_Account of the Imperial City of Cambalu, and the Court of the Great Khan,

or Emperor of the Tartars_.

During the three winter months of December, January, and February,

Kublai-khan generally resides in Cambalu[1] which is at the north-east

border of Kathay. On the north part of the new city stands the great palace

of the khan. In the first place is a great wall surrounding a vast square

enclosure, each side being eight miles in length; the wall is environed on

the outside by a deep ditch, and has a great gate in the middle of each

side. Within this outer wall, there is another exactly a mile distant, each

side of the square which it forms being six miles; and in the space between

these two walls the soldiers attend and perform their exercises and

evolutions. This inner square has three gates on its south side, and the

same number on the north; the middle gate of both these sides being greater

and more magnificent than the others, and is appropriated to the sole use

of the khan, the others being open to all who have a right to pass. In each

corner of this second wall, and in the middle of each side, there are very

large and magnificent buildings, eight in all, which are appropriated as

storehouses or arsenals for keeping the warlike weapons and furniture

belonging to the khan: as horse trappings of all kinds in one; bows and

arrows and cross-bows in a second; helmets, cuirasses, and leather armour

in a third; and so on in the rest. Within this second circuit, and at a

considerable distance, there is a third wall, likewise square, each side

being a mile in length; this wall being ten paces high and very thick, with

white battlements, has six gates as in the second wall. Between this third

wall and the former there is an extensive park, with many fine trees and

large meadows, well stocked with deer and other game, and the roads are

raised two cubits above the meadows, to save the grass from being trodden.

All of this park is kept in the finest order imaginable. In the four

angles, and in the middle of each side of this interior wall, there are

eight large and magnificent buildings, in which the khans provisions, and

other things belonging to the court, are stored up.

Within this last wall is the palace of the great khan, which is the largest

and most magnificent of any in the world[2], extending the whole way

between the north and south walls of the inner circuit, except an opening

of sufficient width for the passage of the soldiers and barons attending

the courts The palace hath no ceiling[3], but the roof is very high. The

foundation of the pavement or floor is raised ten palms above the ground,

and is surrounded by a marble wall of two paces wide, resembling a walk;

and at the end of the wall without, there is a fair turret ornamented with

pillars. In the walls of the halls and chambers, there are numerous figures

of dragons, soldiers, birds and beasts of various kinds, and

representations of battles, all finely carved and splendidly gilded, and

the roof is so richly ornamented, that nothing is to be seen but splendid

gold and imagery. In every square of the palace there is a great hall,

capable of containing a prodigious multitude of people, and all the

chambers are arranged and disposed in the best possible manner; the roofs

being all richly painted red, green, azure, and all other colours. Behind

the palace there are many great rooms and private storehouses, for the

treasure and jewels of the khan, for the dwellings of his women, and for

various other private purposes. Over against the palace of the khan, there

is another, which was formerly inhabited by his deceased son Zingis, who

held a court in all things resembling that of his father. Near the palace,

and to the north, there is a high artificial mount, a mile in

circumference, and an hundred paces high, planted with evergreen trees,

which were brought from remote places, with all their roots, on the backs

of elephants: This eminence is called the _Green Mountain_, and is

extremely pleasant and beautiful. Where the earth was taken away to form

this mount, there are two lakes corresponding with each other, supplied by

a small river, and well stored with fish; and the passages of the water are

grated in such a manner that the fish cannot escape.

The city of Cambalu is seated on a great river in the province of Kathay,

or Northern China, and its name signifies the city of the prince, having

been the royal residence in former times. After the conquest,

understanding, from his astrologers, that the inhabitants would rebel, the

great khan removed the city to the other side of the river, calling the new

city Taidu, which is twenty-four miles in circumference, every side of the

square being six miles, and he commanded all the Kathayans to remove from

the old city into the new one. The walls are of earth, ten paces thick at

the bottom, and gradually tapering to three paces thick at the top, with

white battlements. Each side of the square has three principal gates, or

twelve in all, having sumptuous palaces built over each; and there are

pavilions in all the angles of the wall, where the arms of the garrison are

kept, being 1000 men for each gate. The whole buildings of this city are

exactly squared, and all the streets are laid out in straight lines; so

that a free prospect is preserved from gate to gate, through the whole

city; and the houses are built on each side like palaces, with courts and

gardens, divided according to the heads of families. In the middle of the

whole, there is a noble building, in which a great bell is suspended, after

the tolling of which, at a certain hour of the night, no person must go out

of his house till the dawn of next morning, except it be for some urgent

cause, as for assistance to a woman in labour, and even then they must

carry lights. On the outside of the walls there are twelve large suburbs,

extending three or four miles in length, from each gate, and there are more

inhabitants in these suburbs than within the walls. In these, foreign

merchants, and other strangers live, each nation having several storehouses

and bazars, in which they lodge and keep their goods. No dead body is

allowed to be burnt or buried within the city; but the bodies of the

idolaters are burned without the suburbs, and the bodies of all other sects

are buried in the same places. On account of the vast multitude of

Mahometans who inhabit here, there are above 25,000 harlots in the city and

suburbs: Over every 100 and every 1000 of these, there are chiefs or

captains appointed, to keep them in order, and one general inspector over

the whole. When any ambassador or other person, having business with the

khan, comes to Cambalu, his whole charges are defrayed from the imperial

treasury, and the general inspector of the harlots provides the ambassador,

and every man of his family, a change of women every night at free cost.

The guards of the city carry all whom they may find walking in the streets,

after the appointed hour, to prison; and it these persons cannot give a

valid excuse, they are beaten with cudgels, as the Bachsi allege that it is

not right to shed mens blood; yet many persons die of this beating.

There are 12,000 horse-guards, called Casitan, who attend on the person of

the khan, more from state than from any suspicion of danger. These have

four chief commanders, one to every 3000 men; and one commander, with his

band of 3000, keeps guard over the khan for three days and nights, after

which he is succeeded by another, and so on in regular order.

When the khan holds a solemn court on any particular day of festival, his

table is raised higher than all the rest, and is set on the north side of

the hall, having his face to the south, his first queen or principal wife

being placed on his left hand, and his sons and nephews, and other princes

of the blood-royal being arranged on his right; but their table is placed

so much lower, that their heads are hardly so high as the khans feet. The

princes and other lords of the court sit lower still on the right hand; and

the ladies being all placed in similar order on the left, those of the sons

and kinsmen of the khan being next to the queen, and after these, the wives

of the lords and officers, each according to their several ranks, in due

order. By this means the khan, as he sits at table, can see all that feast

along with him in the hall. There are not tables for all who are admitted

to the feast, but the greatest part of the soldiers and captains sit down

on carpets, where they are served with victuals and drink. At all the doors

there are two gigantic fellows with cudgels, who observe carefully if any

one touches the threshold in going in; and whoever does so, forfeits his

garment, or receives a certain number of blows of a cudgel. Those who serve

the khan, or who sit at his table, have their mouths covered with silken

veils, lest their breath should touch the meat or drink which he is to use.

When he drinks, the damsel who carries the cup kneels down, and then all

the barons and others present kneel likewise, and all the musicians sound

their instruments, till the khan has done drinking. If I were to describe

all the pomp and magnificence of these festivals, and all die dainties and

delicate dishes which are served up, I should become prolix and tiresome.

The birth days of their lords are celebrated with great reverence among the

Tartars. That of Kublai-khan, their great emperor, is held yearly, on the

twenty-eighth day of September, and is kept with greater solemnity than any

other festival, except that of the new year, which is celebrated on the

first day of February, when the Tartar year commences. On his birth day the

great khan is clothed in a most splendid robe of cloth of gold, and about

2000 of his barons and soldiers receive, on this occasion, silken garments

of a golden, colour, and girdles wrought in gold or silver, with each a

pair of shoes. Some of those who are next to the khan in dignity, wear

pearls and jewels of great value. These splendid garments are only worn on

thirteen solemn festivals, corresponding to the thirteen moons or lunar

months, into which the Tartar year is divided, when all the great men of

the court are splendidly habited, like so many kings. The birth-day of the

great khan is celebrated by all the Tartars throughout his extensive

dominions; and on this day, all the kings, princes, governors, and nobles,

who are subject to his authority, send presents to him in honour of the

day, and in token of submission. Such as are desirous of obtaining any

place of dignity or office, present their petitions to a council of twelve

barons, appointed for that express purpose; and their decision is

considered as equivalent to an answer from the khan in person. All the

people of the immense dominions who acknowledge the authority of the great

khan, whether Christians, or Jews, Mahometans, Tartars, or Pagans, are

bound, on this anniversary, to pray solemnly to their Gods for the life,

safety, prosperity, and health of the great khan.

On the first of February, which is the commencement of the Tartar year, the

great khan, and all the Tartars, wherever they may happen to be at the

time, observe a very solemn feast; and all of them, both men and women, are

desirous, on that occasion, to be clothed in white garments, that fortune

may be favourable to them for the remainder of the year. On this occasion,

the governors of provinces, and rulers of cities, and all who are in office

or authority, send presents to the khan, of gold, silver, pearls, and

precious stones, likewise of many white cloths of various kinds, and other

white things, and many white horses. It is the custom of those who bring

presents, if they can, to present nine times nine of every particular

article, whether it be gold, or silver, or cloths, or horses; and on this

occasion, the khan sometimes receives 100,000 horses. On this grand

festival, all the elephants belonging to the great khan, about 5000, are

brought into the great court of the palace, covered with splendid housings

of tapestry, wrought with the figures of various kinds of birds and beasts,

each of them bearing on their backs two chests filled with vessels of gold

and silver; and many camels are paraded on the same occasion, covered over,

with fine silken cloths, and loaded with other necessaries for the court.

On the morning of this festival of the new year, all the captains, barons,

soldiers[4], physicians, astrologers, governors of provinces, generals of

armies, and other officers of the great khan, assemble before the emperor,

in the great hall of the palace, all placed in due order, according to

their rank and dignity, and those who have no place or employment, stand

without, that they may see the ceremonies. One of the heads of their

priests then rises, and cries out with a loud voice, "Bow down and adore,"

on which all who are present bend down their foreheads to the earth. He

then calls out aloud, "God preserve our khan, and grant him long life and

happiness;" and all the people answer, "God grant this." Then he says, "May

God increase and advance his empire, and preserve all his subjects, in

peace, concord, and prosperity;" and the people say, "God grant this our

prayer." All this is repeated four times. Then the chief priest goes

forwards to a red table or altar, richly adorned, on which the name of the

khan is written; and taking a censer, containing rich spices and perfumes,

he perfumes the altar or table with great reverence, in honour of the khan,

and returns to his place in the assembly. After the conclusion of this

ceremony, the various gifts which have been already mentioned are presented

to the khan. And then the tables are prepared, and a most solemn and

splendid dinner is served up, of which all the assistants, with their

wives, partake, eating and drinking with great joy, as formerly described.

In the course of this solemn feast, a tame lion is led up to the khan,

which lies down at his feet as gentle as a whelp, acknowledging and

caressing his lord.

In those three winter months during which the khan resides in Cambalu, viz.

December, January, and February, all the imperial huntsmen who are

maintained in the provinces contiguous to Kathay, employ themselves

continually in hunting, and bring all the larger wild beasts, such as

stags, deer, roe-bucks, bears, and wild-boars, to their governors or

masters of the game; and if within thirty days journey of Cambalu, all

these are sent in waggons to the court, being first embowelled; but such as

are at a greater distance, send only the skins, which are used in making

housings and other military articles.

The khan has many leopards, wolves, and even lions, trained for hunting.

These lions are larger than those which are found near Babylon, and are

variegated with small spots of white, black, and red. They are bred to

catch bears, boars, stags, roe-bucks, wild asses, and wild bulls, and it is

wonderful to see their dexterity and fierceness in the chase. When these

lions are taken out to hunt, they are carried in waggons, two together,

accompanied by a dog, with which they are familiar. They are managed in

this manner, because of their fierce and unruly disposition, and they must

be drawn towards the game against the wind, otherwise the beast would scent

them and fly away. There are also many tame eagles, so trained as to take

hares, roe-bucks, deers, and foxes; and some of these will even seize upon

wolves, and vex them so grievously, that the men may take them without

danger. For the conduct of the imperial hunt, there are two great officers

called Ciurco, or masters of the game, who are brothers, named Boyan and

Mingan, each of whom have the command of 10,000 men; those who belong to

one of these divisions being clothed in red, and the others in sky blue;

and they keep various kinds of dogs, such as mastiffs and others, for

hunting, to the number of 5000 or more. When the khan goes to hunt, one of

these great companies of hunters stretches out on his right hand, and the

other on his left, occupying the plain country to the breadth of a whole

days journey, so that no beast can escape them; and when they have

collected the game into a circle, it is delightful to see the khan going

into the middle, with numbers of dogs, which hunt down the harts and bears,

and other wild beasts. The masters of the game are bound by their

commissions to send to court, between the beginning of October and end of

March, 1000 head of beasts, besides birds of various kinds, and fish, the

best they can procure.

[1] The proper name of this place is Kan-balgassan, or, for shortness,

Khan-balga, signifying the city of the khan. Arabian authors have

changed it to Khan-balick or Khan-baligh; and the Italians to

Chanbalig, Chanbalu, Cambalu, and even Gamelecco. The Chinese call

this northern part of the imperial city King-tshing, which has the

same meaning with the Tartar name, and may be translated Kingstown.

Pe-king, the other part of the same city, signifies the northern court

or residence.--Forst.

[2] The description of this palace is exceedingly confused and

unintelligible, most probably from erroneous transcription and

mistakes in translation.--E.

[3] By this obscure expression, it seems to be implied that there are no

upper rooms.--E.

[4] The soldiers mentioned here and in other places, as present in the

great hall upon solemn occasions, can only mean the officers of the

military actually on guard over the person of the khan at the time.

--E.

SECTION XII.

_Of the Magnificence of the Court of the Great Khan, and of the Manners and

Customs of his Subjects_.

In the beginning of March the great khan departs from Cambalu, and proceeds

north towards the ocean[1], which is at the distance of two days journey,

accompanied by 10,000 falconers, with falcons, ger-falcons, hawks, and

other birds of prey, that are trained to the sport. These falconers

disperse themselves in companies of 100 or 200 together, and most of the

birds that are taken are brought to the khan; who, on account of the gout,

which has disabled him from riding, sits in a wooden house, covered with

lions skins, and hung within with cloth of gold, which is carried on the

backs of two elephants. For his particular recreation, he is accompanied by

twelve choice hawks, carried by twelve nobles, many other noblemen and

soldiers attending him. When any cranes, or pheasants, or other birds are

seen, notice is given to the falconers who are near the khan, and by these

to the khan himself, who then orders his travelling house to be removed,

and the hawks to be flown at the game, and he, sitting in his bed, enjoys

the sport. Ten thousand men attend the khan, who disperse two and two

together, to mark where the falcons fly, that they may assist them when

needful, and bring back them, and their game to the khan. These men are

called _Tascoal_, which signifies watchmen or marksmen, and have a peculiar

whistle by which they call in the hawks and falcons, so that it is not

necessary that the falconers who let fly the hawks should follow them, as

these tascoal are busily employed in taking up the hawks, and are very

careful that none of them be hurt or lost. Every hawk has a small plate of

silver attached to the foot, on which is the peculiar mark of its master,

that each may be restored to its right owner. But if the mark be lost, or

cannot be known, the hawk is delivered to a certain baron, whose name of

office is Bulangazi, to whom all lost things whatever must be brought,

otherwise the finder would be punished as a thief; and to the Bulangazi all

who have lost any thing make application. This man is distinguished by a

peculiarly conspicuous ensign, that he may be easily found out in so

numerous an assemblage.

While thus busily employed in hawking, the royal retinue came at length to

a great plain called Carzarmodin, where the tents of the khan and all the

courtiers are pitched, to the number of 10,000 or more. The grand pavilion

of the khan is so large, that 10,000 men might stand within it, besides

barons and noblemen. It is placed with its entrance to the south, supported

upon curiously carved pillars, and is covered on the outside with the skins

of lions and other wild beasts, to keep out the rain; but the whole inside

is lined with sables and ermines, to an immense value. For so precious are

these skins esteemed, that a sufficient number to make one garment only

will sometimes cost 2000 gold sultanies, and the Tartars call the sable the

queen of furs. All the cords of the imperial pavilions are of silk. Around

this there are other pavilions for the sons, wives, and concubines of the

khan. At a farther distance there are tents for the falcons, ger-falcons,

hawks, and other birds of game; and the whole encampment seems at a

distance like a great city, or the station of a large army. The khan

remains all the month of March in that plain, employed in hawking; and the

multitude of beasts and fowls which are taken in that time is quite

incredible. From the beginning of March to the month of October, no person

is permitted to hunt within five days journey of this plain of Carzarmodin

in one direction, ten in another, and fifteen in a third, nor to keep any

hawk or hunting dog, neither to use any device or engine whatever, for

taking any stag, deer, roe-buck, hare, or other game, lest the breed should

be injured; by which means the game is always in great abundance.

It is quite wonderful to behold what numbers of merchants and other people,

and what astonishing quantities of merchandize and goods of all sorts are

to be seen in Cambalu. The money of the great khan is not of gold or

silver, or other metal, but of a species of paper, which is thus made: They

take the middle Dark of the mulberry tree, which they make firm in a

particular manner, and this is cut out into round pieces of various sizes,

on which the seal or mark of the khan is impressed. Of this paper money, an

immense quantity is fabricated in the city of Cambalu, sufficient to supply

the currency of the whole empire; and no person, under pain of death, may

coin or spend any other money, or refuse to accept of this, in all the

kingdoms and countries which are subject to his dominions. All who come

into his dominions are prohibited from using any other money, so that all

merchants coming from countries however remote, must bring with them gold,

silver, pearls, or precious stones, for which they receive the khans paper

money in exchange: And as that money is not received in other countries,

they must exchange it again in the empire of the great khan, for

merchandize to carry with them on their return. The khan pays all salaries,

stipends, and wages to his officers, servants, and army, in this money, and

whatever is required for the service of his court and household is paid for

in the same. By all these means, there is no sovereign in the world who

equals the great khan in extent of treasure; as he expends none in the

mint, or in any other way whatever.

The great khan has a council of war, composed of twelve barons, as formerly

mentioned, who direct all martial affairs, and have the power of promoting

or disgracing officers and soldiers as they think proper. Their office is

called _Thai_, or the high court or tribunal, as no person in the empire is

superior to them except the great khan. Other twelve barons are appointed

as counsellors for the thirty-four provinces, into which the vast empire of

the khan is divided; these have a splendid palace in Cambalu as their

office, in which there is a judge for each province, and many notaries.

This tribunal chooses proper persons to be appointed governors of the

provinces, and presents their names to the khan for confirmation. They

likewise have the charge of the collection and expenditure of the public

treasure. The name of their office is _Singh_, or the second court, which

is subordinate only to the khan, yet is considered as less noble than the

_Thai_ or military tribunal.

Many public roads lead from Cambalu to all the neighbouring provinces; and

on every one of these there are inns or lodgings, called _lambs_, built at

the distance of every twenty-five or thirty miles, which serve as post-

houses, having large fair courts, and many chambers, furnished with beds

and provisions, every way fit to lodge and entertain great men, and even

kings. The provisions are furnished from the circumjacent country, out of

the tributes. At every one of these, there are four hundred horses, two

hundred of which are kept ready for use in the stables, and the other two

hundred at grass, each division for a month alternately. These horses are

destined for the use of ambassadors and messengers, who leave their tired

horses, and get fresh ones at every stage. In mountainous places, where

there were no villages, the khan has established colonies of about ten

thousand people in each, in the neighbourhood of these post-houses, that

they may cultivate the ground, and supply provisions. These excellent

regulations extend to the utmost limits of the empire, in all directions,

so that there are about ten thousand imperial inns or lambs in the whole

empire; and the number of horses appointed in these, for the service of

messengers, exceeds two hundred thousand[2]; by which means, intelligence

is forwarded to the court without delay, from all parts of the empire. If

any person should wonder how so many beasts and men can be procured and

provided for, let him consider that the Mahometans and pagans have many

women, and great numbers, of children, some having even so many as thirty

sons, all able to follow them armed into the field. As for victuals, they

sow rice, panik, and millet, which yield an hundred after one, and they

allow no land that is fit to carry crops to remain uncultivated. As wheat

does not thrive in this country it is little sown, and they use no bread,

but feed upon the formerly mentioned grains, boiled in milk, or made into

broth along with flesh. Their horses continually increase, insomuch, that

every Tartar soldier carries six, eight, or more horses into the field for

his own use, which he rides upon in their turns. All cities that are

adjoining to rivers or lakes, are ordered to have ferry-boats in constant

readiness for the posts; and those which are on the borders of deserts,

must supply horses and provisions for such as have to pass through these

deserts; for which service, they are allowed a reasonable compensation from

the state.

In cases of great conscience, the messenger has a gerfalcon badge, formerly

mentioned, and is so equipped, that he will ride 200, or 250 miles in a day

and night, being attended in dark nights by persons who run along with him

on foot, carrying lights. On approaching a post-house, the messenger sounds

a horn, that a fresh horse or horses, according to his company, may be

brought out, and ready to mount immediately. These speedy messengers have

then bellies, loins, and heads firmly swathed, and they always travel as

fast as their horses can go; and such as are able to endure this excessive

riding, are held in great estimation, as nothing is more admired among the

Tartars than good horsemanship.

Between the _lambs_, or large post-houses, there are other habitations, at

three or four miles distance from each other, where foot-posts are

established, every one of whom has his girdle hung round with shrill

sounding bells. These are always in readiness; and when dispatched with the

khans letters, they convey them with great speed to the next foot-post

station, where they hear the sound of the bells from a distance, and some

one is always in readiness to take the letters, and to run on to the next

station: Thus, by constant change of swift runners, the letters are

conveyed with great dispatch to their destinations. By this means, the khan

often receives letters or new fruits in two days, from the distance often

ordinary days journey: As for instance, fruits growing at Cambalu in the

morning, are conveyed to Xandu by the night of the next day. All the people

employed in the posts, besides being exempted from all tribute, have an

ample recompense for their labour from the gatherer of the khans rents.

There are inspectors employed, who examine the state and conduct of these

posts every month, and are empowered to punish those who are guilty of

faults.

The khan sends every year to the different provinces of his empire, to

inquire whether any injuries have been sustained to the crops by tempests,

locusts, worms, or any other calamity; and when any province or district

has suffered damage, the tribute is remitted for that year, and he even

sends corn for food and seed from the public granaries: For in years of

great abundance, he purchases large quantities of grain, which is carefully

preserved for three or four years, by officers appointed for the purpose;

by which means, when a scarcity occurs in any province, the defect may be

supplied from the granaries of the khan in another province. On these

occasions, he orders his grain to be sold at a fourth part of the market

price, and great care is taken to keep his granaries always well supplied.

When any murrain attacks the cattle of one of the provinces, the deficiency

is supplied from the tenths which he receives in the other provinces. If

any beast or sheep happens to be killed by lightning in a flock or herd, he

draws no tribute from that flock, however great, for three years, under an

idea that God is angry with the owner of the herd.

That travellers may discern, and be able to discover the road in

uninhabited places, trees are planted at convenient distances, along all

the principal roads; and in the sandy and desert places, where trees will

not grow, stones and pillars are erected to direct the passengers, and

officers are appointed to see that all these things are performed.

According to the opinion of the astrologers, the planting of trees conduces

to lengthen the age of man, and therefore, the khan is the more induced to

encourage their propagation by his order and example.

In the province of Cathay, the people make excellent drink of rice and

certain spices, which even excels wine in flavour; and those who drink too

much of it become sooner drunk than with wine[3]. Through this whole

province, certain black stones are dug from the mountains, which burn like

wood, and preserve fire a long time, and if kindled in the evening, will

keep on fire all night[4]; and many people use these stones in preference

to wood, because, though the country abounds in trees, there is a great

demand for wood for other purposes.

The great khan is particularly attentive to the care of the poor in the

city of Cambalu. When he hears of any honourable family that, has fallen to

decay through misfortune, or of any who cannot work, and have no

subsistence, he gives orders for issuing a whole years subsistence,

together with garments, both for winter and summer, to the heads of those

distressed families. There is an appropriate office or tribunal for this

imperial bounty, to which those who have received the warrants or orders of

the khan apply for relief. The khan receives the tenths of all wool, silk,

and hemp, which he causes to be manufactured into stuffs of all kinds, in

houses set apart for this purpose; and as all artificers of every

description are bound to work for him one day in every week, he has immense

quantities of every kind of useful commodity in his storehouses. By these

means, likewise, there are similar imperial manufactures in every city of

the empire, in which clothing is made from his tithe wool for his

innumerable soldiers. According to their ancient customs, the Tartars gave

no alms, and were in use to upbraid those who were in poverty, as hated of

God. But the priests of the idolaters, especially those who have been

formerly mentioned under the name of Bachsi, have convinced the khan that

charity is a good work, and an acceptable service to God; so that in his

court food and raiment are never denied to those who ask, and there is no

day in which there is less than the value of 20,000 crowns distributed in

acts of charily, particularly in rice, millet, and panik; by which

extensive benevolence the khan is esteemed as a god among his subjects.

There are in Cambalu about five thousand astrologers and diviners,

Christians, Mahometans, and Kathayans, all of whom are provided yearly by

the khan in food and raiment. These have an Astrolabe, on which all the

signs of the planets are marked, together with the hours, and most minute

subdivisions of the whole year. By this instrument, these astrologers, each

religion apart, observe the course of the year, according to every moon,

noting the prognostications of the weather, yet always referring to God, to

do as they predict or otherwise, according to his pleasure. They write down

upon square tablets, called _Tacuini_, all those things which are to fall

out during the year, which they sell to any who will purchase; and those

who are most fortunate in their predictions are held in the highest honour.

If any one intends to commence an important labour, or to undertake a

distant journey, and is anxious to be certified of the event, he has

recourse to the astrologers to read, as they pretend, his destiny in the

heavens, for this purpose, being instructed in the precise date of birth of

the person consulting them, they calculate the present aspect of the

constellation which ruled at his birth, and foretel that good or evil will

flow from his intentions. The Tartars compute time by cycles of twelve

lunar years; calling the first of each series the year of the lion; the

second of the ox; the third of the dragon; the fourth of the dog; and so on

through the whole twelve, and when these are gone through, they begin the

series anew. Thus, if a man is asked when he was born, he answers that it

was on such a division of such an hour, day, and moon, in the year of the

lion, ox, or so forth. All this their fathers set down exactly in a book.

It has been already said that the Tartars are idolaters. Each man of any

consequence has a table aloft in the wall of one of his chambers, on which

a name is written, to signify the great God of Heaven, whom he adores once

each day, with a censer of burning incense; and lifting up his hands, and

thrice gnashing his teeth, he prays to God to grant him health and

understanding; this being the only petition addressed to the Almighty, of

whom they pretend not to make any similitude. But they have a statue or

image on the ground, called _Natigai_, the god of earthly things, and

images of his wife and children. This is likewise worshipped with incense,

gnashing of teeth, and lifting up the hands; and from this, they beg for

favourable weather, productive crops, increase of children, and all manner

of worldly prosperity. They believe the soul to be immortal, and that when

a man dies, his soul enters into another body, better or worse, according

to the merits or demerits of his former life: As that a poor man becomes a

gentleman, then a prince or lord, and so higher, till at length the soul is

absorbed in God. Or if he have deserved ill, it descends to animate the

body of a lower and poorer man, after that the body of a dog, always

descending to the lowest rank of baseness. In their manners, the language

of the Tartars is comely; they salute one another with grace and

cheerfulness, conducting themselves honestly, and they feed in a cleanly

manner. They bear great reverence to their parents, and if any one be

undutiful or regardless of their necessities, they are liable to the

jurisdiction of a public tribunal, especially assigned for the punishment

of ungrateful or disobedient children. Persons condemned to imprisonment

for crimes, are discharged after three years confinement, when they are

marked on the cheek, that they may be known as malefactors.

All barons or others, who approach within half a mile of the residence of

the great khan, must be still and quiet, no noise or loud speech being

permitted in his presence or neighbourhood. Every one who enters the hall

of presence, must pull off his boots, lest he soil the carpets, and puts on

furred buskins of white leather, giving his other boots to the charge of

servants till he quits the hall; and every one carries a small covered

vessel to spit in; as no one dare spit in the halls of the palace.

[1] The deserts or Tartarian wastes are probably meant in this passage.--E.

[2] Instead of this number, 10,000 post-houses, at 400 horses each, would

require four millions of horses. The number and proportion of horses

in the text would only supply 500 inns; or would allow only 20 horses

each to 10,000 inns. The text, therefore, must be here corrupted.--E.

[3] This must allude to a species of corn-spirits or brandy, distilled from

rice, fermented with water, named Arrak.--E.

[4] This evidently points out the use of coal in northern China.--E.

SECTION XIII.

_Some Account of the Provinces of Kathay, or Northern China, and of other

neighbouring Countries subject to the Great Khan[1]_.

Ten miles from Cambalu is a great river called Pulisangan[2], which empties

itself into the ocean, and by which many vessels ascend with merchandize to

a certain handsome bridge, all built of serpentine stone, curiously

wrought. This bridge is 300 paces in length, and eight paces broad, so that

ten men may ride abreast. It is secured on each side with a wall of marble,

ornamented with a row of pillars. The pillar on each side, at the summit of

the bridge, has the image of a great lion on the top, and another at its

base; and all the others, which are at intervals of a pace and a half, have

figures of lions on their tops only. After passing this bridge, and

proceeding to the westwards for thirty miles, continually passing through

vineyards, and fertile fields, with numerous palaces on all sides, you come

to the fair and large city of Gouza, in which there are many idol temples,

and in which cloth of gold and silk, and the purest and finest cambrics or

lawns, are manufactured. It contains many common inns for strangers and

travellers; and the inhabitants are very industrious in trade and

manufactures. A mile beyond this city, the road divides into two; that to

the west leading through the province of Kathay, and that to the south-east

towards the province of Mangi, from Gouza to the kingdom of Tain-fu[3]. In

this journey, you ride for ten days through Kathay, always finding many

fair and populous cities, well cultivated fields, and numerous vineyards,

from whence all Kathay is supplied with wine; and many plantations of

mulberry trees, for rearing silk worms. Tain-fu is the name of the kingdom

or province, and of the chief city, which is large and handsomely built,

carrying on much trade, and containing great magazines of military stores

for the khans army. Seven days journey farther to the west, there is a

pleasant country, having many cities and castles, and carrying on great

trade. We then come to a very large city, called Pian-fu, in which there is

vast abundance of silk and much trade.

Westwards from Pian-fu, there is a pleasantly situated castle called

Thaigin, containing a spacious palace with a fine hall, in which there are

portraits of all the famous kings who have reigned in this country. This

castle and palace are said to have been built by a king named Dor, who was

very powerful, and was only attended on by great numbers of young damsels,

who used to carry him about the castle in a small light chariot. Confiding

in the strength of this castle, which he believed impregnable, Dor rebelled

against Umcan, to whom he was tributary. But seven of his courtiers or

attendants, in whom he placed confidence, made him prisoner one day while

hunting, and delivered him to Umcan, who dressed him in mean clothes, and

set him under a strong guard to tend his cattle. At the end of two years,

Umcan called Dor into his presence, and after a severe reproof and

admonition for his future obedience, dressed him in princely robes, and

sent him back to his kingdom with a powerful escort.