About twenty miles beyond the castle of Thaigin, we come to the great river

Caramaran[4]; which is so broad and deep that it has no bridge between this

place and the ocean. There are many cities, towns, and castles, on the

banks of this river, which carry on great trade. The country abounds in

ginger and silk; and fowls of all kinds, particularly pheasants, are so

plentiful, that three of them may be purchased for a Venetian groat. Along

the banks of this river, there grow vast quantities of great reeds or

hollow canes[5], some of which, are a foot or eighteen inches round, and

are applied to many useful purposes. Two days journey beyond this river is

the famous city of Carianfu, in which great quantities of silks and cloth

of gold are made. This country produces ginger, galuigal, spike, and many

spices; and the inhabitants are idolaters. Proceeding seven days journey

westwards, we pass through many cities, and towns, and fine fields, and

gardens, and everywhere there are plantations of mulberries for feeding

silk-worms, and abundance of wild beasts and fowls. The inhabitants are

mostly idolaters, with some Christians, or Nestorians, and Saracens or

Mahometans. Continuing the journey for seven days, we come to a great city

called Quenzanfu, which is the capital of the kingdom of that name, in

which many famous kings have reigned. At the present time Mangalu, one of

the sons of the great khan, has the supreme command of this kingdom. This

country yields great plenty of silk, and cloth of gold, and all things

necessary for the subsistence of an army, and the maintenance of its

numerous inhabitants. The people are mostly idolaters, but there are some

Christians and Mahometans among them. Five miles from the city stands the

palace of Mangalu, in a fine plain, watered by numerous springs and

rivulets, and abounding in game. This fine palace, all painted with gold

and azure, and adorned with numberless statues, stands in the middle of a

fine park of five miles square, surrounded by a high wall, in which all

kinds of beasts and fowls are to be found in abundance; and in this place

Mangalu and his courtiers take great delight to hunt. He follows his

fathers excellent example, in conducting his government with great equity

and justice, and is much beloved and respected by the people.

Proceeding three days to the westward, from the palace of Mangalu, through

a very beautiful plain, adorned with many cities and castles, which have

great abundance of silk and other manufactures, we come to a mountainous

district of the province of Chunchian, in the vallies of which there are

many villages and hamlets; the inhabitants being idolaters and husbandmen.

In these mountains they hunt lions, bears, stags, roebucks, deer, and

wolves. The plain is two days over, and for twenty days journey to the

west, the country is well inhabited, and finely diversified with mountains,

vallies, and woods. At the end of these twenty days, there lies, towards

the west, a populous province called Achbaluch Mangi, or the _white_ city

on the borders of Mangi. On entering this province, we find a plain of two

days journey in extent, and containing a prodigious number of villages;

beyond which the country is diversified with mountains, vallies, and woods,

yet all well inhabited. In these mountains there are plenty of wild beasts,

among which are the animals that produce musk. This province produces rice

and other grain, and abundance of ginger. After twenty days journey through

these hills, we come to a plain and a province on the confines of Mangi,

called Sindinfu. The city of the same name is very large, and exceedingly

rich, being twenty miles in circumference; of old, this city and province

was governed by a race of rich and powerful kings. On the death of an old

king, he left the succession among three sons, who divided the city into

three parts, each surrounded by its own wall, yet all contained within the

former wall of the city; but the great khan subjected the city and province

to his dominion. Through this city and its environs there run many rivers,

some half a mile over, and some an hundred paces, all very deep; and on

these there are many handsome stone bridges, eight paces broad, having

marble pillars on each side, supporting wooden roofs, and on every bridge

there are houses and shops. After passing this city, all these rivers unite

into one great river called the Quian, or Kian, which runs from hence one

hundred days journey before it reaches the ocean; having many cities and

castles on its banks, with innumerable trading vessels. Proceeding four

days journey farther, we pass through a fine plain, containing many cities,

castles, and villages, and several beautiful green lawns or pastures, in

which there are many wild beasts.

Beyond this last mentioned plain is the wide country of Thebet, or Thibet,

which the great khan vanquished and laid waste; and in it there are many

ruined cities and castles, for the space of twenty days journey, which has

become an uninhabited wilderness, full of lions and other wild beasts.

Those who have to travel through this country must carry victuals along

with them, and must use precautions to defend themselves against the

ferocious animals of the desert. Very large canes grow all over this

country, some of which are ten paces long and three palms thick, and as

much between the knots or joints. When travellers take up their quarters

for the night, they take large bundles of the greener reeds or canes, which

they put upon the top of a large fire, and they make such a crackling noise

in burning as to be heard for two miles off by which the wild beasts are

terrified and fly from the place; but it has sometimes happened that the

horses, and other beasts belonging to the merchants or travellers, have

been frightened by this noise, and have run away from their masters: for

which reason prudent travellers use the precaution of fettering or binding

their feet together, to prevent them from running off.

[1] Owing to the prodigious revolutions which have taken place in the East

since the time of Marco, and the difference of languages, by which

countries, provinces, towns, and rivers have received very dissimilar

names, it is often difficult or impossible to ascertain, with any

precision, the exact geography of the relations and descriptions in

the text. Wherever this can be done with any tolerable probability of

usefulness it shall be attempted.--E.

[2] The Pei-ho, which runs into the gulf of Pekin, near the head of the

Yellow sea.--E.

[3] Kathay, or Northern China, contained the six northern provinces, and

Mangi or Southern China, the nine provinces to the south of the river

Kiang, Yang-tse-Kiang or Kian-ku. Tain-fu may possibly be Ten-gan-fu:

Gouza it is impossible to ascertain, unless it may be Cou-gan, a small

town, about thirty miles south from Peking or Cambalu. I suspect in

the present itinerary, that Marco keeps on the north of the Hoang-ho.

--E.

[4] Hara-moran, or Hoang-he. Thaigin may therefore be Tan-gin, about twenty

miles east from that river, in Lat. S6-1/4 N. In which case, Pian-fu

may be the city of Pin-yang; and Tain-fu, Tay-uen.--E.

[5] Bamboos.--E.

SECTION XIV.

_An account of Thibet, and several other Provinces, with the Observations

made by the Author in passing through them_.

At the end of twenty days journey through the before mentioned depopulated

country, we met with cities and many villages, inhabited by an idolatrous

people, whose manners are so licentious that no man marries a wife who is a

virgin. Hence when travellers and strangers from other countries come among

them, the women of the country who have marriageable daughters bring them

to the tents of the strangers, and entreat them to enjoy the company of

their daughters so long as they remain in the neighbourhood. On these

occasions the handsomest are chosen, and those who are rejected return home

sorrowful and disappointed. The strangers are not permitted to carry away

any of these willing damsels, but must restore them faithfully to their

parents; and at parting the girl requires some toy or small present, which

she may shew as a token of her condition; and she who can produce the

greatest number of such favours has the greatest chance of being soon and

honourably married. When a young woman dresses herself out to the best

advantage, she hangs all the favours she may have received from her

different lovers about her neck, and the more acceptable she may have been

to many such transitory lovers, so much the more is she honoured among her

countrymen. But after marriage they are never suffered to have intercourse

with strangers, and the men of the country are very cautious of giving

offence to each other in this matter.

The people of this country are idolaters, who live by hunting, yet

cultivate the ground, and are much addicted to stealing, which they account

no crime; they are clothed in the skins of wild beasts, or in coarse hempen

garments, having no money, not even the paper money of the khan, but they

use pieces of coral instead of money. Their language is peculiar to

themselves. The country of which we now speak belongs to Thibet, which is a

country of vast extent, and has been some time divided into eight kingdoms,

in which are many cities and towns, with many mountains, lakes, and rivers,

in some of which gold is found. The women wear coral necklaces, which they

likewise hang about the necks of their idols. In this country there are

very large dogs, almost as big as asses, which are employed in hunting the

wild beasts, especially wild oxen called Boyamini. In this province of

Thibet there are many kinds of spices which are never brought into Europe.

This, like all the other provinces formerly mentioned, is subject to the

great khan.

On the west of the province of Thibet lies the province of Caindu, which

was formerly governed by kings of its own, but is now ruled by governors

appointed by the great khan. By the west, it is not to be understood that

these countries are actually in the west; but that, as we travelled to them

from those parts which are situate between the east and the north-east, and

consequently came thither westwards, we therefore reckon them as being in

the west[1]. The people are idolaters and have many cities, of which the

principal is called Caindu, after the name of the province, and is built on

the frontiers. In this country there is a large salt lake, which produces

such extraordinary abundance of white pearls, but not round, that no person

is allowed to fish for them under pain of death, without a licence from the

great khan, lest by becoming too plentiful, the price should be too much

reduced. There is likewise a mountain producing turquoises, the digging for

which is restrained under similar regulations. There are great numbers of

the animals called _gadderi_ in this province, which produce musk. The lake

which produces pearls is likewise very abundant in fish, and the whole

country is full of wild beasts of many kinds, as lions, bears, stags, deer,

ounces, and roebucks, and many kinds of birds. Cloves also are found in

great plenty, which are gathered from small trees, resembling the bay-tree

in boughs and leaves, but somewhat longer and straighter, having white

flowers. The cloves when ripe are black, or dusky, and very brittle. The

country likewise produces ginger and cinnamon in great plenty, and several

other spices which are not brought to Europe. It has no wine, but in place

of it, the inhabitants make a most excellent drink of corn or rice,

flavoured with various spices.

The inhabitants of this country are so besotted to their idols, that they

fancy they secure their favour by prostituting their wives, sisters, and

daughters to strangers. When any stranger comes among them, all the masters

of families strive to procure him as a guest, after which, they leave the

stranger to be entertained by the females of the family, and will not

return to their own house till after his departure; and all this is done in

honour of their idols, thinking that they secure their favour by this

strange procedure. The principal money in this country is gold, unstamped,

and issued by weight. But their ordinary money consists in solid small

loaves of salt, marked with the seal of the prince; and of this merchants

make vast profits in remote places, which have abundance of gold and musk,

which the inhabitants are eager to barter for salt, to use with their meat.

Leaving this province, we proceeded fifteen days journey farther, passing

through many cities and villages, the inhabitants of which have the same

customs with those of Caindu; and at length we came to a river called

_Brius_, which is the boundary of the province of Caindu. In this river

gold dust is found in great abundance, by washing the sand of the river in

vessels, to cleanse the gold from earth and sand. On the banks of this

river, which runs direct to the ocean, cinnamon grows in great plenty.

Having passed the river Brius, we come westwards to the province of

Caraian, which contains seven kingdoms, and is under the command of

Sentamur, as viceroy for his father the great khan. This prince is young,

rich, wise, and just. The country produces excellent horses, is well

peopled and has a peculiar and very difficult language; the inhabitants are

idolaters, who live on their cattle and the produce of the earth. After

proceeding five days journey through this country, we came to the great and

famous city of Jaci[2]. In this large city there are many merchants and

manufacturers, and many different kinds of people, idolaters, Christians,

Nestorians, and Mahometans; but the great majority are idolaters. It has

abundance of corn and rice, but the inhabitants only use bread made from

rice, as they esteem it more wholesome; they make a drink also from rice,

mixed with several kinds of spices, which is very pleasant. They use white

porcelain instead of money, and certain sea shells for ornaments[3]. Much

salt is made in this country from the water of salt wells, from which the

viceroy derives great profit. There is a lake in this country 100 miles in

circuit, which has great quantities of fish. The people of this country eat

the raw flesh of beef, mutton, buffalo, and poultry, cut into small pieces

and seasoned with excellent spices, but the poorer sort are contented with

garlic shred down among their meat. The men have no objections to permit

the intercourse of strangers with their wives, on condition only of being

previously asked for their consent.

We departed from Jaci or Lazi, and travelling westwards for ten days

journey, we came to a province called Carazan after the name of its chief

city, which is governed by a son of the great khan, named Cogatin[4]. The

rivers in this province yield large quantities of washed gold, and,

likewise in the mountains, solid gold is found in veins; and the people

exchange gold against silver, at the rate of one pound of gold for six

pounds of silver[5]. The ordinary currency of the country is in porcelain

shells brought from India. In this country there are very large serpents,

some of which are ten paces long, and ten spans in thickness, having two

little feet before, near the head, with three talons or claws like lions,

and very large bright eyes[6]. Their jaws have large sharp teeth, and their

mouths are so wide, that they are able to swallow a man; nor is there any

man, or living creature, that can behold these serpents without terror.

Some of these are only eight, six, or five paces in length. In the day-time

they lurk in holes to avoid the great heat, going out only in the night in

search of prey, and they devour lions, wolves, or any other beasts they can

find, after which they go in search of water, leaving such a track in the

sands, owing to their weight, as if a piece of timber had been dragged

along. Taking advantage of this circumstance, the hunters fasten great iron

spikes under the sand in their usual tracks, by means of which they are

often wounded and killed. The crows or vultures proclaim the serpents fate

by their cries, on which the hunters come up and flea the animal, taking

out his gall, which is employed as a sovereign remedy for several diseases,

given to the quantity of a pennyweight in wine; particularly against the

bite of a mad dog, for women in labour, for carbuncles, and other

distempers. They likewise get a good price for the flesh, which is

considered as very delicate.

This province breeds many stout horses, which are carried by the merchants

into India. They commonly take out a bone from the tails of their horses,

to prevent them from being able to lash them from side to side, as they

esteem it more seemly for the tails to hang down. The natives, who are

idolaters, use long stirrups in riding, like the French; whereas the

Tartars and other nations use short stirrups, because they rise up when

they discharge their arrows. In their wars, they use targets and other

defensive armour made of buffalo hides; and their offensive weapons are

lances and crossbows, with poisoned arrows. Some of them, who are great

villains, are said always to carry poison with them, that if taken

prisoners, they may swallow it to procure sudden death, and to avoid

torture. On which occasion, the great lords force them to swallow dogs dung

that they may vomit up the poison. Before they were conquered by the great

khan, when any stranger of good appearance happened to lodge with them,

they used to kill him in the night; believing that the good properties of

the murdered person would afterwards devolve to the inhabitants of the

house; and this silly notion has occasioned the death of many persons.

Travelling still westwards from the province of Carazam, or Cariam, we

came, after five days journey, to the province of Cardandan, of which the

chief city is called Vociam[7]. The inhabitants, who are subject to the

great khan, use porcelain shells, and gold by weight, instead of money. In

that country, and many other surrounding provinces, there are no silver

mines, and the people give an ounce of gold for five ounces of silver, by

which exchange the merchants acquire great profits. The men and women cover

their teeth with thin plates of gold, so exactly fitted, that the teeth

seem as if they were actually of solid gold. The men make a kind of lists

or stripes round their legs and arms, by pricking the places with needles,

and rubbing in a black indelible liquid, and these marks are esteemed as

great decorations. They give themselves up entirely to riding and hunting,

and martial exercises, leaving all the household cares to the women, who

are assisted by slaves, whom they purchase or take in their wars.

Immediately after delivery, the woman leaves her bed and washes the child;

after which, the husband lies down in her bed with the child, where he

remains for forty days, during all which time, he receives the visits and

compliments of the friends and neighbours. The wife looks after the house,

carries broth to her husband in bed, and suckles the child. Their wine is

made from rice and spiceries; and their ordinary food is rice and raw

flesh, seasoned with spiceries or garlic, as formerly mentioned. There are

no idols in this province, except that every family adores the oldest man

in the house, from whom they say that they and all they have are come. The

country consists mostly of wild and rugged mountains; into which strangers

seldom come, because the air, especially in summer, is exceedingly noxious.

They have no letters, but all their contracts and obligations are recorded

by tallies of wood, one counterpart being kept by each party, and when the

contract is fulfilled the tallies are destroyed.

There are no physicians in this province or in Caindu, Vociam, or Caraiam;

but when any one is sick, the magicians or priests of the idols are

assembled, to whom the sick person gives an account of his disease. Then

the magicians dance to the sound of certain instruments, and bellow forth

songs in honour of their idols, till at length, the devil enters into one

of these who are skipping about in the dance. The dance is then

discontinued, and the rest of the magicians consult with him who is

possessed as to the cause of the disease, and what ought to be done for its

remedy. The devil answers by this person, "because the sick person has done

this or that, or has offended some particular idol." Then the magicians

entreat this idol to pardon the sick person, engaging, if he recover, that

he shall offer a sacrifice of his own blood. But if the devil or the priest

thinks that the patient cannot recover, he says that the person has so

grievously offended the idol, that he cannot be appeased by any sacrifices.

If, on the other hand, he thinks the sick person may recover, he orders an

offering of a certain number of rams with black heads, to be prepared by so

many magicians and their wives, and offered up to appease the idol. On this

the kinsmen of the sick person immediately execute the orders of the devil.

The rams are killed, and their blood sprinkled in the air. The assembled

magicians light up great candles, and perfume the whole house with the

smoke of incense and aloes wood, and sprinkle some of the broth made from

the flesh, mixed with spices, into the air, as the portion of the idols.

When these things are performed, they again skip and dance in honour of the

idol, singing and making a horrible noise; and then ask the possessed

priest whether the idol is now satisfied. If he answer in the negative,

they prepare to obey any farther commands; but if he answer that the idol

is satisfied, they sit down to table, and eat the flesh which was offered

to the idol and drink the liquors; after which, the magicians being paid

for their trouble, every one departs to his own home. If the sick person

recover through the providence of God, he attributes the restoration of his

health to the idol; but if he die, it is then supposed that the idol had

been defrauded, by some of the assistants having eaten of the sacrifices

before all the rites were duly performed. This ceremony is only practised

for rich patients, on whom the devil, or the priests in his name, impose

their blind belief.

In 1272, the great khan sent an army of 12,000 veteran troops, under the

command of aft experienced officer, named Nestardin, to reduce the kingdom

of Vociam and Guarazan[8]. As soon as the kings of Mien[9] and Bengala

heard of this invasion, they assembled an army of 60,000 horse and foot,

besides a thousand elephants, carrying castles, in each of which there were

from twelve to sixteen armed men. With this army, the king of Mien marched

towards the city of Vociam, where the Tartar army was encamped. Nestardin,

regardless of the great disparity of numbers, marched with invincible

courage to fight the enemy; but when he drew near, he encamped under cover

of a great wood, knowing that the elephants could not penetrate into the

wood with the towers on their backs. The king of Mien drew near to fight

the Tartars; but the Tartarian horses were so terrified with the sight of

the elephants, who were arranged along the front of the battle, that it was

impossible to bring them up to the charge. The Tartars, therefore, were

compelled to alight from their horses, which they fastened to the trees,

and came boldly forewards on foot against the elephants, among whom they

discharged immense quantities of arrows; so that the elephants, unable to

endure the smart of their wounds, became unmanageable, and fled to the

nearest wood, where they broke their castles, and overturned the armed men,

with which they were filled. On this, the Tartars remounted their horses,

and made a furious attack on the enemy. The battle continued for some time

undecided, and many men were slain on both sides. At length the army of the

king of Mien was defeated and put to flight, leaving the victory to the

Tartars; who now hastened into the wood, and made many prisoners, by whose

assistance they seized two hundred of the elephants, which were sent to the

great khan. Before this time, the Tartars were unaccustomed to the use of

elephants in war; but the great khan has ever since had elephants in his

army. After this victory, the great khan subjected the kingdoms of Mien and

Bengala to his empire.

Departing from the province of Carian, or Caraiam, there is a great desert

which continues for two days and a half, without any inhabitants, at the

end of which desert there is a large plain, in which great multitudes meet

for traffic three days in every week. Many people come down from the great

mountains, bringing gold, which they exchange for five times its weight of

silver; on which account, many merchants come here from foreign countries

with silver, and carry away gold, bringing likewise large quantities of

merchandize to sell to these people; for no strangers can go into the high

mountains where the people dwell who gather gold, oh account of the

intricacy and impassable nature of the roads. After passing this plain, and

going to the south for fifteen days journey, through uninhabited and woody

places, in which there are innumerable multitudes of elephants,

rhinoceroses[10], and other wild beasts, we come to Mien, which borders

upon India. At the end of that journey of fifteen days, we come to the

great and noble city of Mien, the capital of the kingdom, which is subject

to the great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters, and have a peculiar

language. There was formerly a king in this city, who being on the point of

death, gave orders to erect two pyramidal monuments, or towers of marble,

near his sepulchre, one at the head and the other at the foot, each of them

ten fathoms high, and having a round ball on the top of each. One of these

he ordered to be covered with gold, and the other with silver, a fingers

breadth in thickness; and round about the tops of these pyramids many

little bells of gold and silver were hung, which gave a pleasing shrill

sound, when agitated by the wind. The monument or sepulchre between these

was likewise covered with plates of gold and silver. When the great khan

undertook the conquest of this country, he sent a valiant captain at the

head of a large army, mostly of cavalry, of which the Tartarian armies

principally consist. After the city was won, the general would not demolish

this monument without orders from the khan; who, on being informed that the

former king had erected it in honour of his soul, would not permit it to be

injured, as the Tartars never violate those things which belong to the

dead. In the country of Mien there are many elephants and wild oxen, large

stags and deer, and various other kinds of wild beasts in great abundance.

The province of Bengala borders on India towards the south[11], and was

subdued by the great khan, while I Marco Polo resided in the eastern

countries. It had its own proper king, and has a peculiar language. The

inhabitants are all idolaters, and have schools in which the masters teach

idolatries and enchantments, which are universal among all the great men of

the country. They eat flesh, rice, and milk; and have great abundance of

cotton, by the manufacture of which a great trade is carried on. They

abound also in spike, galingal, ginger, sugar, and various other spices;

and they make many eunuchs, whom they sell to the merchants. This province

continues for thirty days journey going eastwards, when we come to the

province of Cangigu[12]. This country has its own king, who is tributary to

the great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters, and have a peculiar

language. The king has about three hundred wives. The province has much

gold and many spices, but these cannot be easily transported, as it is far

distant from the sea. It has also many elephants and much game. The

inhabitants live on flesh, rice, and milk, having no wine, but they make an

excellent drink of rice and spices. Both men and women ornament their

faces, necks, hands, bellies, and legs, with the figures of lions, dragons,

and birds, and these are so firmly imprinted, as to be almost indelible.

There are in this country professors of this foolish art of skin

embroidery, who follow no other trade but this needle work, and dying of

fools skins; and the person who has the greatest number and variety of

these images, is considered the finest and most gallantly ornamented.

Amu or Aniu, twenty-five days journey to the east of the province of

Cangigu, is subject to the great khan, and its inhabitants are idolaters

who have a peculiar language. This country abounds in provisions, and has

great quantities of cattle and many horses; and these last being excellent,

are carried by the merchants for sale into India. The country is full of

excellent pastures, and therefore abounds in buffalos and oxen. Both men

and women wear bracelets of gold and silver of great value on their legs

and arms, but those of the women are the most valuable.

The province of Tholoman, which is likewise subject to the great khan, is

at the distance of eight days journey east from Amu; the inhabitants are

idolaters, and use a peculiar language; both men and women are tall, well

shaped, and of a brown complexion. This country is well inhabited, having

many strong towns and castles, and the men are practised in arms, and

accustomed to war. They burn their dead, after which they inclose the bones

and ashes in chests, which they hide in holes of the mountains. Gold is

found in great plenty, yet both here and in Cangigu and Amu, they use the

cowrie shells which are brought from India.

From this province of Tholoman, the high road leads eastwards by a river,

on the banks of which there are many towns and castles, and at the end of

twelve days journey, we come to the great city of Cintigui, the province of

the same name being subject to the great khan, and the inhabitants are

idolaters. They manufacture excellent cloths from the bark of trees, of

which their summer clothing is made. There are many lions in this country,

so that no person dare sleep out of doors in the night, and the vessels

which frequent the river, dare not be made fast to the banks at night from

dread of the lions. The inhabitants have large dogs, so brave and strong,

that they are not afraid even to attack the lion, and it often happens that

one man armed with a bow and arrows, and assisted by two of these dogs,

will kill a lion. The dogs, urged on by the man, give the onset, and the

lion endeavours to take shelter beside a tree, that the dogs may not be

able to get behind him, yet he scorns to run away, and holds on his stately

slow space, the dogs always fastening on his hinder parts; but so

cautiously and nimbly do they manage their assaults, that whenever the lion

turns upon them, they are beyond his reach. Then the magnanimous beast

holds on his way towards a tree, the man all the while plying him with

arrows, at every opportunity, and the dogs constantly tearing him from

behind, till at length, with loss of blood, he falls down and dies. This

country abounds in silk, which is carried by the merchants to various

provinces, by means of the river. Their money is paper, and the inhabitants

are valiant in arms.

At the end of ten days journey from Cintigui, we come to the city of

Sindinfu; twenty days from thence is Gingui, and four days from thence,

towards the south, is Palan-fu in Kathay, returning by the other side of

the province. The people are idolaters and burn their dead, but there are

also some Christians who have a church. The people use paper money, and

are all under the dominion of the great khan. They make cloths of gold and

silk, and very fine lawns. Past this city of Palan-fu, which has many

cities under its jurisdiction, there runs a fine river, which carries great

store of merchandize to Cambalu, by means of many canals made on purpose.

Leaving this place, and travelling three days journey towards the south of

the province of Kathay, subject to the great khan, is the great city of

Ciangu. They are idolaters, who burn their dead, and their money is the

mulberry paper coin of the khan. The earth, in the territories of this

city, abounds in salt, which is extracted in the following manner: The

earth is heaped up like a hill, and large quantities of water are poured

on, which extracts the salt, and runs by certain conduits into cauldrons,

in which it is boiled up into fine white salt; and this manufacture

produces great profit to the people and the great khan, as large quantities

are exported for sale to other countries. In this neighbourhood there are

large and fine flavoured peaches, one of which weighs two pounds.

Five days journey farther south from Ciangu is the city of Ciangli,

likewise in Kathay, between which we pass many cities and castles, all

subject to the great khan; and through the middle of this last city of

Ciangli, there runs a large river, which is very convenient for the

transport of merchandize. Six days journey from thence to the south is the

noble kingdom and great city of Tudinfu, which was formerly subject to its

own king, but was subdued by the arms of the great khan in 1272. Under its

jurisdiction there are twelve famous trading cities. It is most pleasantly

situated among gardens and orchards, and is rich in silks. A baron, named

Lucanser, who was sent to govern this acquisition by the khan, with an army

of 8000 horse, chose to rebel; but was defeated and slain by an army of

100,000 horse sent against him by the khan under two other barons, and the

country again reduced to obedience. Seven days journey farther south is the

famous city of Singuimatu, to which, on the south, a great river runs,

which is divided by the inhabitants into two rivers, one branch of which

flows by the east towards Kathay, and the other by the west towards

Mangi[13]. By these rivers or canals innumerable vessels, incredible for

their size and wealth, carry vast quantities of merchandize through both of

these provinces; and for sixteen days journey to the south from Singuimatu,

we meet with many cities and towns, which carry on immense trade. The

inhabitants of all these countries are idolaters, and subject to the great

khan. You then come to a great river called Caramoran[14], which is said to

take its rise in the dominions formerly belonging to Umcan, or Prester

John, in the north. It is very deep, and carries ships of great burden, and

is well stocked with fish. Within one days journey of the sea are the two

cities of Coigan-zu and Quan-zu, on opposite sides of the river, the one a

great city and the other a small one, where a fleet of 15,000 vessels is

kept by the great khan, each fitted for carrying fifteen horses and twenty

men. These are always in readiness to carry an army to any of the islands,

or to any remote region in case of rebellion[15]. On passing the great

river Caramoran, or Hoang-ho, we enter into the noble kingdom of Mangi: But

it must not be supposed that I have described the whole province of Kathay,

as I have not spoken of the twentieth part of it; for in passing through

this province, I have only mentioned the principal cities on my way,

leaving those on both sides, and many intermediate ones to avoid prolixity,

and not to set down in writing what I only learned from hearsay.

[1] The meaning of this sentence is obscure, unless it is intended to guard

the readers against the supposition that these countries were to the

west of Europe.--E.

[2] Called Lazi by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition of these travels,

mentioned in the introduction. This place, therefore, may be Lassa, in

the kingdom or province of Ou, in Middle Thibet, the residence of the

Dalai Lama, situate on a branch of the Sampoo, or great Brahma-pootra,

or Barampooter river, which joins the Ganges in the lower part of

Bengal.--E.

[3] This sentence most probably is meant to imply the use of cowries,

sometimes called porellane shells, both for money and ornament.--E.

[4] Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, names the country Cariam, and the

governor Cocagio.--E.

[5] The ordinary European price is about fourteen for one.--E.

[6] The description of this creature seems to indicate an alligator or

crocodile; which probably Marco had not seen, and only describes from

an imperfect account of the natives.--E.

[7] According to Pinkerton, this province is named Cariti, and its

principal town Nociam, in the edition of Trevigi.--E.

[8] Named previously Carazam and Caraian, afterwards Caraiam, or Carian.

--E.

[9] In some modern maps, Mien is introduced as a large province on the

river of Pegu, immediately to the south-west of Yunnan in China, and

divided from Bengal by the whole country of Ava. But the distribution

of eastern dominion has been always extremely fluctuating; and Mien

may then have included all the north of Ava.--E.

[10] In the original text this animal is called the unicorn; a word of the

same import with rhinoceros.--E.

[11] This either implies that Bengal on the borders of India is to the

south of Thibet; or _south_ is here an error for _east_, Bengal being

the eastern frontier province of India proper.--E.

[12] The difficulty, or rather impossibility of tracing the steps of Marco

Polo, may proceed from various causes. The provinces or kingdoms,

mostly named from their chief cities, have suffered infinite changes

from perpetual revolutions. The names he gives, besides being

corrupted in the various transcriptions and editions, he probably set

down orally, as given to him in the Tartar or Mogul dialect, very

different from those which have been adopted into modern geography

from various sources. Many of these places may have been destroyed,

and new names imposed. Upon the whole, his present course appears to

have been from Bengal eastwards, through the provinces of the farther

India, to Mangi or southern China; and Cangigu may possibly be

Chittigong. Yet Cangigu is said in the text to be an inland country.

--E.

[13] Kathay and Mangi, as formerly mentioned, are Northern and Southern

China, so that the direction of these rivers ought perhaps to have

been described as north and south, instead of east and west. About

seventy miles from the mouth of the Yellow river, or Hoang-ho, there

is a town called Tsingo, near which a canal runs to the north,

communicating with the river on which Pekin is situated, and another

canal, running far south into Mangi or Southern China. Tsingo, though

now an inferior town, may have been formerly Singui-matu, and a place

of great importance.--E.

[14] Caramoran or Hora-moran, is the Hoang-ho, or Yellow river; and it must

be allowed, that the distance which is placed in the text, between

Singui-matu and this river, is quite hostile to the idea mentioned in

the preceding note, of Tsingo and Singui-matu being the same place.

The only other situation in all China which accords with the two

canals, or rivers, communicating both with Kathay and Mangi, is

Yotcheou on the Tong-ting-hou lake, which is on the Kian-ku river, and

at a sufficient distance from the Hoang-ho to agree with the text. In

the absence of all tolerable certainty, conjecture seems allowable.

--E.

[15] There are no Chinese cities, in our maps, that, in the least

appearance of sound, correspond with the names of these towns or

cities near the mouth of the Hoang-ho. Hoain-gin is the only large

city near its mouth, and that is not on its banks. All therefore that

can be said, is, that the two cities in the text must have stood on

opposite sides of the Hoang-ho in the days of Marco Polo.--E.

SECTION XV.

_An account of the Kingdom of Mangi, and the manner of its Reduction under

the dominion of the Great Khan; together with some Notices of its various

Provinces and Cities_.

The kingdom of Mangi is the richest and most famous of all that are to be

found in the east. In the year 1269, this kingdom was governed by a king

named Fanfur[1], who was richer and more powerful than any who had reigned

there for an hundred years. Fanfur maintained justice and internal peace in

his dominions, so that no one dared to offend his neighbour, or to disturb

the peace, from dread of prompt, severe, and impartial justice; insomuch,

that the artificers would often leave their shops, filled with valuable

commodities, open in the night, yet no one would presume to enter them.

Travellers and strangers travelled in safety through his whole dominions by

day or night. He was merciful to the poor, and carefully provided for such

as were oppressed by poverty or sickness, and every year took charge of

20,000 infants who were deserted by their mothers from poverty, all of whom

he bred up till they were able to work at some trade. But in process of

time, betaking himself more to pleasures than was fit, he employed his

whole time in delights, in the midst of 1000 concubines. His capital was

encompassed with ditches full of water; but Fanfur was entirely addicted to

the arts of peace, and so beloved of his subjects for his justice and

charity, that, trusting to their numbers and attachment, and to the natural

strength and resources of the country, both king and people neglected the

use of arms, keeping no cavalry in pay, because they feared no one, and

believed themselves invincible.

Cublai-khan was of a different disposition from Fanfur, and delighted in

war and conquest; and having resolved upon making a conquest of the kingdom

of Mangi, he levied a great army of horse and foot for that purpose, over

which he placed a general named Chinsan-Baian[2]. He accordingly marched

with his army, accompanied by a fleet, into the province of Mangi, and

summoned the city of Coiganzu[3] to surrender to the authority of the great

khan. On this being refused, he departed without making any assault, to the

second, the third, and the fourth city, all of which he summoned, and on

their refusal, marched on without siege or assault. But receiving the same

answer from the fifth, he assaulted it with great courage, and having taken

it by storm, he massacred the whole inhabitants, without sparing any of

either sex, or of any age or condition. This severe military execution so

terrified the other cities, that they all immediately surrendered. On this

successful commencement being reported to the khan, he sent a new army to

reinforce Chinsan-Baian, whose army was now much diminished by the

garrisons he had to leave in the conquered cities. With his army thus

reinforced, Chinsan marched against Quinsai[4] the capital city of the

kingdom of Mangi, in which Fanfur resided. He was much terrified at this

formidable invasion, and having never seen any war, he fled with all his

wealth on board a great fleet which he had prepared, retiring to certain

impregnable islands in the ocean[5], committing the custody of his capital

to his wife, whom he desired to defend it as well as she could, as being a

woman, she need not fear being put to death if she were made prisoner. It

may be observed, that Fanfur had been told by his diviners, that his

kingdom would never be taken from him except by one who had an hundred

eyes; and this being known to the queen, she was in hopes or preserving the

city in all extremities, thinking it impossible for any one man to have an

hundred eyes. But learning that the name of the commander of the Tartars

had that signification, she sent for him and delivered up the city,

believing him to be the person indicated by the astrologers, and to whom

destiny had predetermined the conquest of the city and kingdom.[6] She was

sent to the court of the great khan, where she was most honourably

received, and entertained as became her former dignity. After the surrender

of the capital, the citizens and inhabitants of the whole province yielded

to the obedience of the great khan[7].

I shall now speak of the cities in the kingdom of Mangi. Coiganzu is a very

fair and rich city, situate towards the south-east and east, in the very

entrance of the province of Mangi[8]. In this city, which is situated on

the river Carama[9], there are vast numbers of ships employed in trade, and

great quantities of salt are made in that neighbourhood. Proceeding from

Coigan-zu, we ride one days journey to the south-east, on a stone causeway,

on both sides of which are great fences with deep waters, through which

people may pass with proper vessels[10], and there is no entrance into

Mangi but by this causeway except by shipping. At the end of this days

journey is a large and fair city called Paughin, of which the inhabitants

are idolaters, and manufacturers of stuffs of silk and gold, in which they

drive a considerable trade. It is plentifully supplied with all the

necessaries of life, and the paper money of the khan is current in the

whole province. One days journey farther south-east, is the large and

famous city of Caim. The neighbouring country abounds in fish, beasts, and

fowl of all kinds, especially with pheasants as large as peacocks, which

are so plentiful, that three may be bought for a Venetian groat. Proceeding

another days journey through a well cultivated, fertile, and well peopled

country, we come to a moderate sized city called Tingui, which is much

resorted to by ships and merchants, and abounds in all the necessaries of

life. This place is in the south-east, on the left hand, three days journey

from the ocean, and in the country, between it and the sea, there are many

salt pits, in which great quantities of salt are made. After this is

Cingui[11], a great city, whence the whole country is furnished with salt,

of which the khan makes immense profit, almost beyond belief. The

inhabitants are idolaters, and use paper money. Riding farther to the

south-east is the noble city of Jangui[12], which has twenty-seven other

cities dependent on its government. In this city, one of the twelve barons,

who are governors of provinces, usually resides; but I, Marco, had the sole

government of this place for three years, instead of one of these barons,

by a special commission from the great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters,

living chiefly by merchandize, and they manufacture arms and harness for

war. Naughin[l3] is a province to the west[14] of Tangui, one of the

greatest and noblest in all Mangi, and a place of vast trade, having

abundance of beasts and fowls, wild and tame, and plenty of corn. The

inhabitants are idolaters, and manufacture, stuffs of silk and gold, using

only paper money. This country produces large revenues to the khan,

especially in the customs which he receives from trade.

Sian-Fu is a large and noble city in the province of Mangi, having twelve

great and rich cities under its jurisdiction. This city is so strong that

it was three years besieged by the army of the Tartars, and could not be

vanquished at the time when the rest of the kingdom of Mangi was subdued.

It was so environed with lakes and rivers, that ships came continually with

plenty of provisions and it was only accessible from the north. The long

resistance of this city gave much dissatisfaction to the khan; which coming

to the knowledge of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, then at his court, they offered

their services to construct certain engines, after the manner of those used

in Europe, capable of throwing stones of three hundred weight, to kill the

men, and ruin the houses in the besieged city. The khan assigned them

carpenters, who were Nestorian Christians, to work under their direction,

and they made three of these engines, which were tried before the khan and

approved of. These were accordingly sent by shipping to the army before

Sian-fu, and being planted against the city, cast great stones into it, by

which some of the houses were beaten down and destroyed. The inhabitants

were very much astonished and terrified by the effect of these machines,

and surrendered themselves to the authority and dominion of the khan, on

the same conditions with the rest of Mangi; and by this service, the

Venetian brethren acquired great reputation and favour.

From this city of Sian-fu, to another called Sin-gui, it is accounted

fifteen miles to the south-east. This city, though not very large, has a

prodigious number of ships, as it is situate on the greatest river in the

world, called Quiam [l5], being in some places ten, in others eight, and in

others six miles broad. But its length extends to a distance of above an

hundred days journey from its source to the sea, receiving numberless

navigable rivers in its course, from various and distant regions, by which

means incredible quantities of merchandize are transported upon this river.

There are about two hundred cities which participate in the advantages of

this river, which runs through, or past, the boundaries of sixteen

provinces. The greatest commodity on this river is salt, with which all the

provinces and cities which have communication with its water are supplied.

I, Marco, once saw at Singui five thousand vessels, yet some other cities

on the river have a greater number. All these ships are covered, having but

one mast and one sail, and usually carry 4000 Venetian Canthari and

upwards, some as far as 12,000. In these vessels they use no cordage of

hemp; even their hawsers or towing ropes being made of canes, about fifteen

paces long, which they split into thin pieces from end to end, and bind or

wreath together into ropes, some of which are three hundred fathoms long,

and serve for dragging their vessels up or down the river; each vessel

having ten or twelve horses for that purpose. On that river there are rocky

hillocks in many places, on which idol temples, with monasteries for the

priests are built, and in all the course of the river we find cultivated

vallies and habitations innumerable.

Cayn-gui is a small city on the same river to the south, eastwards of

Sin-gui, where every year great quantities of corn and rice are brought,

which is carried for the most part to Cambalu. For from the Quiam or

Kian-ku river, they pass to that city by means of lakes and rivers, and by

one large canal, which the great khan caused to be made for a passage from

one river to another; so that vessels go all the way from Mangi or Southern

China to Cambalu, without ever being obliged to put to sea. This great work

is beautiful and wonderful for its size and vast extent, and is of infinite

profit to the cities and provinces of the empire. The khan likewise caused

great causeways to be constructed along the banks of this prodigious canal,

for the conveniency of travelling by land, and for towing the vessels. In

the middle of the great river there is a rocky island, with a great temple

and monastery for the idolatrous priests.

Cin-ghian-fu [16] is a city of the province of Mangi, which is rich in

merchandize, and plentiful in game and provisions of all kinds. In 1274,

the great khan sent Marsachis, a Nestorian Christian to govern this city,

who built here two Christian churches. From the city of Cin-ghian-fu, in a

journey of three days journey to the south-eastwards, we find many cities

and castles, all inhabited by idolaters, and at length come to the great

and handsome city of Tin-gui-gui, which abounds in all kinds of provisions.

When Chinsan Baian conquered the kingdom of Mangi, he sent a large body of

Christian Alani[17] against this city, which had a double inclosure of

walls. The inhabitants retired from the outer town, within the inner wall,

and the Alanians finding great store of wine, indulged themselves too

freely after a severe march. In the night time, the citizens sallied out

upon them, while all were drunk and asleep, and put every man of them to

the sword. But Baian sent afterwards a fresh army against them, which soon

mastered the city, and in severe revenge massacred the whole inhabitants.

The great and excellent city of Sin-gui[18] is twenty miles in

circumference, and contains a vast population, among whom are great numbers

of physicians and magicians, and wise men or philosophers. It has sixteen

other cities under its jurisdiction, in each of which there is much trade

and many curious arts, and many sorts of silk are made in its territories.

The neighbouring mountains produce rhubarb and ginger in great plenty. The

name Sin-gui signifies the City of the Earth, and there is another city in

the kingdom of Mangi called Quin-sai, which signifies the City of Heaven.

From Singui it is one days journey to Vagiu, where also is abundance of

silk, and able artisans, and many merchants, as is universally the case in

all the cities of this kingdom.

[1] Called Tou-tsong by the Chinese historians, the fifteenth emperor of

the nineteenth dynasty, who succeeded to the throne in the year

1264.--Harris.

[2] The name of this general is said to have signified _an hundred eyes_;

doubtless a Tartar title, denoting his vigilance and foresight. By the

Chinese historians, this general is named Pe-yen; which may have the

same signification. These historians attribute the conquest of Mangi,

or Southern China, to the indolence, debauchery, and extreme love of

pleasure of this emperor, whom they name Tou-Tsong.--Harris.

[3] The names of all places and provinces in the travels of Marco Polo, are

either so disguised by Tartar appellations, or so corrupted, that they

cannot be referred with any certainty to the Chinese names upon our

maps. Coiganzu, described afterwards as the first city in the

south-east of Mangi in going from Kathay, may possibly be Hoingan-fou,

which answers to that situation. The termination _fou_ is merely

_city_; and other terminations are used by the Chinese, as _tcheou_

and others, to denote the rank or class in which they are placed, in

regard to the subordination of their governors and tribunals, which

will be explained in that part of our work which is appropriated to

the empire of China.--E.

[4] Or Guinsai, to be afterwards described.--E.

[5] It does not appear where these islands were, situated; whether Hainan

or Formosa, properly Tai-ouan, or Tai-wan, or the islands in the bay

of Canton.--E.

[6] These sagacious diviners must have been well acquainted with the

military energy of the Tartar government, and the abject weakness of

their own; and certainly knew, from their brethren in Kathay, the

significant name of the Tartar general; on which foundation, they

constructed the enigma of their prophecy, which, like many others,

contributed towards its own accomplishment.--E.

[7] About a year after the surrender of his capital, Tou-Tsong died,

leaving three sons, who all perished in a few years afterwards. The

eldest was made prisoner, and died in captivity in Tartary. The second

died of a consumption at Canton, where he had taken refuge at eleven

years of age. The third, named Ti-Ping, after all the country was

seized by the Tartars, was carried on board the Chinese fleet, which

was pursued and brought to action by a fleet which the Tartars had

fitted out for the purpose. When the Chinese lord, who had the charge

of the infant emperor, saw the vessel in which he was embarked

surrounded by the Tartars, he took the young prince in his arms and

jumped with him into the sea. One considerable squadron of the Chinese

fleet forced a passage through that of the Tartars, but was afterwards

entirely destroyed in a tempest.--Harris.

[8] This direction must be understood in reference to Kathay; as it is

perfectly obvious, that the entrance here spoken of must be in the

north-east of Mangi. Supposing the C aspirated, Coigan-zu and

Hoaingan-fu, both certainly arbitrarily orthographized from the

Chinese pronunciation, are not very dissimilar.--E.

[9] Perhaps an error in transcription for Hara-moran, or Kara-moran, the

Mongul or Tartar name of the Hoang-ho, or Whang river, near, and

communicating with which, Hoaingan, or Whan-gan-fou is situated.--E.

[10] This is an obscure indication of navigable canals on each side of the

paved road of communication to the south.--E.

[11] Cin-gui, or in the Italian pronunciation, Chin, or Tsin-gui, may

possibly be Yen-tching. Tin-gui may be Sin-Yang, or Tsin-yang, to the

north-east of Yen-tching.--E.

[12] Obviously Yang-tcheou, the latter syllable being its title or

designation of rank and precedency. Marco certainly mistakes, from

distant recollection, the direction of his travels, which are very

nearly south, with a very slight deviation towards the east.

South-east would by this time have led him into the sea.--E

[13] Though called a province, this obviously refers to the city of Nankin;

the Nau-ghin of the text being probably a corruption for Nan-ghin.--E

[14] For west, we ought certainly here to read south-west.--E.

[15] Quiam, Kiang, Kian-ku, Kin-tchin-kian, or Yang-tsi-kiang. In modern

maps, there is a town on the northern shore of this river, named

Tsing-Kiang, which may possibly be the Singui of Marco, and we may

perhaps look for the Sian-fu of the Polos at Yang-tcheou, at the

southern extremity of a chain of lakes immediately to the north of the

river Kian-ku. The subject is however full of perplexity, difficulty,

and extreme uncertainty.--E.

[16] This must be Tchin-kian-fou; the three separate syllables in both of

these oral orthographies having almost precisely similar sounds;

always remembering that the soft Italian _c_ has the power of _tsh_,

or our hard _ch_ as in the English word _chin_, and the Italian _gh_

the sound of the hard English _g_.--E.

[17] This evinces the great policy of the military government of the

Tartars, in employing the subjugated nations in one corner of their

empire to make conquests at such enormous distances from their native

countries. The Alanians came from the country between the Euxine and

Caspian, in Long. 60° E. and were here fighting Long. 135° E.; above

4000 miles from home.--E.

[18] By the language in this place, either Sin-gui and Tin-gui-gui are the

same place, or the transition is more than ordinarily abrupt; if the

same, the situation of Sin-gui has been attempted to be explained in a

former note. If different, Tin-gui-gui was probably obliterated on

this occasion, as no name in the least similar appears in the map of

China.--E.

SECTION XVI.

_Of the noble City of Quinsai, and of the vast Revenues drawn from thence

by the Great Khan_.

In a journey of three days from Vagiu, we find numbers of cities, castles,

and villages, all well peopled and rich, the inhabitants being all

idolaters and subject to the great khan. At the end of these three days

journey, we come to Quinsay, or Guinsai, its name signifying the City of

Heaven, to denote its excellence above all the other cities of the world,

in which there are so much riches, and so many pleasures and enjoyments,

that a person might conceive himself in paradise. In this great city, I,

Marco, have often been, and have considered it with diligent attention,

observing its whole state and circumstances, and setting down the same in

my memorials, of which I shall here give a brief abstract. By common

report, this city is an hundred miles in circuit[1]. The streets and lanes

are very long and wide, and it has many large market places. On one side of

the city there is a clear lake of fresh water, and on the other there is a

great river, which enters into the city in many places, and carries away

all the filth into the lake, whence it continues its course into the ocean.

This abundant course of running water causes a healthful circulation of

pure air, and gives commodious passage in many directions both by land and

water, through those numerous canals, as by means of these and the

causeways, by which they are bordered, carts and barks have free

intercourse for the carriage of merchandize and provisions. It is said that

there are twelve thousand bridges, great and small, in this city, and those

over the principal canals are so high, that a vessel without her masts may

go through underneath, while chariots and horses pass above. On the other

side of the city, there is a large canal forty miles[2] long, which

incloses it on that side, being deep and full of water, made by the ancient

kings, both to receive the overflowings of the river, and to fortify the

city, and the earth which was dug out from this canal, is laid on the

inside as a rampart of defence. There are ten great market places which are

square, half a mile in each side[3]. The principal street is forty paces

broad, having a canal in the middle with many bridges, and every four miles

[_Li_] there is a market place, two miles [_Li_] in circuit. There is also

one large canal behind the great street and the market places, on the

opposite bank of which there are many storehouses of stone, where the

merchants from India and other places lay up their commodities, being at

hand and commodious for the markets. In each of these markets, the people

from the country, to the number of forty or fifty thousand, meet three days

in every week, bringing beasts, game, fowls, and in short every thing that

can be desired for subsistence in profusion; and so cheap, that two geese,

or four ducks, may be bought for a Venetian groat. Then follow the butcher

markets, in which beef, mutton, veal, kid, and lamb, are sold to the great

and rich, as the poor eat of all offal and unclean beasts without scruple.

All sorts of herbs and fruits are to be had continually, among which are

huge pears, weighing ten pounds each, white within, and very fragrant[4],

with yellow and white peaches of very delicate flavour. Grapes do not grow

in this country, but raisins are brought from other places. They likewise

import very good wine; but that is not in so much esteem as with us, the

people being contented with their own beverage, prepared from rice and

spices. Every day there are brought up from the ocean, which is at the

distance of twenty-five miles, such vast quantities of fish, besides those

which are caught in the lake, that one would conceive they could never be

consumed, yet, in a few hours all is gone. All these market places are

encompassed with high houses, underneath which are shops for all kinds of

artificers, and all kinds of merchandize, as spices, pearls, and jewels,

and so forth, and in some the rice wine is sold. Many streets cross each

other, leading into these markets; in some of which there are many cold

baths, accommodated with attendants of both sexes, who are used to this

employment from their infancy. In the same bagnios, there are chambers for

hot baths, for such strangers as are not accustomed to bathe in cold water.

The inhabitants bathe every day, and always wash before eating.

In other streets, there are such numbers of mercenary prostitutes, that I

dare not pretend to say how many. These are found near the market places,

and in all quarters of the city, in places appointed for their residence,

where they shew themselves, pompously adorned and perfumed, attended by

many servants, and having their houses richly furnished. They are very

skilful in sports and dalliances, and in contriving pleasures to rob men of

their senses. In other streets there are physicians and astrologers, and

persons who teach to read and write, and an infinity of other trades. At

each end of every market place, there is a palace or tribunal where judges,

appointed by the khan, are stationed for determining any disputes which may

happen between merchants and others; also, to superintend the guards upon

the bridges, and other matters of police, punishing all who are negligent

or disorderly. Along both sides of the principal street, there are great

palaces with gardens; and between these the houses of artificers; and such

multitudes are perpetually going to and fro in all the streets, that one

would wonder how so vast a population could be provided in food. I was

informed by an officer of the customs, that it appeared, by a very accurate

computation, the daily expenditure of pepper in Quinsai, was forty-three

_soma_, each soma being 223 pounds[5]. From this some idea may be formed of

the immense quantities of victuals, flesh, wine, and spices, which are

expended in that place. There are twelve principal companies or

corporations, each of which has a thousand shops; and in each shop or

factory, there are ten, fifteen, or twenty men at work, and in some forty

under one master[6].

The rich tradesmen do not work themselves, although the ancient laws

ordained that the sons of all should follow the trades of their fathers,

but the rich are permitted not to work with their own hands, but to keep

shops and factories, superintending the labour of others in their

particular trades. These rich people, and especially their wives, stand in

their shops, well dressed, or rather sumptuously arrayed in rich silks, and

adorned with valuable jewels. Their houses are well built, and richly

furnished, and adorned with pictures and other ornaments of immense price;

and they exercise their trades with great integrity. The whole inhabitants

are idolaters, of a very fair complexion, and mostly dressed in silken

garments, as silk is produced in great abundance in their neighbourhood, or

brought from other places. They dwell together in great amity, insomuch,

that the inhabitants of a street seem only to compose one family, and are

particularly circumspect in their behaviour to females, as it would be

reputed exceedingly disgraceful to use any indecorous language to a married

woman. The natives are of a most peaceable disposition, and no way addicted

to strife or quarrelling, and altogether unused to arms, which they do not

even keep in their houses. They are extremely hospitable to foreign

merchants, whom they entertain kindly in their houses, giving them the best

advice in regard to the conduct of their affairs: But they are by no means

fond of the soldiers and guards of the great khan, as by their means they

have been deprived of their natural kings and rulers. About the lake there

are many fair buildings and palaces of the principal men, and numerous idol

temples, with monasteries of idolatrous priests. There are two islands in

the lake, on each of which is a palace, containing an incredible number of

rooms, to which they resort on occasion of marriages and other festivals.

In these palaces, abundance of plate, linens, and all other things

necessary for such purposes, are kept up at the common expence, and

sometimes 100 separate companies are accommodated at one time in the

several apartments. In the lake also there are vast numbers of pleasure

boats and barges, adorned with fair seats and tables under cover, being

flat on the tops, where men stand to push the boats along with poles, as

the lake is very shallow. These are all painted within, and have windows to

open or shut at pleasure. Nothing in the world can be more pleasant or

delightful than this lake, from its immense variety of rich objects on all

sides; particularly the city ornamented with so many temples, monasteries,

palaces, gardens, trees, barges, and innumerable people taking their

recreations; for they ordinarily work only a part of each day, spending the

remainder in parties of pleasure with their friends, or with women, either

on the lake, or in driving through the city in chariots. All the streets

are paved with stone, as are all the highways in the kingdom of Mangi, only

a space on one side being left unpaved for the use of the foot posts. The

principal street of Quinsai has a pavement of ten paces broad on each side,

the middle being laid with gravel, and having channels in every place for

conveying water, it is kept always perfectly clean. In this street there

are innumerable long close chariots, each of which is accommodated with

seats and silk cushions for six persons, who divert themselves by driving

about the streets, or go to the public gardens, where they pass their time

in fine walks, shady bowers, and the like, and return at night in the same

chariots to the city[7].

When a child is born, the father notes down the exact point of time, and

with this memorandum goes immediately to some astrologer, of whom there are

many in every market place, to consult the destiny in regard to his future

fortunes; and they use the same forms before celebrating their marriages,

to ascertain the lucky times. When a person of note dies, the kindred

clothe themselves in canvas or sackcloth, and accompany the body to the

funeral, both men and women, people being employed to play on musical

instruments, and singing all the way prayers to their idols; and being come

to the place, they cast into the fire in which the body is burnt, many

pieces of cotton paper, on which figures of slaves, horses, camels, stuffs

of silk and gold, money, and all other things are painted, which, by this

means, they believe the dead person will really possess in the next world;

and they make a grand concert of music, under the idea of the joy with

which the soul of their departed friend will be received by their idols in

the other life which he is now to begin. As their timber houses are very

liable to accidents by fire, there are stone towers in every street, to

which they carry their goods for security on such occasions. On most of the

bridges there are guard-houses, in which soldiers continuallv watch, five

in each by day, and five by night, in case of any alarm or disturbance. In

every guard-house there hangs a great bason[8], on which the warders strike

the successive hours, beginning one at sunrise, and beginning a new series

at sunset. These guards patrole during the night, and if they see any light

or fire in a house after the appointed time, or meet any person in the

streets after legal hours, they cause them to answer before the judges or

magistrates of the district. When a fire happens, the guards collect from

their different stations to assist in quenching it, and to carry away the

goods to the stone towers, or into the islands in the lake; for during the

night none of the citizens are permitted to go out, except such as are in

danger from fires.

The khan keeps always a large body of his best and most faithful soldiers

for the security of the city, which is the largest and richest in the whole

earth; and besides the small guard-houses on the bridges already mentioned,

there are larger lodges built of wood all over the city, for the

accommodation of parties of guards to preserve peace and order. On the

reduction of Mangi to obedience, the khan divided it into nine great

provinces, placing a viceroy in each, to administer the government, and to

dispense justice. Every year each of these viceroys gives an account to the

tribunals of the khan at Cambalu, of the revenues, and all other matters

connected with his government; and every third year, the viceroy, and all

the other officers are changed. The viceroy, who resides in Quinsai,

commands over 140 other cities, all large, rich, and populous; nor is the

extent of this government to be wondered at, as there are in Mangi 12,000

cities, all inhabited by rich and industrious people, in every one of which

the khan maintains a garrison proportional to its greatness and importance,

in some 1000 men, and even up to 10 or 20,000 men[9]. These are not all

Tartars, for the Tartar soldiers are cavalry only, and are kept in places

where there is conveniency for exercising their horses. The great majority

of the troops in Mangi are Kathayans, and the garrisons in Kathay are

composed of people from Mangi. Every third year, such a number of men fit

to carry arms as are wanted, are selected for filling up the garrisons, and

are sent to serve in places, at least twenty days journey from their homes;

and, after serving four or five years, they are permitted to go home, and

are replaced by fresh recruits. Most part of the revenues of the khan are

expended in this way, and on the other necessary expences of government;

and by this distribution of so powerful a military force, an army can be

suddenly called together in the event of any town rebelling. In the city of

Quinsai there is a constant garrison of 30,000 soldiers, and the smallest

city in all Mangi contains at least 1000 regular troops. If any person is

not able to work, he is carried to some hospital, of which there are many

in Quinsai, founded by the ancient kings, and endowed with large revenues:

But when they are well again, they must return to their labour.

I come next to speak of the palace of the late king Fanfur. His

predecessors caused a large park to be inclosed with high walls, ten miles

in circuit[10], and divided within into three parts. That in the middle was

entered by a gate leading to a range of large galleries or halls, whose

roofs were sustained by pillars finely wrought and painted, and richly

adorned with gold and azure. The smallest of these galleries was that

nearest the gate of entrance, and they gradually became larger and fairer

in succession, the most sumptuous being at the farthest end. The walls of

all these apartments were elegantly painted with the portraits and

histories of the former kings. Every year, on certain holidays dedicated to

the idols, Fanfur used to hold open court, on which occasion he feasted his

chief lords, the principal merchants, and rich artificers of Quinsai,

10,000 at a time in these halls, the feasts continuing for ten or twelve

successive days, with incredible magnificence, every guest using his utmost

endeavours to appear in the most pompous dresses. On one side of this

magnificent range of galleries, there was a wall dividing it from a great

cloistered court, having a terrace all round, set with pillars,

communicating with which were the chambers of the king and queen, all

curiously wrought, carved, gilded, and painted with the utmost splendour

and magnificence. From this cloister, a covered gallery, six paces wide,

extended a great length all the way to the lake; and on each side of this

gallery there were ten courts, answering to each other like cloisters, each

having fifty chambers with their gardens, and in these there were 1000

concubines for the kings service. Sometimes with the queen, and sometimes

with these concubines, the king used to go in his barge for recreation on

the lake, or to visit the idol temples. The rest of the great inclosure was

divided into graves, lakes, and gardens, in which all sorts of beasts of

chase were kept, as stags, roebucks, hares, conies, and others, and there

the king used to divert himself with his damsels, in chariots, or on

horseback, no man being allowed to enter there. In this place the ladies

hunted with dogs, and when wearied with sport they retired into the groves,

and throwing off their garments, came forth naked, and fell to swimming in

the lakes in the kings presence. Sometimes he banqueted in these groves,

being served by his damsels. All of these particulars I learnt from an old

rich merchant of Quinsai, who had been familiar with king Fanfur, and knew

all the incidents of his life and reign, and had seen the palace in its

most flourishing state; and he carried me to see it. The viceroy now

resides there, the first described galleries remaining, still in their

original state, but the chambers of the damsels are fallen to ruin; the

walls also which encompassed the woods and gardens, are all fallen down,

the beasts and trees are all gone, and all the other ornaments are

destroyed.

Twenty-five miles from Quinsai we come to the ocean, between the east and

the north-east, near which is a city called Gampu[11], having an excellent

port frequented by merchant ships from the Indies. While I Marco was in

Quinsai, an account was taken for the great khan, of the revenues, and the

number of inhabitants, and I saw that there were enrolled 160 toman of

fires, reckoning for each fire a family dwelling in one house. Each toman

is 10,000, which makes 1,600,000 families[12]; and for all this population

there is only one Nestorian church, all the rest being idolaters. Every

householder is obliged to have written over his door the names of every

individual in his family, whether males or females, as also the number of

horses, adding or effacing as the family increases or diminishes, and this

rule is observed in all the cities of Mangi and Kathay. Those also who keep

inns, must write down in a book the names of all their guests, with the day

and hour of their arrival and departure; and these books are sent daily to

the magistrates who preside at the market places. The revenues which accrue

to the khan from Quinsai, and the other cities under its authority, are,

first from salt eight tomans of gold, every toman being 80,000 sazzi, and a

sazzi is more than a gold florin, which will amount to six millions, and

four hundred thousand ducats. The cause of this is, that being near the

sea, there are many lakes or salines of sea water, which dry up and

coagulate into salt in summer, and five other provinces in Mangi are

supplied from the coast of Quinsai. This province produces plenty of sugar,

which pays, like all other spices, three and a third in the hundred, which

is likewise paid for rice-wine. All the twelve companies, which, we said

before, have twelve thousand shops, and all merchants who bring goods

hither by sea, or carry any away, pay a similar rate. Those who come from

India or other remote countries, pay ten per cent. All breeding cattle, and

all productions of the earth, as silk, rice, corn, and the like, pay to the

khan. The whole computation being made in my presence, amounted yearly,

besides the above mentioned produce from salt, to two hundred and ten

tomans of gold, which are equal to sixteen millions and eight hundred

thousand golden ducats[13].

A days journey from Quinsai to the south-east, we pass the whole way

through houses, villages, fine gardens, and abundant cultivation, and then

come to a fine city called Tapin-zu. Three days hence is Uguiu, and two

days farther, we still ride past castles, cities, and well cultivated

fields, so near adjoining, that the whole seems, to travellers, like one

continued city; in this district are great canes, fifteen paces long, and

four palms thick. Two days farther is the large and handsome city of

Congui, and travelling thence for four days, through places well filled

with industrious people, having plenty of beeves, buffaloes, goats, and

swine, but no sheep, we come to the city of Zengian, which is built on a

hill in the middle of a river, which, after encompassing it, divides into

two branches, one of which runs to the south-east and the other to the

north-west. Three days journey thence, through a most pleasant country,

exceedingly well inhabited, we come to the large city of Gieza, which is

the last in the kingdom of Quinsai, After this we enter into another

province of the kingdom of Mangi called Concha, the principal city of which

is Fugiu, by which you travel six days journey south-east, through hills

and dales, always finding inhabited places, and plenty of beasts, fowls,

and game, and some strong lions are found in the mountains and forests.

Ginger, galingal, and other spices, grow here in great plenty, and there is

an herb, of which the fruit has the same colour, smell, and effect with

saffron, which it is not, and is much used in their meats[15], The

inhabitants are idolaters, and subjects of the great khan, and eat mans

flesh, if the person has not died of disease, even considering it as better

flavoured than any other. When they go into the fields, they shave to the

ears, and paint their faces with azure. All their soldiers serve on foot,

except the captains, who are on horseback, and their arms are swords and

lances. They are very cruel, and when they kill an enemy, they immediately

drink his blood, and afterwards eat his flesh.

After six days journey is Quelinfu, a great city with three bridges, each

of which is eight paces broad, and above an hundred paces long. The men are

great merchants and manufacturers, and the women are fair and delicately

shaped. The country produces plenty of ginger and galingal, and great

abundance of silk and cotton. I was told, but saw them not, that they have

hens without feathers, hairy like cats, which yet lay eggs, and are good to

eat[16]. In this part of the country there are many lions, which make the

ways very dangerous. After three days journey, we arrive in a populous

country inhabited by idolaters, who make great quantities of silk stuffs.

The chief city is Unguem, near which abundance of sugar is produced, and

sent from thence to Cambalu. Before the reduction of this country by the

great Khan, the inhabitants of this country could only manufacture a bad

kind of sugar, by boiling down the juice of the cane into a black paste;

but certain inhabitants from _Babylonia_, taught them refine it by means of

the ashes of a certain tree[17]. Fifteen miles farther is the city of

Cangiu, still in the province of Concha, and here the Khan has always an

army in readiness for keeping the country under subjection. Through this

city there runs a river of a mile broad, with handsome buildings on both

sides, and the river is constantly covered with vessels carrying sugar and

other goods. This river disembogues itself at the distance of five days

journey south-east from Cangiu, into the sea at Zaitum all the country

between being extremely pleasant, and abounding in trees and shrubs of

camphor. Zaitum is a famous port, and much frequented by ships with rich

cargoes from India, for the supply of Mangi and Kathay, and from this port

the productions of these regions are dispersed all over India. At this port

such quantities of pepper are imported, that what comes through Alexandria

into our western world is not to be compared to it, being hardly an

hundredth part. The concourse of merchants to this famous emporium is

incredible, as it is one of the most commodious ports in the whole world,

and is exceedingly productive in revenue to the great Khan, who receives

ten in the hundred of all merchandize. The merchants pay likewise so high

for freights, that not above a half of their cargoes remains to themselves

for sale, and yet of that moiety they make immense profits. The inhabitants

of Zaitum are idolaters, and much given to pleasure, and in it there are

many artizans employed in embroidery and arras-work[18].

This river is large, wide, and swift, one arm of it reaching to Quinsai,

and the other to Zaitum[19], and at the parting of these branches, the city

of Tringui is situated, where porcelain dishes are made[20]. I was told of

a certain earth which is cast up into conical heaps, and left exposed to

the weather for thirty or forty years without stirring; after which,

refined by time, it is made into dishes, which are painted and baked in

furnaces; and so cheap is this manufacture, that eight of these dishes may

be bought for one Venetian groat[21]. From this province of Concha, the

great Khan derives nearly as great a revenue as he does from Quinsai. In

these two provinces I travelled, but in none of die other provinces of

Mangi; in all of which one language Is used, with considerable variety in

dialect, and but one kind of writing.

[1] There are two Chinese measures called Li; of the greater there are 200

to a degree of latitude, and of the smaller 250. It is possible that

Marco may have mistaken one or other of these measures for miles;

either of which suppositions would reduce the bounds of Quinsai to

some decent moderation, being thirty-four miles for the greater, and

twenty-seven miles for the smaller li, yet a large city on even the

latter substitution. Koan-sing, which may likewise be written Quan-

sing, all Chinese names in alphabetical characters, being quite of

arbitrary orthography, is the only place which can be supposed the

same with Quinsai. But similarity of sounds is a very uncertain guide.

From other circumstances in the text, the modern Kua-hing may have

once been Quinsay.--E.

[2] Calculating by Li, this extent will be reduced to eleven or thirteen

miles.--E.

[3] By the same reduction, these squares will be reduced to half a quarter

of a mile in the sides.--E.

[4] Probably a mistaken translation or transcription for melons, pumpkins,

or gourds.--E.

[5] This amounts to more than one sixth of an ounce daily for a population

of a million, including infants. A thing utterly incredible, and which

must arise from some corruption of the text. It exceeds 9000 tons

yearly. Perhaps, instead of _pepper_ the original had _salt_.--E.

[6] This alone would give a working population exceeding a million,

including the women, children, and aged, belonging to these. But

populous as the country certainly is, the Chinese, in all ages, from

Polo down to Staunton, have imposed those ridiculously exaggerated

accounts upon all inquisitive travellers. This subject will be

discussed in that division of this work, which particularly relates to

China.--E.

[7] The contrast between the cleanness and splendour of Quinsay and the

gloomy dirt of European cities in the thirteenth century is very

striking. China then enjoyed hackney coaches, tea gardens, and

hilarity; while the delights of European capitals were processions of

monks among perpetual dunghills in narrow crooked lanes.--E.

[8] Probably meaning a gong.--E.

[9] There must be some corruption in the text here; for even Chinese

exaggeration could hardly venture upon this computation, which would

extend the garrisons in Mangi alone to many millions.--E.

[10] If Li, from 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 miles.--E.

[11] Supposing Kua-hing to have been Quan-sai, no city appears in the

direction indicated in the text for the situation of Gampu. But if we

might venture to suppose north-east an error for south, the city of

Hanfcheou is nearly at the distance mentioned by Marco, and stands at

the bottom of a deep bay of the ocean, in a very convenient situation

for trade, communicating with Kua-hing by the great canal--E.

[12] Multiplying this number of families by five, would give a population

of eight millions of individuals of every age and sex. Fortunately

Marco permits us to suppose that this population belonged to the

viceroyalty, or province over which Quinsai presided.--E.

[13] Either this computation, or that of the duty on salt, is erroneous. If

8 tomans are 6,400,000 ducats, 210 tomans would amount to 168,000,000,

instead of the sum in the text. If the latter computation be right,

16,800,000 ducats from 210 tomans; the duty on salt, or 8 tomans,

ought only to have been 640,000 ducats, which appears to be the truth.

The whole revenue, therefore, of the province, will be 17,440,000

ducats, equal to L. 2,911,250 Sterling, at 3s. 7d. the ducat.--E.

[14] Besides the utter discrepancy of these names to those of any cities

now in China, it appears obvious, that the direction of the itinerary

in the text is erroneous or corrupted. We have been already on the

ocean or bay of Nankin, the eastern boundary of China and of the land;

yet the text persists continually to travel _south-east_, which is

impossible. The direction of the itinerary must have been westwards,

probably south-west.--E.

[15] This was probably Turmeric, so much used in the Eastern cookery,

though it is the root which is employed.--E.

[16] Obviously what are now called Friesland, but more properly frizzled

hens.--E.

[17] In the manufacture of sugar it is necessary to neutralize a certain

redundant acid in the juice of the cane, by a fit proportion of some

alkaline ingredient to enable the sugar to crystallize: The ordinary

_temper_, as it is called, for this purpose, in the West Indies, is

lime, but any alkali will produce nearly the same effect. This subject

will be fully elucidated in that part of our work which is peculiarly

appropriated to the sugar colonies in the West Indies,--E.

[18] There can hardly be a doubt that the Zaiturn of Marco is the modern

Canton; yet from the causes already mentioned in several notes, it is

next to an impossibility to trace the route or itinerary from Quinsai

to this place.--E.

[19] This is an obvious error, corruption, or interpolation; for on no

conceivable hypothesis of the situations of Quinsai and Zaitum, can

any river be found in China which answers to this description.--E.

[20] This is the only hint in Marco, of the peculiarly famous manufacture

of China, from which all the best _earthen ware_ of Europe has

acquired this name as _par excellence_. From this circumstance, and

from the fame of Nankin for this manufacture, I strongly suspect that

this passage has been foisted in by some ignorant or careless editor

in a wrong place.--E.

[21] It is singular that Marco should make no mention whatever of the

peculiar beverage of the Chinese, _tea_, though particularly described

both in name and use, by the Mahometan travellers in the _ninth_

century, four hundred years earlier, as used in all the cities of

China.--E.

SECTION XVII

_Of the island of Zipangu, and of the unsuccessful attempts made by the

Tartars for its Conquest_.

I shall now leave the country of Mangi, and proceed to discourse of India

the greater, the middle, and lesser; in which I have been, both in the

service of the great khan, and also on our return home along with the

queen, who was sent from Kathay to Argon. The ships which are built in the

kingdom of Mangi are made of fir, having only one deck, on which are built

twenty cabins, more or less, according to their size, each for one

merchant. They have each a good rudder, and four masts, with four sails,

which they raise or let down at pleasure, but some have only two masts.

Some of the largest ships have thirteen divisions in the inside, made of

boards let into each other, so that if, by the blow of a whale, or by

touching on a rock, water should get into one of these divisions, it can go

no farther, and the leak being found, is soon stopped. They are all built

double, or have two courses of boards, one within the other, both of which

are well caulked with oakum, and nailed with iron; but they are not

pitched, as they have no pitch in Mangi, instead of which they are payed

all over with the oil of a certain tree, mixed up with lime and chopped

hemp which binds faster than pitch or lime. The largest of these ships have

three hundred marines, others two hundred, or an hundred and fifty,

according to their size; and they carry from five to six thousand bags of

pepper. In ancient times they used to build larger ships than now; but

owing to the great numbers of islands and shoals in some places of these

seas, they now build them less[1]. Besides their sails, they use oars.

occasionally to propel these ships, four men being employed to each oar.

The larger ships are usually attended by two or three of a smaller size,

able to carry a thousand bags of pepper, and having sixty mariners in each

and these smaller ships are sometimes employed to tow the greater vessels.

Each of the larger ships hare ten small boats for fishing and other

services, which are fastened aloft on their sides, and let down when wanted

for use. After having been employed for a year, these ships are sheathed

all over, so that they then have three courses of boards: and they proceed

in this manner till they sometimes hare six courses, alter which they are

broken up.

Zipangu[2] is a very large island on the east, and fifteen hundred miles

distant from the shores of Mangi. The people of this island are of a white

complexion and of gentle manners, and have a king of their own. They have

gold in great plenty, as Jew merchants report thither, and no gold is

allowed to be exported. Such as have traded to this island speak of the

kings palace as being covered over with gold as our churches are with lead,

and that the windows and floors are likewise of gold. It abounds in pearls,

and is amazingly rich. Hearing of the vast opulence of this island, Kublai

Khan sent two of his barons, Abasa and Vensaasin[3], with a fleet and a

great army, to attempt the conquest. Sailing from Zaitum and Quinsai[4],

they arrived safely on the island, but falling out between themselves, they

were only able to take one city, all the garrison of which they beheaded,

except eight persons, who could not be wounded with steel, because each had

an enchanted stone inclosed between the skin and flesh of their right arms.

These men were beaten to death with clubs, by order of the generals. Soon

after this a violent north wind arose, which flew so hard as greatly to

endanger the ships, some of which were lost, and others blown out to sea.

On this, the whole army re-embarked, and sailed to an uninhabited island,

at the distance of about ten miles: But the tempest continuing, many of the

ships were wrecked, and about thirty thousand of the people escaped on

shore, without arms or provisions; the two generals with a few of the

principal persons, returning home. After this tempest ceased, the people of

Zipangu sent over an army, in a fleet of ships, to seize the Tartars; but

having landed without any order, the Tartars took the advantage of a rising

ground in the middle of the island, under cover, of which, they wheeled

suddenly round between the Zipanguers and the ships, which had been left

unmanned, with ail their streamers displayed. In these ships, the Tartars

sailed to a principal city of Zipangu, into which they were admitted

without any suspicion, finding hardly any within its walls except women,

the men being all absent on the expedition into the uninhabited island. The

Zipanguers collected a new fleet and army to besiege the city, and the

Tartars receiving no succour, were constrained to surrender, after a

defence of six months, on terms by which their lives were spared. This

happened in the year 1264[5]. For the bad conduct of the two commanders,

the great khan ordered one to be beheaded, and sent the other to the desert

island of Zerga, in which malefactors are punished, by sewing them up in

the new flayed hide of a buffalo, which shrinks so much in drying, as to

put them to exquisite torture, and brings them to a miserable death.

The idols in Zipangu and the adjoining islands are strangely made, some

having the head of a bull, others of a hog, or a dog, and in other most

monstrous fashions. Some have heads with four faces, others three heads on

one neck, while some have faces on their shoulders. Some have four arms,

others ten, or even an hundred arms; and that idol is reputed the most

powerful, and is held in greatest reverence, which has the greatest number.

When asked the reason of making their idols in such distorted and

ridiculous forms, they answer that such is the custom which has been handed

down from their ancestors. It is reported of these islanders, that they eat

such of their enemies as they take prisoners; esteeming human flesh a

peculiar dainty. The sea in which Zipangu lies is called the sea of _Chi_

or _Chin_, or the sea over against Mangi, which is called _Chan_ or

_Chint_, in the language of that island. This sea is so large, that

mariners who have frequented it, say it contains seven thousand four

hundred and forty islands, most of them inhabited; and that in ail those

islands there is no tree which is not odoriferous, or does not bear fruit,

or is not useful in some other respects. In them likewise there are great

abundance of spices of various kinds, especially black arid white pepper,

and lignum aloes[6]. The ships of Zaitum are a whole year on their voyage

to and from Zipangu, going there during the winter, and returning again in

summer, as there are two particular winds which regularly prevail in these

seasons. Zipangu is far distant from India. But I will now leave Zipangu,

because I never was there, as it is not subject to the khan, and shall now

return to Zaitum and the voyage from thence to India.

[1] In this passage, in the edition of Harris, the sense seems obscurely to

insinuate that this had been occasioned by the sea having broken down

or overwhelmed certain lands or islands, producing numbers of smaller

islands and extensive shoals.--E.

[2] Zipangu, Zipangri, or Cimpagu, is Japan without any doubt.--E.

[3] Named Abataa and Yonsaintin by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition. The

latter Ven-san-sui, or Von-sain-cin, by his name seems to have been a

Chinese.--E.

[4] Called Caicon, or Jaiton in the Trevigi edition. Caicon is not very far

removed from the sound of Cangtong or Canton, which has already been

considered to be the Zaitum of the text.--E.

[5] A.D. 1269, according to the Trevigi edition.--E.

[6] Marco obviously extends this sea and these islands to all those of the

Chinese sea and the Indian ocean, from Sumatra in the SW. to Japan in

the NE.--E.

SECTION XVIII.

_Account of Various Countries, Provinces, Islands, and Cities in the

Indies_.

Sailing from Zaitum, 1500 miles to the south westwards, we pass a gulf

called Cheinan[1], which extends two months sail to the northward, still

confining on the south-east[2] of Mangi, and elsewhere, with Ania and

Toloman, and other provinces mentioned formerly. Within it are infinite

islands all in a manner inhabited [3], and in them is found abundance of

gold, and they trade with each other. This gulf seems like another world;

and after 1500 miles sailing, is the rich and great country of Ziambar[4].

The people are idolaters, and pay an yearly tribute to the great khan of

twenty elephants, and great quantities of aloes wood. In the year 1268,

hearing of the riches of this country, the khan sent one of his generals,

named Segatu, to invade it, Acambute, who was then king of the country, was

old, and chose to avoid the dangers and miseries of war, by agreeing to pay

the before-mentioned tribute. In Ziambar there are many woods of black

ebony, of great value.

Sailing thence for 1500 miles, betwixt the south and southeast, we came to

Java[5], which is considered by mariners to be the largest island in the

world, being above 3000 miles in circumference. It is governed by a king

who pays tribute to none; as, owing to the length and danger of the voyage,

the great khan has made no attempt to annex it to his vast dominions. The

merchants of Zaitum and Mangi, bring from thence abundance of gold and

spices. South and south-westwards six hundred miles, are the islands of

Sondur and Condur, both desolate, of which Sondur is the larger[6]. Fifty

miles south-east from them is a rich and great province, or island, called

Lochae[7]. The people are idolaters, and have both a king and language of

their own. In it there grows great plenty of Brazil wood; and it has much

gold, many elephants, wild beasts, and fowls, and an excellent fruit called

bercias, as large as lemons. The country is mountainous and savage, and the

king permits no person to come into his dominions, lest they should get

acquainted with the county and attempt its conquest. It produces abundance

of porcelain shells, which are transported to other places, where they

serve as money.

Five hundred miles southward from Lochae, is the isle of Pentan[8], a

savage place, which produces sweet trees in all its woods. For sixty miles

of this voyage, between Lochae and Pentan, the sea in many places is only

four fathoms deep Thirty miles to the south-east from Pentan, is the island

and kingdom of Malaiur[9], which has a king and a peculiar language of its

own, and has a great trade carried on in spices from Pentan. One hundred

miles south-east is Java the less[10], which is about two thousand miles in

circuit, and is divided into eight kingdoms, each having its own language.

I was in six of these kingdoms, of which I shall give some account,

omitting those I did not see.

One of these kingdoms is Felech or Ferlach, in which the formerly

idolatrous inhabitants of the cities have been converted to the Mahometan

religion, in consequence of much trade and intercourse with the Saracens;

but the mountaineers are very savage, eating human flesh, and living upon

every kind of unclean food, and they worship all day what they first happen

to meet in the morning. The next kingdom is called Basma, which has a

language peculiar to itself, the people living without law or religion like

beasts: But they sometimes send hawks to the khan, who lays claim to the

sovereignty of the whole island. Besides wild elephants, there are unicorns

in this country, which are much less than elephants, being haired like the

buffalo, but their feet are like those of die elephant. These animals have

one horn in the middle of their foreheads; but they hurt no one with this

weapon, using only their tongue and knee, for they trample and press any

one down with their feet and knees, and their tongue is beset with long

sharp prickles, with which they tear a person to pieces. The head is like

that of a wild boar, which the animal, carries hanging down to the ground.

They are filthy beasts that love to stand and wallow in the mire, and they

do not in the least resemble those unicorns which are said to be found in

some other parts of the world, which allow themselves to be taken by

maids[11]. In this country, there are many apes of different kinds, some of

them, being black with faces like men, which they put into boxes, preserved

with spices; these they sell to merchants, who carry them to various parts

of the world, and pass them for pigmies or little men. This country

likewise produces large goshawks, as black as ravens, which are excellent

for sport.

Samare or Samara is the next kingdom, in which I remained for five months

against my will, in consequence of bad weather[12], during all which time,

none of the stars in the constellation of the great-bear were seen. Being

forced to remain here for five months. I landed with 2000 men, and erected

fortifications to defend us against any unforeseen attack from the savage

cannibals of the island, with whom we established a trade for provisions.

They have excellent wine, both red and white, made from the palm tree,

which is a very wholesome beverage, as it is medicinal for consumption, the

dropsy, and for disorders of the spleen. They have likewise abundance of

fine fish, and eat of all sorts of flesh, without making any difference.

Their cocco nuts are as large as a mans head, and the middle of them is

full of a pleasant liquor, better than wine.

Dragoian[13] is another of those kingdoms claimed by the khan, which has a

king and a peculiar language. I was told of an abominable custom in this

country; that when any one is sick, his relatives send to inquire at the

sorcerers if he is to recover? If they answer no, the kindred then send for

a person, whose office it is to strangle the sick person, whom they

immediately cut in pieces and devour, even to the marrow of their bones,

for they allege, that if any part were to remain, worms would breed in it,

which would be in want of food, and would therefore die, to the great

torture of the soul of the dead person. They afterwards carry away the

bones, and conceal them carefully in caves in the mountains, that no beast

may touch them. If they can lay their hands on any stranger, they treat him

in the same barbarous manner.

Lambri is the fifth kingdom of Java-minor, or Sumatra, in which is great

plenty of Brazil wood, some of the seeds of which I brought to Venice, but

they would not vegetate, as the climate was too cold for them. In this

country there are great numbers of unicorns or rhinoceroses, and plenty of

other beasts and birds. Fanfur is the sixth kingdom, having the best

camphor, which Is sold weight for weight with gold. In that kingdom, they

make a kind of meal from great and long trees, as thick as two men are able

to fathom. Having taken off the thin bark, the wood within is only about

three fingers thick, all the rest being pith, from which the meal is made.

This pith is broken to pieces, and stirred among water, the light dross

swimming, and being thrown away, while the finer parts settle at the

bottom, and is made into paste[14]. I brought some of this to Venice, which

tastes not much unlike barley bread. The wood of this tree is so heavy as

to sink in water like iron, and of it they make excellent lances, but being

very heavy, they are under the necessity of making them short. These are

hardened in the fire, and sharpened, and when so prepared, they will pierce

through armour easier than if made of iron. About 150 miles to the

northward of Lambri, there are two islands, one called Nocueran and the

other Angaman,[l5] in the former of which the inhabitants live like beasts,

and go entirely naked, but have excellent trees, such as cloves, red and

white sanders, coco-nuts, Brazil, and various spices in the other island

the inhabitants are equally savage, and are said to have the heads and

teeth of dogs.

[1] Probably the gulph of Siam.--E.

[2] South-west, certainly.--E.

[3] The inlands in the gulf of Siam are small, and not numerous; so that

the passage is probably corrupted; and may have been in the original,

"that, leaving the gulf of Cheinan on the north, they left infinite

islands, &c; on the south." After all, the gulf of Cheinan may mean

the whole sea of China.--E.

[4] It is difficult to say precisely what division of farther India is here

meant by Ziambar. 1500 miles would carry us to the coast of Malaya;

but 1500 li, or about 500 miles reach only to the coast of

Cochin-China, or it may be Tsiompa. Ziambar, in the editions, is

variously written Ciambau, Ciariban, and Ziambar.--E.

[5] The direction of the voyage is here obviously erroneous, it must have

been between the south and the south-west, or south-south-west. In the

Trevigi edition, the Java of this part of our text is Lava, and

according to Valentine, Lava is the name of the principal city and

kingdom in Borneo; which at all events must be the island here

mentioned by Marco.--E.

[6] According to the Trevigi edition, as reported by Pinkerton, these

islands are only seven miles from Lava or Borneo. At about seventy

miles distance to the south-west, there are two islands named Caremata

and Soorooto, which may be those mentioned in the text.--E.

[7] Called Lochach in some of the editions, and said to be 200 miles from

Sondor and Condur. Whether this may be Ma-lacca or Ma-laya, it is

impossible to determine.--E.

[8] In the Trevigi edition only five miles, and the island is called

Pentara. This may possibly be the island of Bintang in the

south-eastern entrance of the straits of Malacca.--E.

[9] Most probably the kingdom of Malacca. From the Trevigi edition

Pinkerton calls this Malonir, and curiously identifies Pepetam,

Pentara, or Pentan, as the name of the city and kingdom of Malonir or

Malaiur.--E.

[10] If right in our former conjectures, the island spoken of in the text

must be Sumatra not that now called Java. Indeed, the mention

immediately afterwards of the islands of Nocueran and Angaman 150

miles to the north, which can only he the Nicobar and Andaman islands,

establish the identity of Java-minor, here called Java the less, and

Sumatra.--E.

[11] The animal here described under the name of unicorn is the Rhinoceros

monoceros, or one-horned rhinoceros of naturalists; but the single horn

is placed a little above the nose, not on the middle of the forehead,

as here erroneously described by Marco.--E

[12] He had evidently missed the Monsoon, and had to await its return. From

this kingdom or division of the island, it probably acquired the name

of Sumatra, by which it is known in modern geography. From the

circumstance in the text of not seeing the great bear, it is probable

that Marco was stopped near the south-eastern extremity of the island.

What is here translated the great bear, Pinkerton calls, from the

Trevigi edition _del Maistro._ The polar star was invisible of

course.--E.

[13] Called Deragola by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition.--E.

[14] He here distinctly indicates the manufacture of sego.--E.

[15] Nicobar and Andaman, on the east side of the bay of Bengal; called

Necunera and Namgama in the Trevigi edition.--E.

SECTION XIX.

_Of the Island of Ceylon, and various parts of Hither India_.

Sailing from Angaman 1000 miles west, and a little to the south, we come to

the island of Zelan or Ceylon, which is 2400 miles in circumference; but

was anciently 3600 miles round, as appears from the former charts of the

country, the north winds having occasioned the sea to destroy a great part

of it. This is the finest island in the world, and its king is called

Sendernaz. The men and women are idolaters, and go entirely naked, except a

small cloth before them. They grow no corn except rice; and they have

plenty of oil of sesame, milk, flesh, palm wine, Brazil wood, the best

rubies in the world, sapphires, topazes, amethysts, and other gems. The

king of the island is said to have the finest ruby that ever was seen, as

long as the hand, and as thick as a mans wrist, without spot or blemish,

and glowing like a fire. Cublai-Khan once sent to purchase this ruby,

offering the value of a city for it; but the king answered that he would

not part with it for all the treasure in the world, because it had belonged

to his ancestors. The men of this island are unfit for soldiers, and hire

others when they have occasion to go to war.

There is a high mountain in Ceylon, to the top of which no one can ascend,

without the assistance of iron chains, and on which the Saracens report

that the sepulchre of Adam is situated; but the idolaters say that it is

the body of Sogomon Burchan, the first founder of idol worship, son of a

king of the island, who betook himself to a recluse life of religious

contemplation on the top of this mountain, from whence no pleasures or

persuasions could induce him to withdraw. After his death, his father

caused an image of him to be made of solid gold, and commanded all his

subjects to adore him as their god: and hence they say is the origin of

idol worship. People come here in pilgrimage from remote regions, and there

his fore-teeth, and a dish which he used, are solemnly exhibited as holy

relics. As the Saracens pretend that these belonged to Adam, Cublai-Khan

was induced, in 1281, to send ambassadors to the king of this country, who

obtained the dish, two teeth, and some of the hairs of Sogomon Barchan:

These the great khan caused to be received without the city with great

reverence and solemnity, by the whole people of Cambalu, and brought into

his presence with great honour.