CHAPTER X_Industrial Arts Design A Textbook of Practical Methods for Students, Teachers, and Craftsmen

SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD--Continued

ENCLOSED AND FREE ORNAMENT

[Sidenote: Enclosed Ornament (Panels)]

Chapter IX dealt with methods of developing continuous or repeating

ornament (bands or borders). This leaves enclosed and free forms of

surface enrichment to be considered in this chapter.

As an enclosed form, a panel may be enriched by geometric, natural, or

artificial ornament. It is enclosed in a definite boundary of bands or

lines and may be a square or other polygon, circle, ellipse, lunette,

spandrel, lozenge, or triangle. As the decoration does not have the

continuous repeating movement of the border and as it covers an enclosed

area, it is necessarily treated in a different manner from either band

or border. Its object is to decorate a plane surface. The enrichment may

be made by means of carving, inlaying, or painting.

[Sidenote: Free Ornament]

Free ornament means the use of motives not severely enclosed by bands or

panels. Free ornament is generally applied to centers or upper portions

of surfaces to relieve a monotonous area not suited to either panel or

border treatment. It may have an upward or a radial movement dependent

upon the character of the member to be enriched.

[Sidenote: Summary]

We then have three forms of possible surface enrichment: repeating or

continuous motives, enclosed motives, and free motives. Our next point

is to consider where the last two may be used appropriately in surface

enrichment.

[Sidenote: Zone of Enrichment]

The panel of a small primary mass of wood may be enriched at any one of

three places: first, at the margins; second, at the center; third, over

the entire surface. The exact position is a matter to be determined by

the structural design and the utilitarian requirements of the problem.

For example, a bread board or taboret top would require the enrichment

in the margin with the center left free. A table leg might require an

enrichment in the center of the upper portion of the leg, while a square

panel to be inserted in a door, Figure 233, Page 124, might require full

surface treatment.

[Sidenote: Structural Reinforcement]

Each area of panel enrichment should have one or more accented points

known as points of concentration. The design should become more

prominent at these places and cause the eye to rest for a moment before

passing to the next point of prominence. The accented portion of the

design at these points should be so related to the structure that it

apparently reinforces the structure as a whole. Corners, centers of

edges, and geometric centers are salient parts of a structure; we shall

therefore be likely to find our points of concentration coinciding with

them. Let us then consider the first of these arrangements as applied to

enclosed enrichment.

MARGINAL PANEL ENRICHMENT

ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES

Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the

outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich._

Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed

(1) preferably at the corner or (2) in the center of each margin._

Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements composing

the points of concentration and the links connecting them must be

related to the panel contour and to each other._

[Sidenote: Marginal Zone Enrichment]

The marginal method of enrichment may be used when it is impossible to

enrich the entire surface because the center is to be used for

utilitarian purposes or because it would be aesthetically unwise to

enrich the entire surface. The marginal zone is adapted to enriching box

tops, stands, table tops, and similar surfaces designed preferably with

the thought of being seen from above. We shall call such surfaces

horizontal planes.

As the design is to be limited to the margin, the panel outline is bound

to parallel the contours, or outlines, of the surface to be enriched. It

is well to begin the design by creating a panel parallel to the outlines

of the enriched surface. Figure 218. The next step is to place the point

of concentration in the marginal zone and within this figure. Common

usage dictates the _corners_ as the proper points. [Sidenote: Points of

Concentration]

[Sidenote: Points of Concentration in the Corner of Margin]

It may be the designer's practice to use the single or double bands,

Figures 218, 219, 220, with a single accentuation at the corners. The

spots composing the point of concentration must have unity with the

enclosing contours and with the remainder of the enrichment. Figure 220

is, in this respect, an improvement over Figure 219. But these examples

are not _true_ enclosed panel enrichment. They are the borders of

Chapter IX acting as marginal enrichment. It is not until we reach

Figure 221 that the true enclosed enrichment appears, when the panel

motive is clearly evident. In this figure a single incised band

parallels the contours of the figure until the corner is reached. Here

we find it turning, gracefully widening to give variety, and supporting

the structure by its own increased strength. The single band in Figure

221 acts as a bridge, leads the eye from one point of concentration to

the next similar point, forms a compact mass with the point of

concentration, and parallels the enclosing contours of the enriched

surface.

[Sidenote: Points of Concentration in the Center of Margin]

In Figure 222 the point of concentration is to be found in the _center_

of each margin. This bilateral unit is clearly designed on and about the

center lines of the square panel. These points of concentration take the

place of previous concentrations at the _corners_ which were based upon

the square's diagonals. While accenting based upon the center lines is

acceptable, this means of concentration does not seem so successfully to

relate the accented part to the structural outlines as that of

concentration based upon the diagonals. The latter, therefore, is

recommended for beginners. The corners of Figure 222 are, however,

slightly accented by means of the bridging spots _x-x_.

[Sidenote: Inceptive Axes or Balancing Lines]

The diagonals and center lines of the surface enriched squares of

Figures 221 and 222 and similar structural lines are _inceptive axes_,

as they are center lines for new design groups. It may then be said that

a strong basic axis or similar line depending upon the structure, may

become the center line or inceptive axis upon which to construct a

bilateral design. It is only necessary to have this inceptive axis pass

through the enrichment zone of the panel. Hereafter in the drawings,

inceptive axes will be designated by the abbreviation I.A. while the

point of concentration will be indicated by the abbreviation P.C.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

MARGINAL ENRICHMENT OF SQUARE AREAS

SYMBOLS: {PC} POINT OF CONCENTRATION; {IA} INCEPTIVE AXIS

TOOL PROCESSES. INLAYING AND CARVING

PLATE 36]

[Sidenote: Inceptive Axis]

The strongest plea for the inceptive axis is the fact that it interlocks

surface enrichment with the structure, insuring a degree of unity that

might otherwise be unattainable.

The carved enrichment of Figure 223 fully illustrates this point. The

analytical study of Figure 224 shows the diagonal used as an inceptive

axis, with the leading lines grouped about it at the corner point of

concentration.

FREE ENRICHMENT

Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be

based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure._

Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to the

structural surfaces._

Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically

placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and

above or below the geometric center of the design._

[Sidenote: Center Zone Enrichment]

This method of surface enrichment is used to relieve the design of heavy

members in the structure or to distribute ornament over the surface of

lighter parts in a piece of furniture. An example is noted in Figure

246, Page 128, where the upper portion of the legs has center

enrichment. As can be readily seen, the enrichment is generally free in

character with little or no indication of enclosure. Figure 225 shows

the application of free enrichment to a paneled screen or hinged door.

The P.C. is in the upper portion of the door and is re-echoed in the

door frames, while the ornament itself is strongly dynamic in movement

with a decided upward tendency in sympathy with the proportions of the

door. This motive might be developed by inlay, carving, or paint.

Figure 226 is a carved Gothic leaf, appropriately used as enrichment of

heavy furniture. The unit may be raised above the surface or, even more

easily, depressed or incised into the surface. The small corner spot is

added with the intention of bringing the leaf into sympathetic

conformity with the contours. Note how the center line of both units in

Figures 225 and 226 coincides with the inceptive axis of the structure.

Let it again be reiterated that this binding of the surface enrichment

to the structure by means of the coincidence of the axes of symmetry

and the inceptive axes causes the most positive kind of unity. No part

of this form of enrichment should be carved sufficiently high to give it

the appearance of being separated from the main surface.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

FREE CENTER ENRICHMENT FOR VERTICAL AREAS

TOOL PROCESSES: INLAYING, LOW RELIEF CARVING

PLATE 37]

[Sidenote: Examples of Free Enrichment]

Figures 227 and 228 are additional examples of free enrichment. Figure

228 has introduced by its monogram the individual touch of ownership so

essential to the success of school designing. The monogram represents

free enrichment while the border is marginal decoration with the point

of concentration in the center of the top edge. Both types of enrichment

are related to each other and to the structural contours.

[Sidenote: Pierced Free Enrichment]

[Sidenote: Errors in the Use of Pierced Enrichment]

Figure 229 is typical free _pierced_ enrichment. The wood in the

enriched portion is removed and the resulting figure supplies added

lightness of construction and variety to the surface. One encounters

this form of enrichment in the average school project with greater

frequency than either inlaying or carving. It is with the thought of

adding to the possibilities of school project decoration that the latter

forms have been introduced. A word regarding the errors often

encountered in pierced enrichment of the character of Figure 229 may not

be amiss. Pupils, believing the square to be the last word in this form

of enrichment, place the figure on the member to be enriched with little

thought of its possible relation to the structural contours; the result

is the un-unified design illustrated in Figure 230. To correct this,

reference should be made to Rule 8b.

FULL PANEL ENRICHMENT

Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the

outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._

[Sidenote: Full Surface Enrichment]

This is the richest and most elaborate form of enrichment when carried

to its full perfection. It generally takes the form of a panel filled

with appropriate design material. This panel may be used to enrich the

plain end of a project such as a book stall and thus cover the entire

surface, or it may be inserted into a large primary mass and accentuate

its center as in a door, in a manner similar to Figure 233. Its use,

whatever its position, leads us to the consideration of methods of

designing full panels.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT: SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR PANELS--TOOL PROCESSES

CARVING, INLAYING

PLATE 38]

Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel

may be in its center or in its outer margin._

[Sidenote: Square Panels]

In planning designs for full panels, it would be well to consider:

first, square panels; second, rectangular panels; third, varied panels.

The point of concentration may be kept in the _corners_ of a square

panel, as designed in Figure 231, or it may be placed in the _center_,

as shown in Figure 232. The effects, when assembled, are indicated in

Figure 233.

To secure these effects, a square panel is commonly divided into quarter

sections by center lines. The diagonals of each quarter should be drawn

before proceeding with the details of the design. These diagonals and

center lines are the building lines or leading _axes_ of the pattern.

The _leading lines and details_ are then grouped around these center and

diagonal axes in a manner quite similar to the method used in Figures

223 and 224. These leading lines are then _clothed with enrichment_ by

applying the processes indicated in Chapter IX.

[Sidenote: Steps in Panel Designing]

Without going into detail we may say that it is good practice: first, to

draw the square panel; second, to draw the center lines and diagonals;

third, to locate points of concentration; fourth, to make the leading

lines move inwardly to center concentration or outwardly to corner

concentration; fifth, to clothe these lines with ornament having

strongly dynamic movement corresponding to the leading lines; sixth, to

fill in remaining space with ornament, supporting the movement toward

points of concentration, even though slight and minor contrasts of

direction are added to give variety. When the entire design is completed

one should ask the following questions: Does the design have unity? Does

it seem too thin and spindling? And most of all, do the points of

concentration and shape of the panel fit the structural outlines and

proportions? We cannot fit a square peg into a round hole; neither can

we fit a square panel into a circular or rectangular mass without

considerable change to the panel.

Figures 234 and 235 have been drawn with the idea of suggesting a simple

and modified form of panel enrichment which may be readily handled by

the beginner. The tree as a decorative symbol is appropriate to wood,

and its adaption to a square panel is drawn at Figure 235.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

ENCLOSED PANEL ENRICHMENT--FORMAL AND FREE BALANCE

APPLICATION OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MOTIVES

PLATE 39]

[Sidenote: Rectangular Panels]

While a rectangular panel may be divided into sections by a number of

different methods, it is well for the beginner in design to treat it as

a vertical mass, designed to enrich a vertical surface. This vertical

panel may then be divided into halves by the axis of symmetry, which

should coincide with an inceptive axis, but it is not essential to

balance the enrichment exactly in each half. Small deviations from exact

symmetry sometimes give added variety to the design. Figure 235.

Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical

panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._

[Sidenote: Vertical Panels]

The point of concentration in vertical panels should be in the upper

portion, and all parts of the design, both leading lines and clothing,

should have a strong upward tendency. Figure 236 is a vertical panel

from historic ornament. The heavier parts have been designed at the

bottom for stability and the lighter and more intricate members have

been placed at the top.

Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed

in unified relation to the structural outlines, with the center line of

the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure._

To see how to apply rectangular panels to wood surfaces, let us look at

Figure 240. This is a simple design with an incised background and might

be used for enriching a narrow paneled door, newel post, or frame. The

large areas are at the bottom; the point of concentration is at the top,

and the entire design balances over the inceptive axis. The point of

concentration consists of the geometrically treated small flower form,

with its original lines modified to simplify the carving processes. The

stem coincides with the inceptive axis, while narrow and sympathetically

related minor panels fill in the background and keep the design from

appearing weak and thin.

[Sidenote: Adapting Data to Material]

Figure 237 is an accurate rendering of the flower form and is the _data

or record of facts_ for Figure 240. Figure 238 introduces the method of

plotting the areas from these facts. Variety of form and area is, at

this stage, desirable. Figure 239 has assembled these areas into orderly

balance over the axis of symmetry. Figure 240 has again slightly

modified them to apply to the vertical panel in wood.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_

FIGURE 246.--Example of Free and Marginal Enrichment]

VARIED PANELS

[Sidenote: Panels of Varied Shapes]

The panels under consideration up to this time have been designed to

harmonize with square and rectangular contours. The panel may, however,

become a most flexible and sympathetic element, changing its form to

suit the ever-changing contours. But though change of shape affects the

contents of the panel to a certain extent the points of concentration

and the inceptive axes still act as our guide. Objects are arranged

formally on each side of the inceptive axes and the space filling is

approximately the same as in former examples.

[Sidenote: Use of Artificial Objects]

The still life sketches of the art class may be conventionalized into

appropriate motives for utilitarian objects as shown in Figure 241. This

use of still life suggests a most desirable correlation and a welcome

one to many drawing teachers. Three points should be kept in mind:

first, adaptability of the object, its decorative possibilities, and

appropriateness to service; second, adjustment of the panel to contours;

third, adjustment of the object to the wood panel.

Some portion of the object should be designed to parallel the panel.

Small additional spots may assist in promoting harmony between the

object and the panel boundary. These three considerations are

essentially necessary factors in the design of enclosed enrichment.

Figures 242 and 243 are other adaptations of panel design to varied

contours.

[Sidenote: Free Balance]

In the foregoing examples the designs are more or less rigidly balanced

over the inceptive axis or axis of symmetry. Imaginary axis it is, but,

acting with the panel, it nevertheless arbitrarily limits the position

of all parts within the panel. By removing this semblance of formal

balance, we approach what is termed _free balance_. In this we find that

the designer attempts to balance objects informally over the geometric

center of the panel or combined panels. As the arrow points in Figure

244 indicate, the problem is to balance the trees in an informal and

irregular manner, avoiding "picket fence" regularity. In all of this

freedom there is a sense of order, since a mass of trees on one side of

the geometric center is balanced by a similar mass on the other side.

Indeed, in Figure 244 this may be carried even to the point of

duplicating in reverse order the outside panels of the Triptych.

[Illustration: RULES 7D TO 7E--ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH

APPLICATION OF STILL LIFE TO A FULLY ENRICHED SURFACE

PLATE 40]

Figure 245 again reverts to artificial motives, illustrated in free

balance. The jet of steam is the unifying factor which brings the cup

into harmony with the enclosing space. Figure 246 shows illustrations of

free balance and border enrichment from the industrial market.

INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plate 40 indicates the necessary design steps for a panel

surface enrichment correlating with still life drawing. Note

the connection between the ink bottle, pen, and book as used to

decorate a book stall.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

FOR SQUARE PANEL SURFACE ENRICHMENT

(_a_) Draw the primary rectangle of the principal surface,

appendages, etc.

(_b_) Subdivide into major vertical and horizontal divisions.

(_c_) Design simple contour enrichment. Determine location of

zone of enrichment (the panel), the amount and method of

enriching the surface.

(_d_) Draw outline of the panel which should be sympathetically

related to the contours.

(_e_) Draw diameters, diagonals, or center lines of the panel.

Regard these as possible inceptive axes.

(_f_) Locate points of concentration on either diameters,

diagonals, or center lines.

(_g_) Draw leading lines in sympathy with the contours of the

panel, the inceptive axis, and the point of concentration.

(_h_) Clothe the leading lines with enrichment that shall be

appropriate to the structure, the material, and the intended

service. Note the result. Is the panel agreeably filled without

appearing overcrowded or meager? Several preliminary sketches

should be made.

(_i_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare

the drawing for shop use.

SUGGESTED PROBLEM

Design a glove box and enrich the cover with a simple carved

panel with marginal panel enrichment.

SUMMARY OF RULES

ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED PANELS

Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be

related to the outlines of the primary mass, and to the panel

it is to enrich._

Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be

placed (1) preferably at the corners or (2) in the center of

each margin._

Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements

composing the points of concentration and the links connecting

them must be related to the panel contour and to each other._

ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT FOR FULLY ENRICHED PANELS

Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel

the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._

Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched

square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin._

Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched

vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._

Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be

designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with

the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis

of the structure._

FREE SURFACE ENRICHMENT

Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces

should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the

structure._

Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to

the structural surfaces._

Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of

vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the

inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the

design._

Postulate: _Surface enrichment should be inseparably linked to

the surface and to the outlines or contours_.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is a panel?

2. State three sections or areas at which a panel may be

enriched. Give reasons for selecting a given area.

3. Explain relation of point of concentration to each section.

4. In marginal enrichment, is it preferable to locate the point

of concentration in the center or corner of the margin? Why?

5. What is the value of an inceptive axis with relation to the

unity of a design? What is its relation to the structure?

6. Give the characteristics and use of free enrichment.

7. State the use of full panel enrichment.

8. Where may the point of concentration be located in full

square panel enrichment?

9. Name six steps essential to the designing of a square panel.

10. For what specific purpose is a vertical rectangular panel

adapted?

11. Where should the point of concentration be located in a

vertical rectangular panel?

12. Draw a flower form and adapt it to a carved enrichment in

wood.

13. To what uses are panels of varied shapes adapted?

14. How may artificial objects be adapted to surface

enrichment?

15. Explain the term "free balance."

CHAPTER XI

SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH MINOR SUBDIVISIONS OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN

WOOD

[Sidenote: Minor Subdivisions]

This article is, in part, a brief summary and review of Rules 2a, 2b,

3a, 3b, 3c (vertical and horizontal major divisions) with application to

minor subdivisions. By minor spacings or subdivisions in wood work we

refer to the areas occupied by drawers, doors, shelves, and other small

parts subordinated in size to the large or major divisions such as large

front or side panels, etc. These smaller or minor subdivisions in wood

work are bounded by runners, rails, guides, and stiles depending upon

the form of construction and character of the minor subdivision. Major

divisions are often bounded by legs, table tops, and principal rails.

It is an interesting and useful fact that rules governing major

divisions generally apply equally well to minor ones. There are a few

exceptions and additions to be noted in their appropriate places.

When minor subdivisions are well planned they supply one of the most

interesting forms of surface enrichment or treatment, for if we consider

paneling an appropriate form of decoration, we are equally privileged to

feel that each small drawer or door adds its quota of interest to the

sum total of the entire mass. We are equally justified in accenting

these drawers or doors with panel decoration or other forms of surface

enrichment provided that harmony is maintained.

These minor subdivisions, properly enriched, may become equalizers, or

elements which adjust the design to the character of the surroundings

destined to receive the project of which they are a part.

[Sidenote: Vertical Sections and Their Divisions]

With reference to the illustrations, Figure 247, Plate 41, shows a

simple minor panel treatment falling under Rule 3a. Single or preferably

double band inlay might have been suitably substituted for the sunken

panels. As many craftsmen are not properly equipped to produce inlays,

it is practicable to use stock inlays, thus simplifying the process.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SPACE DIVISIONS FOR

LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD.

ACCENTUATION OF MINOR VERTICAL DIVISIONS

PLATE 41]

[Sidenote: Minor Subdivisions of Three Vertical Major Parts or

Divisions]

In a three-part design it is the designer's desire to gain the effect of

lightness and height by the use of Rule 3b. As a simple treatment of a

three-part design, Figure 248 needs little comment. Figures 249 and 250

are examples of dividing, by means of minor divisions, the outer

sections of a three-part design.

The small drawers in the right and left sections of Figure 250 might

have been improved in proportion by again applying Rule 2a to their

design, thereby varying the measure of their heights. The enclosed panel

enrichment affords pleasing variety to the otherwise unvaried front

panels. Rule 7g.

[Sidenote: Unbroken Vertical Divisions]

Figures 251 and 252 show unbroken drawer runners continuing through all

three vertical sections, thus definitely binding these sections

together. It is seen that this device is conducive to unity, whenever

two or three vertical divisions have been used.

Figure 252 is a repetition of Figure 251, but shows the echo or

continuation of the three divisions of the primary mass into the

appendage. The use of the single or double band enrichment still further

binds the minor subdivisions of the primary mass into ideal unity with

the appendage.

SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS

Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller

horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at

the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass

toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the

mass._

[Sidenote: Sequential Arrangement of Minor Horizontal Divisions]

Rule 2c. Let us now imagine the center section of a three-part design to

be removed and extended upward. Its transformation by this process into

a cabinet or chiffonier similar to Figure 253, Plate 42, introduces the

new principle of _sequential progression_. Instead of adhering to the

limitation of Rules 2a and 2b, this arrangement shows that the

horizontal divisions may be gradually decreased in height from the

bottom toward the top of the primary mass. By this rhythmic decrease in

the measure of the height, the eye is led through an orderly gradation

through lesser areas to the top, thus giving a pleasing sensation of

lightness and variety to the structure. By this method, also, the large

areas are retained at the bottom to give stability and solidity to the

structure. A quick test of these conditions may be made by reversing

Figure 254, thus producing a more decidedly pleasing effect.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SPACE DIVISIONS FOR LARGE

PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

SEQUENTIAL ARRANGEMENT OF MINOR HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS IN ONE OR THREE

VERTICAL DIVISIONS

PLATE 42]

[Sidenote: Sequential Arrangements--(_Continued_)]

This orderly gradation or sequence of heights need not be carried out

with absolute mathematical precision such as 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1.

Arrangements similar to the following progression make for equally

pleasing and more varied effect: 9-1/4 - 8 - 6-3/4 - 6 - 5 - 4-3/4. Many

designers repeat similar heights for two neighboring horizontal spaces

as, 6 - 5 - 5 - 4-3/4, but the upward gradation should be apparent.

Figure 255, an Austrian motive, shows a strongly marked sequence with

the top division broken by Rule 3b. It is better practice to keep such

attempts confined to the bottom or top members of the sequence or loss

of unity may be the final result.

By applying this principle to the center section of a three-part design,

we now have illustrated in Figure 256 the new sequence in its

application, and Figures 257 and 258 are variations of the same idea.

[Sidenote: Two Horizontal and Three Vertical Divisions]

We now come to the transitional type of design where three _vertical_

sections begin to lose their dominance as major divisions, but still

retain their places in the design as minor sections. Replacing these in

prominence is the _horizontal_ major section or division. The first

immediate result of this change as shown in Plate 43 is to produce a

more compact surface with a greater impression of length because of the

presence of strongly accented horizontal lines which are always

associated with horizontal divisions. This transitional style with its

minor but dominant horizontal divisions would harmonize with the long

horizontal lines of a room or similar lines in the furniture. The full

expression of this style or type will be readily seen by comparing

Plates 43 and Figures 251 and 252, Plate 41. Several styles of period

furniture have been introduced in Plate 43 to prove the universality of

these principles of space divisions.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SUB DIVISIONS FOR LARGE

PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

THREE VERTICAL DIVISIONS CROSSED BY TWO HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS

PLATE 43]

[Sidenote: Dominance of Lower or Upper Sections]

Figures 259, 260, and 262, Plate 43, are divided by three minor vertical

sections cut by two minor horizontal divisions with the dominance in the

_lower section_. Rule 2a. The arrangement of the small central drawers

could have been more varied by the application of the principle of

sequential progression. Figures 261 and 263 show similar vertical

spacings with a difference in the arrangements of the horizontal

divisions. In these figures the dominance has been placed in the _upper

section_ of the primary mass by the division created by the runner above

the lower drawer. It is likewise seen that Figure 263 needs a top

appendage to bind the top into closer unity with minor spacings.

[Sidenote: Transitional Types]

In carrying the transitional type to which we have referred in the

previous paragraphs from the vertical space influence toward the

horizontal, we are gradually approaching _three minor horizontal

divisions_, still maintaining three minor vertical divisions in a

modified and less prominent form. Figure 264 is an approach toward three

horizontal divisions. As only one clear-cut horizontal space division is

visible, this figure is not a pure example. The upper horizontal space

division is broken up into a three-part design by the drawer guides. It

is not until we reach Figure 266 that three horizontal divisions are

clearly evident.

HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS

[Sidenote: Three Minor Horizontal Divisions Cut by Varying Numbers of

Vertical Divisions]

The horizontal minor divisions in furniture are generally drawer runners

and the vertical minor divisions are often drawer guides. The horizontal

divisions may be arranged in either one of two ways: first, by the

application of Rule 2b; or second, by applying Rule 2c, the rule of

sequential progression. Figures 266, 267, and 268, Plate 44, are

representative of the former while Figures 269 and 270 are typical of

the latter. The result in either case is a compactly designed and solid

mass of simple structural lines. On some occasions we find the

three-part rule used for minor divisions within the horizontal sections,

while again the two-part rule is used. The method depends upon the

desired use and appearance. In either case the long areas and large

masses are to be retained as far as possible near the bottom of each

primary mass, as this custom tends to give a sense of solidity to the

design.

[Sidenote: Four Vertical Divisions]

Figure 271 is a rare reversion to more than three vertical divisions. In

this case, Rule 3c has been observed and we find all of the panels are

of equal size. Variety has been secured by means of the horizontal

spacings.

FREE BALANCE

[Sidenote: Free Minor Space Treatment]

[Sidenote: Free Balance]

This form of design is inherent in the Japanese system. It consists in

the planning and balancing of unequal areas over a geometric center. It

is not subject to definite rules as is the more formal balancing. The

reader is referred to Mr. Arthur Dow's excellent book on Composition for

further discussion of the subject. Figure 272, Plate 45, is an example

of partly formal and partly free balance and its method of treatment.

[Sidenote: Carving and Piercing as Applied to Large Masses]

Figures 273 and 274 are pierced designs, thoroughly related to the

structure and in no way weakening it. Figure 273 is representative of a

type which, if carried to extremes, will cause the structure to become

too weak for service; it is, therefore, necessary to guard and restrict

this form of enrichment. The carving of Figure 275, combined with the

contour enrichment, forms a pleasing variation to this common type of

furniture design.

Small minor details in furniture construction should be designed with as

much care as the larger major or minor parts. The larger areas or spaces

in small details similar to stationery shelves and pigeon holes must

harmonize in proportion with the space in which they are placed and of

which they are a part.

[Sidenote: Small Minor Details of Large Primary Masses]

The three-part or three-vertical division system, Rule 3b, is generally

used to design the small details in furniture as may be seen in Figures

276, 277, 278, and 279; while the rule of sequence, Rule 2c, may be

employed again to subdivide these small details in a horizontal

direction with as much variety as is consistent with unity. Figure 280

is a leaded glass surface enrichment for doors. Note the leading lines

of the enrichment as they parallel the dominant proportions of the panel

opening.

INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plate 46 is a typical high school sheet of design problems,

with the masses accentuated by pen shading. See Plate 15.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

(_a_) to (_e_). See similar steps in Chapter IV.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SUB DIVISIONS FOR LARGE

PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

FREE MINOR SPACINGS. APPENDAGES. PIERCED AND CARVED ENRICHMENT.

PLATE 45]

SUGGESTED PROBLEM

Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack. The

primary mass should have three minor horizontal divisions and

three minor vertical divisions, with the horizontal divisions

accented.

SUMMARY OF RULES

SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS

Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more

smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger

mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the

height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or

divisions to be located at the top of the mass._

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are minor subdivisions in wood construction?

2. What is the effect of a design with dominant vertical major

divisions? State its use.

3. Show some customary methods of dividing three vertical major

divisions into minor subdivisions.

4. State the rule of sequential progression. Give illustrations

from the industrial arts.

5. Describe the transitional stage between the point where the

dominance of the vertical motive ceases and the horizontal

influence begins.

6. What is the effect of a design with dominant horizontal

major divisions? State its use.

7. Show some customary methods of subdividing horizontal major

divisions into minor subdivisions.

8. What should be the relation in a design between the details

of a project and the divisions of the primary mass?

[Illustration: INSTRUCTION SHEET

SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE MASSES IN WOOD

DRAWING AND DESIGN BY A. J. FOX. U. OF W.

PLATE 46]

CHAPTER XII

SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY

[Sidenote: Limitations for Surface Enrichment]

In some respects the surface enrichment of clay is similar to that of

wood as, for example, the similarity produced by inlays in clay and in

wood. On the other hand the enrichment of clay is unhampered by the

restricting effects of unequal resistance of the material, such as the

grain of wood. Again it _is_ limited to those effects or forms of

enrichment that are capable of withstanding the intense heat to which

ceramic decoration is subjected. See Frontispiece.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Rookwood Potteries_

FIGURE 281.--Filling the Saggars before Firing]

[Sidenote: Decorative Processes of Surface Enrichment]

Before proceeding with a design it is well for one to understand clearly

the possibilities of clay enrichment. He must know what kind of designs

are best suited to clay as a medium, to the intended service, and to the

ultimate application of the heat of the pottery kiln. Without entering

into technicalities let us briefly discuss the following processes.

The first three deal with finger and tool manipulation of the clay body

and are consequently the simpler of the processes. The last five are

concerned chiefly with the addition of coloring pigments either to the

clay or to the glaze and are, therefore, more complex in character.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of The Rookwood Potteries_

FIGURE 282.--Stacking the Kiln]

[Sidenote: Forms of Manipulation]

PROCESSES

Rule 9a. _Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able

to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted._

Rule 9b. _Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be

simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material._

[Sidenote: Incising]

1. This is the simplest form of enrichment, a process familiar to the

earliest primitive potters and appropriate now for beginners. It

consists of the process of lowering lines or planes into the clay body

to the depth of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch. These lines

or planes should be bold and broad. They may be made with a blunt pencil

or a flat pointed stick. A square, rectangular, or round stick may be

used as a stamp with which to form a pattern for incising. Illustrations

of simple incising may be found in Figures 283, 284, 295, 319, 330. The

tiles shown are about six inches square.

[Sidenote: Piercing]

2. This process is less common and, as its name implies, is carried out

by cutting through the clay. It may be done with a fine wire. Either the

background or the design itself may be thus removed. The effect produced

is that of lightening an object such as the top of a hanging flower

holder, a window flower box, or a lantern shade.

[Sidenote: Modeling]

3. By adding clay to the main body, and by working this clay into low

relief flower or geometric forms, one has the basic process of modeling.

The slightly raised areas of clay form a pleasing play of light and

shade that varies the otherwise plain surface of the ware. The process

should be used with caution, for over-modeling, Figure 325, will

obstruct the structural outlines and, because of its over prominence as

decoration, will cease to be _surface enrichment_. In the technical

language of the designer over-modeling is an enrichment which is not

subordinated to the surface. In articles intended for service this high

relief modeling is unsanitary and unsatisfactory.

Figures 286 and 287 show incising with slight modeling, while 324, 328,

and 329 are examples of more complex enrichment.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY

RECTANGULAR AND SQUARE AREAS

PLATE 47]

[Sidenote: Introduction of Coloring Pigments]

With the introduction of the second group comes an added interest and

difficulty, that of the introduction of color. Pigments that will

withstand the application of heat are suggested at different points.

[Sidenote: Inlay]

4. This process consists of removing certain areas from the clay body to

the depth of one-eighth inch and filling in the depression with tinted

clay. Tints formed by the addition of ten per cent or less of burnt

umber or yellow ochre to the modeling clay will give interesting

effects. Figures 284, 285, 320, and 321 show forms which may be

developed by this process.

Sgraffito, an Italian process, is more difficult than inlaying, but the

effect is similar. A thin layer of colored clay is placed over the

natural clay body, and the design is developed by cutting away this

colored coating in places, thus exposing the natural clay body. Figure

306. There are variations of this plan that may be attempted by the

advanced designer.

[Sidenote: Slip Painting]

5. Slip is clay mixed with water to the consistency of cream. For slip

painting this mixture is thoroughly mixed with not more than ten per

cent of coloring pigment as represented by the underglaze colors of the

ceramist. This thick, creamy, colored slip is then painted on the

surface of the clay body while damp, much as the artist would apply oil

colors. The ware, when thoroughly dried, is glazed and fired, which

produces the effect shown in Figures 290, 291, and 327. The color range

is large; almost any color may be used with the exception of reds and

strong yellows. A colorless transparent glaze should be used over

beginner's slip painting.

[Sidenote: Colored Glazes]

6. This process refers to the direct introduction of the colored pigment

into the glaze. By varying the glaze formula we may have a clear,

transparent, or glossy glaze similar to Figure 317, a dull surfaced

opaque effect, termed a matt glaze, Figure 332; or a glossy but opaque

faience glaze similar to the blue and white Dutch tiles. There are other

forms such as the crystalline and "reduced" glazes, but these as a rule

are far beyond the ability of the beginning craftsman in ceramics.

[Sidenote: Combinations]

It is possible to use these three types of glazed surface in various

ways. For example, a vase form with an interesting contour may be left

without further surface enrichment except that supplied by clear glaze

or by a colored matt similar to certain types of Teco Ware.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY

SHALLOW CIRCULAR FORMS: PLATES, ETC

PLATE 48]

It is likewise possible to apply transparent glazes over incised

designs, inlay or slip painting, increasing their beauty and the

serviceability of the ware. A semi-transparent glaze is sometimes placed

over slip painting giving the charm inherent to the Vellum Ware of the

Rookwood Potteries. Figure 332. Greens, blues, yellows, and browns, with

their admixtures, are the safest combinations for the craftsman who

desires to mix his own glazes.

[Sidenote: Underglaze Painting]

7. This process may be seen in the examples of Newcomb Pottery

illustrated particularly in Figure 314 or 326. The underglaze pigment is

thinly painted upon the fired "biscuit," or unglazed ware. A thin,

transparent glaze is then placed _over_ the color, and in the final

firing the underneath color shows through this transparent coating, thus

illustrating the origin of the name underglaze or under-the-glaze

painting. Sage-green and cobalt-blue underglaze colors are frequently

used in Newcomb designs with harmonious results. The outline of the

design is often incised and the underglaze color, settling into these

channels, helps to accentuate the design. Figure 314.

[Sidenote: Porcelain or Overglaze Painting]

8. This is popularly known as china painting and consists of painting

directly upon the glazed surface of the ware and placing it in a china

kiln where a temperature between 600 degrees and 900 degrees C. is

developed. At this point the coloring pigment melts or is fused into the

porcelain glaze, thus insuring its reasonable permanence. Figure 302.

The eight processes briefly described may be readily identified on the

plates by referring to the figures corresponding to those which number

the processes and are added to each figure number. Two processes are

sometimes suggested as possible for one problem.

[Sidenote: Classification of Structural Clay Forms]

Different clay forms require different modes of treatment. To simplify

these treatments will now be our problem. It has been found convenient

to form four divisions based upon the general geometric shape of the

ware. The first, Plate 47, includes rectangular and square areas; the

second, Plate 48, shallow and circular forms; the third, Plate 49, low

cylindrical forms; and the fourth, Plate 50, high cylindrical forms. The

first three divisions have distinct modes of design treatment, while the

fourth interlocks to a considerable extent with the third method. We

shall now consider each plate with reference to its use and possible

forms of enrichment. For the sake of brevity, the results have been

condensed into tabulated forms.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY

LOW CYLINDRICAL FORMS

PLATE 49]

Each geometric form or type on these plates has not only distinctive

methods of design treatment but characteristic locations for placing the

design as well. These places or zones of enrichment have been indicated

in the following tabulated forms by the letters in parentheses. There

are a number of zones for each plate. For example, Plate 47 has its

distinctive problems as tiles, weights, etc., and five characteristic

zones of enrichment described on pages 153-155 and indicated by the

letters A, B, C, D, E, followed by a brief description of that zone.

Each zone is still further analyzed into its accompanying type of

design, inceptive axis, point of concentration, and illustrations. Each

plate has the proper zone of enrichment immediately following the figure

number and in turn followed by the process number.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: Square and Rectangular Areas, Plate 47]

_Problems_: Tiles for tea and coffee pots, paper weights, window boxes;

architectural tiles for floors, and fire places.

* * * * *

(_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: In the margin.

_Reason for Choice_: Central area to be devoted to zone of

service requiring simplicity in design.

[Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment]

_Type of Design_: Bands or borders.

_Inceptive Axis_: For corners; the bisector of the angle.

_Points of Concentration_: The corners and, if desired, at

equal intervals between the corners.

_Illustrations_: Figures 283, 284, 286, 287, 288.

* * * * *

(_B_) _Zone of Enrichment_: center of surface, free ornament.

[Sidenote: Center Enrichment]

_Type of Design_: Initials, monograms, street numbers,

geometric patterns, and other examples for free ornament. A

star or diamond is _not_ appropriate enrichment for a square

area unless properly related to the contour by connecting

areas.

_Inceptive Axes_: Vertical or horizontal diameters or

diagonals.

_Points of Concentration_: Center of embellishment.

_Illustrations_: Figure 285.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY

HIGH CYLINDRICAL FORMS. VASES, PITCHERS, ETC

PLATE 50]

(_C_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface enrichment in a

horizontal position.

_Type of Design_: A symmetrical pattern generally radiating

from the geometric center of the surface and covering at least

two-thirds of the surface.

[Sidenote: Full Vertical Surface Enrichment]

_Inceptive Axes_: Diameters or diagonals of the area.

_Points of Concentration_: At the corners or the center of the

outer margin; at geometric center, as in a rosette.

_Illustrations_: Figures 283, 289, and 291.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: Full Horizontal Surface Enrichment]

(_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface enrichment in a

vertical position.

_Type of Design_: A symmetrical pattern with a strong upward

movement and covering more than one-half of the surface.

_Inceptive Axis_: The vertical center line.

_Point of Concentration_: Upper section of the surface.

_Illustrations_: Figures 290 and 292.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: Free Balance]

(_E_) _Zone of Enrichment_: free balance over full surface.

_Type of Design_: Semi-decorative motive preferably covering

the entire surface.

_Inceptive Axis_: Masses freely balanced over the geometric

center of the area.

_Point of Concentration_: Near, but not in the exact center.

_Illustrations_: Figures 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298.

_Note_: The points of concentration should be accented by

slight contrast of value and hue. See chapters on color.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: Shallow Circular Forms, Plate 48]

_Problems_: Plates, saucers, ash trays, card receivers, almond

and candy bowls.

* * * * *

(_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: margin of interior surface; margin

of exterior surface.

_Type of Design_: Bands or borders thoroughly related to the

structural contours. Bands for exterior enrichment may be

placed directly on the contour, Figures 299 and 301, thus

forming an

[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN

RULE 9: ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS BY A BORDER

PROBLEM: ENRICHMENT OF CLASS 2 (POTTERY)

PLATE 51.--Instruction Sheet]

[Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment]

accented contour (_F_) or slightly removed from it, as in

Figure 300.

_Inceptive Axes_: For interior surfaces, the radii of the

contour circle generally supply the axes of symmetry.

_Points of Concentration_: For interior surfaces, the points of

concentration may be placed in or near the radii of the area.

_Illustrations_: Figures 302, 303, 304, 305, 306.

* * * * *

_Problems_: Cups, pitchers, steins, nut and rose bowls, low

vase forms.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: Low Cylindrical Forms, Plate 49]

(_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: upper margin of exterior.

[Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment]

_Type of Design_: Borders of units joining each other or

connected by bands or spots acting as connecting links. Rule

9c.

_Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of the exterior surface.

Elements are imaginary lines dividing the exterior surface into

any given number of vertical sections. Elements used as center

lines form the axes of symmetry about which the butterfly of

Figure 308 and similar designs are constructed.

_Points of Concentration_: On each vertical element.

_Illustrations_: Figures 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 316.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: Full Vertical Surface Enrichment]

(_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full vertical surface.

_Type of Design_: Extended borders with strongly developed

vertical lines or forms. Less than one-half of the surface may

be covered.

_Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements.

_Points of Concentration_: In upper portion of vertical

elements, hence in upper portion of area.

_Illustrations_: Figures 307, 314, 317, 318.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: High Cylindrical Forms, Plate 50]

(_E_) _Zone of Enrichment_: free balance of full surface. (See

_D_, above).

_Illustration_: Figure 315.

* * * * *

_Problems_: Vases, jars, pitchers, tall flower holders, covered

jars for tea, crackers, or tobacco.

[Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment]

(_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: margin of exterior.

_Type of Design_: Borders of geometric units, freely balanced

floral units, and other natural motives placed in upper margin

of mass.

_Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of cylinder.

_Points of Concentration_: In upper portion of vertical

elements.

_Illustrations_: Figures 319, 320, 321, 327, 331, 332.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: Full Surface Enrichment]

(_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface of exterior.

_Type of Design_: Free of formal conventionalized unit repeated

on each vertical element. The units may be juxtaposed or may be

connected by bands or similar links.

_Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of cylinder.

_Point of concentration_: In upper portion of vertical

elements.

_Illustrations_: Figures 322, 323, 324, 326, 328, 329.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: Types of Commercial Pottery]

The reader should carefully consider the postulate and various divisions

of Rule 7 and try to apply them to the material now under consideration.

Acknowledgment is made for material supplied by the Rookwood Potteries

for Figures 288, 289, 292, 293, 294, 297, 298, 315; 327 and 332; Newcomb

Potteries, Figures 314, 316, 317, 318, 326; Teco Potteries, 329; Keramic

Studio Publishing Company, 302, 307, 308, 310, 312.

INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plate 51 illustrates the marginal surface enrichment of low

cylindrical forms, with part surface enrichment of two higher

forms.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

(_a_) Draw primary mass:

For square or rectangular areas draw square rectangle, etc.

For shallow circular forms draw a circle.

For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if

desired by a unit of measurement into two horizontal divisions.

For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if

desired by a unit of measurement into two or three horizontal

divisions. Rule 5e.

(_b_) Design simple contour enrichment based upon these units

of measurement.

(_c_) Locate zone of enrichment.

(_d_) Draw inceptive axes:

For square or rectangular areas draw diameters, diagonals, or

both.

For shallow circular forms draw radii of the primary circle;

concentric circles for bands.

For low cylindrical forms draw the elements of the underlying

cylindrical form for extended borders or lines paralleling the

top or bottom of the primary mass for bands.

For high cylindrical forms draw inceptive axes similar to low

cylindrical forms.

(_e_) Locate points of concentration in these inceptive axes.

(_f_) Determine manner and amount of surface enrichment.

(_g_) Add leading lines and develop these into surface

enrichment.

(_h_) Make potter's working drawing, full size (See Plate 26).

Add the necessary amount for shrinkage and otherwise prepare

the drawing for potter's use.

(_i_) Make a paper tracing of the surface enrichment for

transfer to clay body and cut a zinc or tin template as a

contour guide in building the form.

SUGGESTED PROBLEM

Design a built-up ring using an elliptical cabochon cut stone as

the point of concentration. The inceptive axis is vertical.

SUMMARY OF RULES

SMALL FLAT PLANES

Rule 10a. _Designs in precious metals should call for the

minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the

designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of

material._

Rule 10b. _Contour and surface enrichment should never appear

to compete for attention in the same design._

Rule 10c. _Parts of a design differing in function should

differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire

design._

Rule 10d. _Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the

contours of both primary mass and point of concentration,

especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel._

Rule 10e. _In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point

of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an

unobtrusive setting, or background._

Rule 10f. _Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration

should form contrast with the metal, either in color,

brilliancy, or value, or all three combined._

Rule 10g. _The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide

with one axis of a stone, and at the same time be

sympathetically related to the structure._

Rule 10h. _The position of the inceptive axis should be

determined by (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar

pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or

horizontal in proportion._

Rule 10i. _Caution should be exercised with regard to the use

of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen

both process and design._

[Illustration: RULES 10 A TO M: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL

FLAT PLANES OF PRECIOUS METAL

{IA} INCEPTIVE AXIS

INSTRUCTION SHEET

PENDANTS, RINGS AND FOBS IN SLIVER

U. OF W.

PLATE 57]

Rule 10j. _All surface enrichment should have an appearance of

compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used

as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the

surface without thought to their coherence._

Rule 10k. _Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the

higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to

have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass.

When using this form of enrichment the stone should never

appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be

approached by a series of rising planes._

Rule 10l. _The lanes or margins between enameled spots should

be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the

contour of the primary mass._

Rule 10m. _Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not

be used in the same design._

Postulate.--_The design should conform to the limitations and

requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be

durable and suitable for service._

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is often used as a point of concentration in the

surface enrichment of precious metals? Why?

2. State direction of the inceptive axis for problems similar

to: (_a_) tie pins, (_b_) pendants, (_c_) fobs, (_d_) rings,

(_e_) bar pins? Why? Under what grouping of planes may they be

placed?

3. State the relation between the point of concentration and

the inceptive axis.

4. Give three steps in the design evolution of surface

enrichment for small flat planes.

5. Describe briefly eleven decorative processes for the surface

enrichment of precious metals with the technical rendering of

each.

6. Illustrate examples of dependent contour and dependent

surface enrichment of precious metals.

7. Where should a stone in a design similar to a pin or brooch

be placed with reference to the inceptive axis and the

geometric center of the primary mass?

8. Illustrate manner of planning primary mass, inceptive axis,

point of concentration, contour, and surface enrichment of:

(_a_) pins, (_b_) fobs, (_c_) rings, (_d_) pendants and chains.

9. State the relation of stone or enamel to metal.

10. What rule should govern the amount of metal used in a

design?

11. State the objection to a design with contour and surface

enrichment equally elaborated.

12. Is it possible to vary the design motive of a chain from

that of a pendant? Why and how?

13. Give illustration and requirements of a good design in

champleve enamel.

14. What precautions should be exercised in designing pierced

enrichment?

15. What rules should be observed in designing a built-up or

carved design?

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS

METALS

TREATMENT OF FLAT AND SEMI-FLAT SURFACES

WORK OF STUDENTS OF MILWAUKEE-DOWNER COLLEGE

PLATE 58]

CHAPTER XIV

SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS

[Sidenote: Enrichment for Small Areas]

The surface enrichment of small, flat primary masses treated in Chapter

XIII emphasized the designer's tendency for _full_ surface enrichment of

small areas. Such treatment has proved satisfactory because the eye can

readily and immediately observe and comprehend or assimilate an

enrichment upon a small area. For larger enriched areas considered in

this chapter, full surface enrichment becomes a questionable policy for

the following reasons.

[Sidenote: Enrichment for Large Areas]

It is true that the old time craftsman with consummate skill fully

enriched large surfaces, but two factors interfere with this mode of

treatment today. The first factor is the decidedly practical nature of

the problem. The service to which the modern industrial project is put

interferes with the use of full surface enrichment. The second is the

lack of skill on the part of the modern amateur designer. It is a sound

policy to avoid the ornateness that frequently accompanies a large and

unskillfully planned area. In place of this, we should limit the

enrichment of large masses to a few salient areas which are well related

to the structural lines.

Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of surface

enrichment of large masses. Its use should:_ (1) _lighten or soften

necessarily heavy construction;_ (2) _support or apparently strengthen

good structure;_ (3) _add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting

surfaces._

[Sidenote: Essentials of Good Surface Enrichment]

These salient areas should determine the surface enrichment appropriate

to the structure, so that the enrichment: (1) will lighten or soften

necessarily heavy construction as in Figure 403; (2) support or

apparently strengthen good structure, Figure 413; (3) add interest to

large unbroken or otherwise uninteresting surfaces as illustrated in

Figure 405. To aid in producing the desired results, we have the

technical processes mentioned in Chapter XIII as follows: (1) Piercing;

(2) Etching; (3) Chasing; (4) Enameling; (5) Inlaying; (6) Stone

setting; (7) Building; (8) Carving; (9) Planishing; (10) Frosting; (11)

Oxidizing. On the plates for this chapter, the figure generally

following the cut number refers to the process, as: Figure 446, 3.

[Illustration: Figure 406a.--Mainly Objects Designed to be Seen from

Above]

SURFACE DESIGN EVOLUTION

Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be

thought out before they are drawn._

A designer will be materially helped if he devotes a few moments of

thought to his design problem before he applies the pencil to the paper.

In the end the time given to thinking out his problem will gain for him

both increased excellence of design and rapidity of execution, provided

his thinking is systematic. A sequential order of points to be observed

is given below. The object of systematic thought is to form a mental

picture of the enrichment to be in full accord with the materials and

construction and to be sympathetically related to the structural axes

and to the contours. The unenriched mass has been designed and we are

now ready for the consideration of surface enrichment in the following

order.

[Sidenote: Summary of Steps in Surface Enrichment]

(_a_) _Placing the Zone of Service._

1. Where is the zone of service?

* * * * *

(_b_) _Classification of Form_.

1. Is the object flat, shallow and circular, low and cylindrical, high

and cylindrical?

* * * * *

(_c_) _Placing the Zone of Enrichment._

1. Is the enrichment to be seen from above or from the side? See Figure

406a.

2. What point of the structure suggested by the form needs surface

enrichment? Is it the primary mass, appendages, terminals, links, or

details? Let the area selected become the zone of enrichment.

(_d_) _Amount of Enrichment._

1. Will the enrichment cover the full surface, part surface (center or

margin), or accented outline?

(_e_) _Location of Inceptive Axis._

1. Is the zone of enrichment associated with a square, rectangle,

hexagon, or irregularly shaped flat plane, circular or cylindrical

surface? Figure 470.

2. How should the inceptive axis be placed in the zone of enrichment to

harmonize with the structural forms suggested by 1 (e) and the point

from which it is viewed 1 (c)? See the violation of this latter point in

Figure 439. Presumably this inceptive axis will be a vertical center

line, horizontal center line, diagonal, diameter, radius, the element of

a cylinder, or a dynamic curve for a free border.

(_f_) _Point of Concentration._

[Sidenote: Surface Enrichment]

1. Where should the point of concentration be located upon the inceptive

axis?

(_g_) _Unison of Enrichment and Materials._

1. What decorative process will be adaptable to service, the material,

and the contemplated design?

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE METALS

TREATMENT OF FLAT AND SEMI-FLAT SURFACES

_Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin_

PLATE 59]

[Sidenote: Summary of Steps in Surface Enrichment]

(_h_) _Type of Units_.

1. What design units are suited to the process selected in (_g_),

appropriate to the texture and structural lines of the form to be

enriched and to its ultimate service? Choice may be made from nature,

geometric pattern, or historic ornament.

The above points may all be _thought out_. Now, with some assurance, the

designer may take his pencil and begin to _draw_ the units in their

proper position upon or about the inceptive axis with the point of

concentration correctly placed in position in the inceptive axis. Rules

and suggestions for this execution have been previously given.

* * * * *

(_i_) _Designing of the Units_.

1. How should the units be drawn to be in harmony with the inceptive

axis, the contours, and to each other?

The above points of approach to surface enrichment represent a logical

reasoning process which supplies a line of sequential and developmental

pictures that will reduce to a minimum the element of doubt and fog

through which the average designer approaches his problem. The steps

will, in time, become practically automatic and may be thought out in a

surprisingly short period of time.

Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder

than similar designs for small primary masses._

[Sidenote: Large Masses and Their Treatment]

As may be expected from briefly considering the illustrations for this

chapter as compared with those for small primary masses, Chapter XIII,

it is seen that the units for base and precious metals are larger and

bolder than those used for smaller masses. The more effective designs

are those whose appropriateness, simplicity, and correct structural

proportions and relations appeal to our sense of fitness and beauty.

Figures 403, 404, and 406 are composed of projects designed mainly on

vertical inceptive axes or center lines. The freely balanced natural

units in Figure 403 have the zone of enrichment in the upper portion of

the appendage (handles), and the point of concentration in the upper

portion of the zone of enrichment. Formal symmetrical balance controls

the placing of enrichment in Figure 404. Initial letters, through lack

of consideration of design principles, are frequently misplaced on

masses with little or no consideration given to their mass relations

with the structural contours. As a contrast to this, notice the

carefully considered relations between the letter _W_ on the tea

strainer in Figure 404 and its adaptation to the contours of the

appendage. The stone enrichment on the handle of the paper cutter in

Figure 404 in no way interferes with its use as a cutter and is

therefore appropriate as surface enrichment.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE METAL

TREATMENT OF FLAT PLANES IN CAST BRONZE

_Door Plates, Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin_

PLATE 60]

[Sidenote: Large Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Precious Metal, Plate

58]

The pierced enrichment of the silver box in Figure 405 contains vertical

and horizontal lines which bring the decorative human figures into

harmonious relation with the structural contours. Figure 406 shows both

formal and free balance with center and full surface zones of

enrichment. _C_ and _D_ could have been improved by a more strongly

marked point of concentration which would have added more character to

the designs.

[Sidenote: Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Base Metal, Plate 59]

In Chapter VIII, the contour terminal enrichment problem was described

at some length. Many illustrations on Plates 58, 59, and 60 are, in a

way, similar in their type of surface decoration, which is termed

_surface terminal enrichment_. The "happy ending" mentioned in Chapter

VIII as a suitable means of terminating the contour of a long primary

mass or appendage may be similarly treated by suitable surface

enrichment, particularly shown in Figures 403, 404, 407, 408, 409, and

410. The terminal is quite common as a zone of enrichment.

[Sidenote: Contour _Versus_ Surface Enrichment]

It is readily seen that when surface enrichment is the prevailing

decorative theme it becomes necessary to subordinate contour enrichment

to it, Rule 10b, otherwise the strife for dominance arising between

these two forms of enrichment will lead to poor and ornate design,

Figure 417. Whatever contour enrichment is used must be chosen to accord

with the surface enrichment, Rule 10d, as noted in the preceding figures

and in Figure 411. Here we find the closest connection, as the chased

forms of the surface at many points merge into the contour. Thus surface

and contour are bound together in unity with the surface enrichment,

which maintains its dominance throughout.

The simple and dignified treatment of the fire set in Figure 413 is

synonymous with the finest type of enrichment for service and beauty,

Rule 11b. The peacock motives of Figures 414 and 415 are applied to the

desk set. The motives as used in this case are generally well adapted to

their respective areas and inceptive axes.

[Sidenote: Surface Enrichment of Hardware, Plate 60]

Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface

enrichment._

Figure 417 is a typical example of over-ornamentation with the surface

and contour enrichment struggling in deadly conflict for prominence. In

the combat, the natural structural axis has been totally neglected for

irrelevant and disconnected ornament. Figure 418 illustrates correctly

related surface ornament, with a dominance of the latter form, Rule 10b.

Figure 419 represents a type of decoration presumably roughened to meet

the needs of service. It proves, however, to be unpleasant to the touch

and unnecessary as the plain knob is preferable in every way. The

naturalistic snake motive of Figure 421 is repulsive to many people;

this and similar decorative motives should be avoided in preference to

the more conventionalized pattern of Figure 422, Rule 11f.

Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced

into the same design._

[Sidenote: Historic Ornament Applied to Period Hardware Design Door

Plates]

It is impossible to close these chapters without reference to the

influence of the great schools of architectural history upon

contemporary design. There is a growing tendency for manufacturers to

use period patterns in house decorations which correspond to the design

of the building. A Colonial building frequently calls for Colonial

hardware, a Gothic church for corresponding surface enrichment of that

period.

As introductory illustrations, Figure 423 stands as a simple example of

accented (beveled) contour while Figure 424 has been accented with

reminiscent moulding appropriate to Colonial architecture. They might,

however, be used with many simply designed articles of furniture. From

this slight indication or portion of a style, we have a more pronounced

beginning in Figure 425 with its clearly marked Greek egg and dart

ornamental border. The acanthus leaf of the Byzantine school, Figure

426, changes to the geometric arabesques of the Moorish school in Figure

427. The Gothic arch, cusps, and quatrefoil of Figure 428 are changed to

the classic acanthus foliage of the French Renaissance period. Figure

429. Figures 430 and 431 are later developments of the Renaissance. The

heavily enriched Flemish pattern completes our illustrations of the use

of past forms of ornamentation applied to modern designs. Only a small

number from a rapidly enlarging field of period design are shown.

[Sidenote: Shallow Circular Forms, Plate 61]

With circular plates and trays, the enrichment normally takes the form

of a border (marginal enrichment), with the inceptive axes or center

lines of the repeated units radiating from the center of the circle.

Figures 433, 435, 436, 437, 438, and 439. An elliptical form frequently

calls for handles and terminal enrichment as shown by Figure 434.

Both Figures 437 and 438 have divided points of concentration and would

be materially improved by the omission of the center unit _A_. The small

tree used as a connecting link in the border of Figure 437 should be

reversed, as it now possesses a motion or growth contrary to the larger

tree units. The contour enrichment in Figure 438 could well be omitted

or moved around to support the surface enrichment. The pierced

enrichment _A_, Figure 439, is incorrectly used as it is not designed to

be seen from above, the normal viewpoint of the tray. The design should

have been based upon the horizontal axis of the project similar to

Figure 439 at _B_.

[Sidenote: Low Cylindrical Forms, Plate 62]

Differing from the shallow plate, with the increased height of the low

cylindrical forms of Plate 62, there now develops the possibility of

enriching the sides of this class of project: a zone of enrichment not

readily accessible in the shallow plate form. In addition to the sides

there remain the appendages, quite capable of carrying enrichment to

advantage. One should control the zone of enrichment in such a manner

that the attention will not be equally drawn to both appendage and

primary mass. Two points of enrichment, both calling for equal

attention, divide the interest in the problem, and cause a lack of unity

or oneness.

Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of

enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminals,

links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area._

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND

PRECIOUS METAL

TREATMENT OF SHALLOW CIRCULAR FORMS

PLATE 61]

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND

PRECIOUS METAL

TREATMENT OF LOW CIRCULAR FORMS

PLATE 62]

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND

PRECIOUS METALS

TREATMENT OF HIGH CYLINDRICAL FORMS

PLATE 63]

Enrichment upon the appendages may be found in Figures 440, 441, 442,

445, and on the upper portion of the straight sides of the primary mass

in Figures 443 and 444. The decorative units composing the border on

these straight sides are designed upon the vertical element of the

underlying cylindrical form as the inceptive axis. The enrichment for

the appendage is well related to the contour of that member and is

commonly based upon the center line of the appendage.

[Sidenote: Cylindrical Forms, Plate 63]

The principles of enriching these higher cylindrical forms in many ways

closely parallel those which govern the lower cylindrical forms. The

inceptive axes of the decoration on the two vases of Figures 446 and 447

may be readily analyzed as vertical elements of the cylinder. Figures

448 and 449 are quite rare exceptions of the accentuation of the

_vertical_ lines of the cylinder. Horizontal bands similar to Figures

444 and 447 are more common interpretations of cylinder enrichment.

Figure 450 marks a successful combination of two dissimilar materials

with the shade (appendage) as the dominating enriched member. Rule 10c.

The small chased bosses used as enrichment in Figure 452 are re-echoed

on the several pieces of the set which binds them into collective unity.

The top portion of the primary mass seems to need some form of

enrichment, as the contour adds little to the beauty of that part. The

symbol _X_ could have been better located by being moved to that place.

The point of concentration should be placed in the upper portion of a

large mass whenever that arrangement is possible.

It is in every way desirable that all designs should be executed full

size and in full accord with the requirements of a shop working drawing.

In addition the technical rendering suggested in Chapter XIII should be

carefully used in each drawing.

INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plates 68 and 72 show problems suitable for class presentation. The

method of development is similar to that presented on Plate 52.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

(_a_) Draw a primary mass with reference to its proper grouping

as follows:

For flat areas draw square, rectangle, etc.

For shallow circular forms draw a circle.

For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with horizontal

proportions.

For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with vertical

proportions.

(_b_) Locate zone of service.

(_c_) Locate zone of enrichment: appendages, terminals,

margins, full surface, etc.

(_d_) Determine amount of enrichment.

(_e_) Locate inceptive axes.

(_f_) Place point of concentration in the inceptive axis where

it traverses the zone of enrichment.

(_g_) Select the decorative process suited to the material and

contemplated motive.

(_h_) Draw leading lines toward the point of concentration.

(_i_) Draw conventionalized design motives based upon the

leading lines, converging toward the point of concentration.

Vary the contours to be sympathetically related to these design

motives, provided such variation of the original primary mass

is necessary to complete unity.

(_j_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare

the drawing for shop use.

SUGGESTED PROBLEM

Design a copper nut bowl and spoon. Enrich with a chased border

appropriate to the subject. Enrich spoon, using fitting method of

enrichment. The bowl and spoon should have a harmonious relation.

SUMMARY OF RULES

Industrial Arts Design A Textbook of Practical Methods for Students, Teachers, and Craftsmen · 第 6 / 7 章