CHAPTER IX_Industrial Arts Design A Textbook of Practical Methods for Students, Teachers, and Craftsmen

SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

With this chapter we enter upon a consideration of the third and last

major division of Industrial Arts Design, that of Surface Enrichment.

[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Surface Enrichment]

We have considered in previous chapters the subject of contour or

outline enrichment. Now consider for a moment the fact that articles

such as a square box, or tile, are not suited to outline enrichment, yet

they have large, flat, and rather monotonous surfaces capable of

decoration. It is readily seen that such surfaces will admit of further

elaboration which we will distinguish from contour enrichment by using

the term Surface Enrichment. As in contour enrichment, so in surface

enrichment, the added element of design not only increases the beauty of

the object but it likewise, if properly applied, gives apparent added

strength to the structure.

Rule 6a. _Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment._

[Sidenote: When and Where to Enrich a Surface]

Strictly utilitarian articles should not be ornamented by surface

enrichment. As an example, a wooden mixing spoon, bowl, or wooden knife

handle should not be enriched by carving, as the carving would interfere

with the proper cleansing of the article. A surface exposed to

considerable wear should not be enriched. Objects not strictly in the

utilitarian class, such as a paper knife, book stall, envelope holder,

or library table may be appropriately enriched in an unostentatious

manner so that they will harmonize with their surroundings. But the

enrichment should first be placed upon the surface in such a manner that

it will not interfere with the functional use of the article for

service. Large projections upon the back of a chair or upon the handle

of a paper cutter are unpleasant and interfere with intended uses.

[Illustration: FIGURE 191a.--Structure Obscured by Surface and Contour

Enrichment]

Rule 6b. _Surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours

but must not obscure the actual structure._

Careful consideration should be given to the often-mentioned law that

the surface enrichment must be thoroughly related to structure and

contour but not so as to obscure either. We must keep in mind the fact

that it is necessary to support the structure, not to cover it up by

related ornament, as in Figure 191a.

[Sidenote: Conservative Use of Ornament]

Most critics of industrial design complain of an overwhelming desire

upon the part of the designer to over-decorate the structure. Surface

enrichment runs wild over steam radiators, stoves, and wooden rocking

chairs. Reserve is the watchword recommended as of extreme importance.

The illustrations in this chapter are restricted to a limited range of

design motives for the express purpose of simplifying the number of

recommended methods.

Rule 6c. _The treatment must be appropriate to the material._

[Sidenote: Relation of Enrichment to Material]

The close-fibered woods with smooth, even textures are capable of more

delicate enrichment than woods of coarser grain. Small articles are

generally seen from a close range and should, therefore, be ornamented

with finer decoration than large articles, such as a piece of furniture

that is to be seen from a distance. The latter should have surface

enrichment of sufficient boldness to "carry" or to be distinct from a

distant point. Furthermore the enrichment should not have a "stuck on"

appearance, but be an integral part of the original mass.

[Sidenote: Appropriate Methods of Surface Enrichment for Wood]

There are three distinct means of ornamenting wood: (1) inlaying,

depending for interest upon the difference in value and hue of the

different inlaying woods used; (2) carved enrichment, depending upon

line and mass for its beauty and made visible by contrasts of light and

shade; (3) painting or staining of the surface with the interest

dependent upon the colors or stains and their relation to each other and

to the hue of the wood. It has been deemed wise to consider the first

two types in the present chapter, and leave the last type for later

consideration. In Chapters XV, XVI, and XVII, accentuation has been

placed on wood coloring. The designer is advised to read those chapters

before attempting to stain or color his problem.

[Sidenote: Inlaying]

Treating surface enrichment in its listed order we find that inlaying is

one of the most common and best forms of enrichment for wood work. As

inlaying readily adapts itself to bands and borders, emphasis is placed

upon them.

[Illustration: STRAIGHT LINE SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF A SMALL PRIMARY MASS

IN WOOD

BANDS AND BORDERS

FOR INLAYING, CARVING, STAINING

PLATE 32]

Rule 6i. _Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring

contrasts with the parent surface._

[Sidenote: Errors in Wood Inlay]

Two conspicuous errors are often associated with inlaid designs. The

first is the use of woods affording a glaring contrast with that of the

project. Figure 209, Page 106. The right contrast of value is

established when the inlay seems neither to rise from the surface nor

sink through it. It should remain _on the surface_ of the plane to be

enriched, for it is surface enrichment. Figures 210, 211, and 212 are

illustrative of pleasing contrasts.

The second specific glaring error is the use of unrelated inlay. As an

example, an Indian club is created by gluing many varicolored woods

around a central core. The result of the pattern so formed has little

relation to the structural lines, fails entirely to support them; and,

as a result, should be discarded.

[Sidenote: Carving]

Carving is difficult for the average beginner in wood working design,

therefore merely the simplest forms of the craft are suggested as

advisable. Figure 205a. If an elaborate design is desired (Figure 205c),

it should be first drawn in outline and finally modeled in relief by

Plastelene. This model is then an effective guide for the carver,

supplementing the original outline drawing.

[Sidenote: Divisions of Carving]

Carving may be roughly divided into the following groups: (1) high

relief carving similar to heads, human figures, and capitals; (2) low

relief carving in which the planes have been flattened to a

comparatively short distance above the original block of wood, such as

panels, which are good examples of this group; (3) pierced carving where

the background has been entirely cut away in places, such as screens,

which illustrate this type; (4) incised carving in which the design has

been depressed _below_ the surface of the wood. Geometric chip carving

is a representative type of this group. There are possible variations

and combinations of these groups.

Rule 6j. _Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of

belonging to the parent mass._

_The central governing thought_ in all carved designs is to show an

interesting proportion of light and shade coupled with a unity between

the raised portion of the design and the background. If the carving

has a glued on appearance it becomes mechanical and resembles a stamped

or machine-produced ornament.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD WITH

BORDERS OF CURVED AND STRAIGHT LINES

FOR INLAYING, CARVING, STAINING

PLATE 33]

[Sidenote: Steps Taken in Carving]

A typical carved enrichment is carried through four steps: (1) the

design is transferred to the wood surface by means of carbon paper; (2)

the design is "set in" or separated from the ground by means of a

grooved chisel; (3) the wood is cut away from the back of the design by

a process of grounding; (4) the leaves and flowers or other elements of

the design are modeled. The designer should keep these processes in mind

when developing his design.

[Sidenote: The Designer's Vocabulary]

It is now essential to find the extent of the vocabulary possible for

the designer of surface enrichment. He has three large sources of

information: first, geometric forms and abstract spots; second, natural

organic objects such as flowers, leaves, animals, etc.; third,

artificial objects, pots, jars, ink bottles, and other similar objects.

He may assemble or group these objects or elements for future designs

into four typical systems: first, bands or borders; second, panels;

third, free ornament; and fourth, the diaper or all-over patterns.

DESIGNING BANDS ON BORDERS

Rule 6d. _Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, that is,

onward movement._

Rule 6e. _Bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary

motion, opposed to the main forward movement._

[Sidenote: Bands]

Bands are particularly suitable for inlaying. They are composed of

straight lines arranged in some orderly and structurally related manner.

They are used for bordering, framing, enclosing, or connecting. They

give a decided _onward_ motion which tends to increase the apparent

length of the surface to which they are applied. Referring to Plate 32,

Figure 192, we find three typical bands, _A_, _B_, and _C_. It is often

the custom to limit the width of the inlayed bands to the width of the

circular saw cut. To secure unity, the center band in _C_ is wider than

the outside sections.

[Sidenote: Accenting]

A possible variation of motive in band designing may be secured by

accenting. The single band has been broken up at _D_ into geometric

sections of pleasing length. But while this design gives variety, it

also destroys the unity of a single straight line. Unity may, however,

be restored by the addition of the top and bottom bands at _E_. This

method of restoring unity is of extreme value in all border arrangements

and is constantly used by the designer.

[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD

APPLICATION OF BANDS AND BORDERS

PLATE 34]

Rule 6f. _All component parts of a border should move in unison with the

main movement of the border._

[Sidenote: Borders]

Bands, as has just been stated, give distinctly "onward" movement.

Borders are merely bands combined with other motives from the designer's

vocabulary. As will be seen, bands, by their onward movement, tend to

hold the other elements of the border together. Figure 193 is a border

design without variety, unity, or interest. Figure 194 has added unity

to a similar border by the addition of the double bands, but monotony is

still present. Figure 195 suggests a method of relieving the monotony by

accentuating every other repeat, thus supplying variety and creating an

analogy to march-time music. Figure 196 has accentuated the monotonous

border in Figure 194 by omitting every other square. This makes a simple

and effective inlay pattern and suggests a large number of possible

variations that could be applied to accented band motives.

[Sidenote: Moorish Ornament]

Figures 197 and 198 are border motives of geometric derivation taken

from the historic schools of ornament. Figure 198 illustrates the "strap

ornament" of the Moorish school. The simple underlying geometric net

upon which these designs are based may be found in Meyer's Handbook of

Ornament.

INCEPTIVE AXES

Rule 6h. _Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly

upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, provided the

lateral movement dominates._

[Sidenote: Upward and Onward Borders]

In addition to the purely onward borders we now come to a variety with a

distinctly _upward_ movement as well. While this new feature adds

materially to the interest of the border, it also adds to the difficulty

of designing. The upward movement is often centered about an axis termed

the Axis of Symmetry or Inceptive Axis, about which are grouped and

balanced the different elements from the designer's vocabulary. When

both sides are alike, the unit so formed is called a _bilateral unit_.

Figure 199 shows the formation of a bilateral unit by means of grouping,

accenting, and balancing straight lines over an inceptive axis. By

adding bands above and below and doubling these vertical lines to gain

width, we form at _A_ and _B_, Figure 199, inlaid designs with an upward

and onward tendency or movement.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_

FIGURE 215.--Inlaid Band Border]

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_

FIGURE 216.--Single and Double Band Inlaid Border]

The introduction of curved lines and natural units allows us to add more

grace to these combined movements. The leading lines of a small border,

designed to be seen at close range, are planned in Figure 200. The

central line or inceptive axis is repeated at regular intervals and the

leading or skeleton lines are balanced to the right and left of this

axis. These leading lines, as can be readily seen, have an upward and

onward movement. To insure continuity, a small link and the top and

bottom bands have been added to complete the onward movement.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_

FIGURE 216a.--Work of High School Students]

Material for straight borders may be derived from geometry, nature, or

artificial forms, but for borders designed in curves, nature is

generally selected as a source.

Figure 201 illustrates a crude and uninteresting form, unsuited to

outline enrichment. Figure 202 has brought Figure 201 into some

semblance of order, but as can be readily seen by the primary outline

which encloses it, the widest point occurs exactly midway from top to

bottom, which makes the form monotonous. This defect has been remedied

in Figure 203 and an interesting and varied area appears for the first

time. What Dr. Haney calls "the feebly flapping curve" of Figure 202 has

been replaced by the vigorous and "snappy" curve of Figure 203, which

gives what is termed a dynamic or rhythmic value in surface enrichment.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_

FIGURE 216b.--Work of High School Students]

Rule 6g. _Each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic

and, if possible, partake of the main movements of the border._

Any form which causes the eye to move in a given direction is strongly

_dynamic_, and is opposed to the _static_ form which does not cause a

marked eye movement. A circle is symbolic of the static form, while a

triangle is dynamic. In the designer's nomenclature, the term "rhythmic"

may be used synonymously with "dynamic."

Dynamic areas or forms should carry out the upward and onward movement

of the leading lines. Figure 204 shows how closely dynamic areas are

connected with nature's units for design motives. A slight change in the

contour may transform a leaf into excellent material with which to

clothe the leading lines. The curve of force, the cyma, and other curves

described in previous chapters should be recognized by the designer and

utilized in the contours of dynamic forms.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_

FIGURE 216c.--Instruction Sheet Problem]

The leading lines of the border in Figure 200 are shown clothed or

enriched in Figure 205. Vigorous dynamic spots, conventionalized from

natural units, continue the upward and onward movement of the original

leading lines. As will be noted, the background has been treated to

allow the spots to appear in relief. Small "fussy" spots or areas have

been omitted and the units, varied in size and strongly dynamic in form,

balance over an inceptive axis. The small link reaches out its helping

hand to complete the onward movement without loss of unity, while the

bands above and below bind the design together and assist in the lateral

movement. Figure 205 shows three methods of treatment: simple spots

without modeling, from _A_ to _B_; slight indications of modeling, from

_B_ to _C_; full modeling of the entire unit at _C_. The choice of

treatment depends, of course, upon the skill of the craftsman.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_

FIGURE 217.--Carved and Accented Border and Triple Carved Band]

Figure 206 shows a design varied from formal balance over a central axis

of symmetry or an inceptive axis. It has a decided onward movement with

the leaves balanced above and below the stem which is the axis. The

"repeat" has been reversed at _B_ and is more pleasing than the portion

at _A_. The area of the background, in its relation to that used for

ornamentation or "filling," cannot be predetermined with exactness.

There should be no blank spaces for the eye to bridge. Some designers

allow about one-third ground for two-thirds filling or enrichment.

This proportion gives a full and rich effect and may be adopted in most

instances as satisfactory.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_

PLATE 35.--Instruction Sheet]

[Sidenote: Point of Concentration--Effect upon Structure]

When a border is used to parallel a rectangle it is customary to

strengthen the border at the corners for two reasons: first, to

strengthen, apparently, the structure at these points; second, to assist

the eye in making the sudden turn at the corner. The corner enforcement

affords momentary resting points for the eye, and adds pleasing variety

to the long line of border. The strengthened point is called the _point

of concentration_ or point of force. Its presence and effect may be

noted by the symbol P.C. in Figures 207, 208, 213, and 214.

[Sidenote: Chip Carving]

Figure 213 represents the rather angular and monotonous chip carving

motive. It is, however, a simple form of carved enrichment for wood

construction. Figure 214 shows the more rhythmic flow of a carved and

modeled enrichment. Two methods of leaf treatment are given at _A_ and

_B_.

Figures 215, 216, and 217 are industrial and public school examples of

the forms of surface enrichment treated in this chapter.

INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plate 35 shows the necessary working drawings for wood inlay

and is supplied as a typical high school problem by Mr. C.E.

Partch of Des Moines, Iowa. See Figure 216c.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

(_a_) Draw the primary rectangle, appendage, etc.

(_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into its horizontal and vertical

subdivisions.

(_c_) Design very simple contour enrichment.

(_d_) Determine the location of zone of enrichment, and the

amount and method of enriching the surface.

(_e_) Make several preliminary sketches to determine the best

design and add the one finally selected to the structure.

Correlate with contour enrichment.

(_f_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare

the drawing for shop use.