Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment
should be thought out before they are drawn._
Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of
surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten
or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or
apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large
unbroken and uninteresting surfaces._
Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be
bolder than similar designs for small primary masses._
Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of
enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage,
terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be
subordinate to this area._
Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be
introduced into the same design._
Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into
surface enrichment._
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Contrast the method of enriching large and small areas of
base and precious metals. Illustrate. What is the character of
surface enrichment for large areas?
2. Name three essentials to good surface design for base and
precious metals. Illustrate each.
3. Give nine steps necessary for the complete evolution of
surface enrichment.
4. Name method of classifying the structural forms of metal
into four groups. How does this compare with the classification
of clay forms?
5. Between which two groups does the transition from a
horizontal to a vertical primary mass occur?
6. Is there a perceptible change in the surface enrichment
paralleling this change in proportions of the primary mass?
7. In which group or groups is the relation between surface and
contour enrichment closest?
8. Give the characteristics of surface enrichment designed for
flat or semi-flat planes.
9. State the value of the terminal as an enrichment zone.
10. Discuss common errors in the surface enrichment of hardware
and their correction.
11. In what manner does historic ornament influence industrial
design? Why?
12. Give characteristics of surface enrichment designed for,
(_a_) large, shallow circular forms; (_b_) large, low
cylindrical forms; (_c_) large, high cylindrical forms.
13. How does the point from which the article is to be seen
affect the character of the design?
CHAPTER XV
COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS
[Sidenote: Need of Harmonious Color]
In the previous chapters we have developed problems dealing with
proportions, contours, and surface enrichment. The use of color,
particularly in surface enrichment, is equally important inasmuch as its
use is often necessary to bring the project, as for example a piece of
furniture, into harmony with the surroundings which furnish its final
color environment. The incorrect use of color may seriously mar a
project otherwise correctly designed in line and form, and may also
weaken its influence in a particular setting.
[Sidenote: Use of Color Systems]
While there are a number of excellent systems of color notation, it is
well to bear in mind that a color system, however excellent, is a good
servant but a poor master. It is nevertheless considered as essential to
have a definite knowledge of some systematically developed color system
in order that we may methodically apply color to the structural form
with some degree of certainty.
[Sidenote: Color Pigments for Design Rendering]
For rendering drawings of problems involving the use of color it is
suggested that the beginner use the tempera, or opaque colors now on the
market. These colors readily adapt themselves to the average problem,
while their rich hues are more successful than those produced from the
ordinary water colors. Tubes of cobalt blue, ultramarine, light chrome
yellow, vermilion, emerald green, crimson madder, black, and white will
serve to solve the problems demanded by this chapter.
[Sidenote: Application of Pigment]
White is used to lighten and black to darken the pigments, which should
be mixed with water to the consistency of cream, and applied to cover
well the surface of the paper. One should guard against a thin,
transparent wash, as the desired effect is a velvety opaque and evenly
tinted surface only possible with the thick application of color. The
pigment will dry out about one-quarter lighter than when first applied.
The usual school color box of three pigments is useful for rendering
wood stains. These pigments may be used in thin flat washes and will
exhibit a transparent effect analogous to the effect of a wood stain.
The natural color of wood may be first represented and, when dry,
followed by a second thin wash of the hue of the wood stain.
[Sidenote: Rendering of Wood Stains]
Lacking as we are in a definite color nomenclature or standards, it now
becomes necessary to describe the processes and define the terms
necessary to the designer.
[Sidenote: Hue and Hue Rectangles]
_Hue_ is the technical name for color; a change of color means a change
of hue. For the designer's purposes we will select twelve equally graded
colors or hues from the spectrum and term them standard hues. Each hue
will have twenty-seven modifications or gradations, which is a
sufficient number for our purpose. These gradations are to be
graphically recorded by and contained in a diagram to be known as a _hue
rectangle_. There are twelve of these rectangles, one for each of the
selected hues, and they are found arranged in sequence in Figure 454.
[Sidenote: Standard Hues]
[Sidenote: Full Chromatic Intensity]
By referring to Figure 455, it is seen that the twelve selected standard
hues are represented at what is termed _full chromatic intensity_,
which, to the designer, means hues of the full strength of his color
pigment. This is far short of the true color intensity of the spectrum,
but for industrial arts purposes these hues are strong enough to serve
as standards for comparison and classification. The hues should be
evenly graded from red at the left to red violet at the right without
noticeable unevenness in the gradations. Red violet is the link which
connects the right end with the left, thus completing the circuit of the
twelve hues. The following pigment table gives name and symbol of
various hues.
[Sidenote: Approximate Related Standard Hues]
--------------+-----------------------------------+------------+-------
HUES | PIGMENTS | VALUES |SYMBOLS
--------------+-----------------------------------+------------+-------
Red | Pure crimson madder | High dark | R-HD
Orange | Crimson madder and vermilion | Middle | OR-M
Orange | Vermilion and light chrome yellow | Low light | O-LL
Orange yellow | Vermilion and light chrome yellow | Light | OY-L
Yellow | Pure light chrome yellow | High light | Y-HL
Yellow green | Light chrome yellow and | |
| emerald green | Light | YG-L
Green | Pure emerald green | Low light | G-LL
Green blue | Emerald green and cobalt blue | Middle | GB-M
Blue | Pure cobalt blue | High dark | B-HD
Blue violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Dark | BV-D
Violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Low dark | V-LD
Red violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Dark | RV-D
--------------+-----------------------------------+------------+-------
[Sidenote: Locating Standard Hues]
It now becomes imperative to locate each standard hue at its definite
place in each rectangle. This invariably occurs at a predetermined point
in the left vertical boundary of the rectangle of that hue. From
inspection of Figure 455, it is quickly seen that violet seems to be the
darkest hue; yellow the lightest, with the others between these hues.
This variation of what is termed their value gives us a guide to their
proper placing in the hue rectangle.
[Sidenote: Values and Horizontal Value Lines]
_Value_ is that quality by which we may distinguish a dark hue from a
light one. For design purposes we will imagine the hue rectangle to
grade from white at the top to black at the bottom. We will draw
horizontal lines or steps across the rectangle, marking nine even value
steps from white to black; the top one to be termed White (W), followed
by High Light (HL); Light (L); Low Light (LL); Middle (M); High Dark
(HD); Dark (D); Low Dark (LD); and Black (B). These value steps may be
thought of as a scale of gray or neutral values descending the _right
boundary_ of the hue rectangle. They have been roughly indicated in the
hue rectangle at the left of Figure 454.
[Sidenote: Relation of the Standard Hue to the Hue Rectangle]
Each standard hue may now be located in the _left boundary_ of its hue
rectangle and opposite its neutral gray equivalent in the right
boundary. If the standard hue is accurately determined by the designer,
it will be of exactly the same value as its gray equivalent given in the
"value" column of the pigment table. The small arrows leading from
Figure 455 to 454 show where four standard hues are located; the
remaining hues are located in the left circle of each successive row in
the remaining rectangles, and upon their respective value lines.
Standard hues are expressed by the symbols in the _right column_ of the
pigment table.
[Sidenote: Tints]
Each standard pigment or hue may be thinned with opaque white to lighten
it, forming what is known as a tint of that hue. Red, in Figure 454,
reaching its full chromatic intensity at the value High Dark, may be
lightened four times before it ultimately arrives at white. Each step is
to be considered as occurring in the left hand boundary of the rectangle
above the standard hue, and is to be recorded by the symbols, R-M: R-LL:
R-L: R-HL. Orange yellow has only one possible tint. Strawberry, light
lavender, rose, etc., are merely nicknames for various tints.
[Sidenote: Shades]
Each standard hue may be darkened by the application of black, thus
forming shades of that hue. Red is capable of producing two shades, R-D
and R-LD, which are placed in the left boundary of the hue rectangle
below the standard hue. Browns, russets, and dark tans are shades of
different hues.
These modifications of the standard hues into tints and shades give to
the designer simple variations of his too brilliant standards. But even
these modifications are not sufficiently grayed for staining or painting
large wood or wall surfaces. There is a brilliancy and glare about
certain tints which require modification. The shades are safer for use
on large areas. The remaining space in the interior of the hue rectangle
is to be devoted to the last gradation of the standard hue.
[Sidenote: Chroma]
_Chroma_ is the strength of a color. It is the quality by which we
distinguish a strong color from a weak one. The standard hue is
approximately full chromatic intensity. Likewise each tint and shade is
considered to be of its full chromatic intensity, making the left-hand
boundary of the rectangle the area of full chroma.
From this boundary, each tint, standard, and shade _fades out or loses
chroma_ until the right boundary of the rectangle is reached. In this
boundary each tint, standard, and shade has faded out of its gray
equivalent, but without changing its original value; in other words it
has traveled along its horizontal value line to a complete grayness. The
right-hand boundary of the rectangle may then be represented by a gray
value scale of nine steps, including white and black.
[Sidenote: Vertical Chroma Lines]
It becomes necessary to record at regular intervals, this loss of
chroma. For this purpose, we have cut the hue rectangle by three
vertical lines. The first vertical line from the left boundary of the
rectangle marks the position where the standard with its tints and
shades have been grayed to the point where only three-fourths of the
original of hue remains. Similarly, the center and right vertical lines
mark the points where one-half and one-fourth, respectively, of the
color have been retained. These losses of chroma are recorded by similar
fractions. With possible modifications of value and chroma each hue now
has twenty-seven possible changes.
The full hue title or symbol may now be written as follows: (1) hue
name, (2) amount of chroma, (3) value. Examples: GB [Sidenote: Full Hue
Symbols]
3/4D-V1/2HL. We are now in a position to write whatever color we may
have in mind and another person will understand it, provided the other
person adopts our standard. Through the teachings of Dr. D.W. Ross, Mr.
A.H. Munsell, and others, the symbols and standards are now quite
generally understood and have, in a slightly modified form been accepted
in several standard color industries.
[Sidenote: Technical Practice]
[Sidenote: Warm and Cold Colors]
To familiarize oneself with the mixing of the various hues, it is
excellent practice to form a vertical gray scale of the
three-quarter-inch squares. There should be nine steps from white to
black; an enlarged duplication of the right boundary of the hue
rectangle. The warm standard hues at their full standard intensities;
RV-R-OR-O-OY-Y, may be formed and placed opposite their gray equivalents
on the left side of the gray scale, while the remaining or cold colors
may be similarly placed with relation to the gray scale but upon the
right of it.
[Sidenote: Scales of Color]
A vertical scale of tints and shades of one of the hues, duplicating the
left side of the rectangle gives the character of the tints and shades.
One shade and one tint should then be carried along a horizontal value
line through three steps of loss of chroma to complete grayness, but
without change of the original value. Yellow, by the addition of black
becomes a false greenish shade which may be corrected by the addition of
a small amount of vermilion.
[Sidenote: Wood Stains]
A large percentage of natural wood hues are to be found between the hue
rectangles, Red-Orange, Yellow and Green, or in the warm portion of the
spectrum. As a wood stain must blend harmoniously with the natural wood
color, it is reasonable to expect the best results from stains with a
predominance of warm hues or warm grays in their composition.
[Sidenote: Basic Primary Hues]
It is possible to duplicate _nearly all_ the twelve standard hues of
Figure 455 with mixtures of the three so-called primary hues of red,
yellow, and blue. It makes a fairly approximate scale which is, however,
not sufficiently accurate for standardizing purposes. The scale is
formed by mixing red and yellow in varying proportions for the
intermediate hues of orange, yellow, and blue for the greens, and blue
and red for the violets. This practice of mixing three primary colors
together serves as an important step, governing wood stain mixing for
beginners.
[Sidenote: Three Basic Aniline Wood Dyes]
Developing this idea further, we may select aniline brilliant scarlet as
approximating red; metanil yellow, approximating yellow; and acid green
as a substitute for blue. These stains are shown in the top portion of
Figure 456. By comparison with Figure 455, scarlet is found to be orange
red; metanil yellow, orange, and acid green to be true standard green.
These basic stains have been located in their proper positions with
regard to their hue, value, and chroma. Their positions are located by
the large circles in the hue diagrams of Figure 456.
[Sidenote: Wood Stain Mixing]
These stains are modified and reduced in chroma and value by mixing them
with nigrosene black, an aniline dye of blue black appearance, which
fills all the needs of an ivory black in water or oil color pigment.
With these four stains, almost any commercial stain may be duplicated.
Aniline dye for water stains readily dissolves in water while a special
aniline for oil staining is first cut with naphtha.
[Sidenote: Dark Mahogany Stain]
Dark mahogany stain in Figure 456 is orange red, ¾HD, and is indicated
by the circle _A_ in the same figure. To duplicate this stain we have as
the nearest base stain, brilliant scarlet, which corresponds to orange
red. This is placed at its full intensity in the circle OR on the middle
horizontal value line. To duplicate dark mahogany stain it will be
necessary to reduce in value a strong solution of brilliant scarlet,
slightly more than one horizontal value step, by the addition of
nigrosene. We shall then add a small amount of some thinning medium, oil
or water, to reduce slightly the stain in chroma.
[Sidenote: Flemish Oak Stain]
Flemish oak stain is orange ¾D. This calls for a mixture of metanil
yellow and brilliant scarlet aniline to form the orange hue. We must
then add nigrosene to reduce the value to D, and add a small amount of
thinner to produce the necessary reduction in chroma.
[Sidenote: Fumed Oak Stain]
This is commonly produced by fuming the wood with ammonia. The hue may
however be closely duplicated by a mixture of brilliant scarlet, metanil
yellow, and nigrosene. It is practically the same as Flemish oak, but
possesses one-quarter more color as can be seen on the orange hue
rectangle.
[Sidenote: Olive Green Stain]
The circle _D_ shows this stain to be slightly below yellow green, ¾M,
in value and chroma. The hue rectangle containing it is nearer the green
than the orange yellow rectangle; hence in mixing the stain we should
keep the green hue dominant by adding more of it than of metanil
yellow. As in other stains, nigrosene is added to reduce the full
chromatic intensities of the aniline to the proper value and chroma of
olive green stain.
[Sidenote: Light Weathered Oak Stain]
This stain is practically blue, 1/4M, and is formed by thinning
nigrosene to the proper value.
[Sidenote: Color Changes of the Stain]
Aniline dyes are apt to fade if exposed to full sunlight. There are,
however, certain preventives that are beyond the scope of this book to
treat in detail. The natural color of the wood is inclined to make a
stain warmer than when originally mixed. This should be allowed for.
Wood filler, the wood grain, porosity, qualities, and hue of the wood,
all influence the final value of the stain. It frequently becomes darker
in value as may be seen by comparing Figure 456 and Figures 458 to 461.
It is good policy to test the stain upon different woods to observe the
final effect. The tests may be kept for future reference.
It is readily seen from the few examples in Figure 456 that, with the
three basic stains, almost any other stains may be produced, thus
affording a broad field for harmonious selection and adaptation to the
environment. The next chapters will take up the question of color
harmony and its application to wood, wall surfaces, clay, and metal.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
See paragraph upon "Technical Practice" in this chapter, page
198.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What pigments are best adapted to rendering design problems?
What pigments are particularly adapted to the rendering of wood
stains? How should each be applied?
2. What are standard hues? Why do we need standards of hue?
3. Define the term _values_.
4. What are tints and shades?
5. Define fully the term _chroma_.
6. Bound the hue rectangle and trace the value and chroma
changes occurring on its vertical and horizontal lines.
7. Locate in its proper hue rectangle (Figure 455) the
following hues: OY 3/4HD; YG 1/2LL; RV 3/4M; YL.
8. Name the three primary hues. How may an approximate scale of
twelve hues be prepared from them?
9. Name the three basic aniline wood dyes and give their
relation to the three primary hues. What is the practical use
of nigrosene in stain mixing?
10. Give the symbol and explain the method of mixing Flemish
oak wood stain. Name and explain the method of mixing two
others.
11. How does its application to wood effect the color and value
of aniline stain?
[Illustration: PLATE 64]
CHAPTER XVI
COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN
LARGE SURFACES OF WOOD; WALL AND CEILING AREAS
[Sidenote: Color Harmony]
In the preceding chapter, the classification and standardization of
color were emphasized as preliminary to the study of color harmony.
Color harmony is obtained by the proper balancing of value, hue, and
chroma upon a surface or surfaces to give a pleasing reaction to the
eye, and through the eye to the intellect.
We are now ready to familiarize ourselves with the specific applications
of these factors to practical design problems. Too many pieces of
furniture are stained with no thought as to the final adaptation in the
school or home. This is not wise, either from the standpoint of a
complete educative process or of good taste. Figures 458, 459, 460, 461,
show stains of Plate 64 applied to wood. Two new stains have been added,
sage green and silver gray. These six stains are representative ones and
act as a typical data for study of color harmony.
FURNITURE--TRIM--SIDE WALLS--CEILINGS
[Sidenote: Backgrounds]
The side walls of a room form the background for furniture; trim, wall
brackets, and similarly related objects; therefore the _closest relation
and harmony_ should be maintained between them.
[Sidenote: Value Range of Wood Stains]
The wood stains 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18, Plate 65, as they appear on
various kinds of wood are, in part, duplicates of the unapplied stains
of Plate 64, Figure 456. The effect of the wood has changed their values
and in some instances their color as can be seen by comparing the two
plates. Their _new relations_ have been plotted on the hue rectangles of
Figure 457, Plate 65, and the results joined by a dotted line. The
circles in the diagrams contain cross reference figures in order that
the stains may be traced without difficulty. The highest value is near
middle (18), and the lowest is low dark (6), showing a value range of
four steps.
[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls]
The side walls, taken from well-known wall tint catalogs have been
similarly plotted in Figure 457, and the results joined together by a
heavy black line. The lightest value is light (11), and the darkest is
middle value (14), an average range of three steps slightly above middle
value.
[Sidenote: Value Range of Ceilings]
Ceilings are the lightest of the surfaces considered. Their range is
from slightly below white (10), to light (16), a range of two values.
From the results, as plotted in Figure 457, it is seen that there is a
tendency to keep the ceilings within a close range of values. The
results have been joined together by means of a double black line. There
are exceptions to these results, but it is quite safe to keep well
within the suggested range for harmonious results. We may now draw the
following rules as a result of an empirical method of deduction.
Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the values
middle and low dark._
Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the values
light and middle._
Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values
white (minus) and light._
[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls and Wood Work]
Averaging the value range between the wood work which includes the
furniture, trim, and the side walls of Figures 458, 459, 460, 461, 462,
and 463, we find that the range varies from five values in Figures 459
to slightly more than one in Figure 463. As the side walls and furniture
are to be regarded as unobtrusive settings for pictures and people it is
well to be very conservative with the use of values. A wide range of
values will cause a lack of unity. In this respect Figure 459 may be
regarded as approaching the extreme limit of contrasts of value
compatible with good taste. Let us, therefore, limit the value range to
four values, as, for example: low light for side walls and dark for
stain.
Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture, trim,
etc., should be retained within the range of four values or less, as low
light and dark._
[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls and Ceilings]
The ceiling and side walls in Figure 459 are four values apart and in
Figure 463 this has been reduced to a one-value step. There seems to be
a common average of three values as an acceptable and agreeable
contrast. For dark rooms this would well be increased. For rooms with
light side walls the contrast would be considerably lessened.
Rule 12e. _The relation between side walls and ceiling should be within
the range of three values or less, as high light and low light._
HUE GROUPINGS
[Sidenote: Hue Range for Wood Work and Walls]
A wood stain should be closely related to the natural color of the wood.
As this is usually a warm color we naturally find most of the wood
stains included between the red and the yellow hue rectangles, inclusive
of red and yellow green. Walnut then may be stained a deep shade of
orange or red, but would not be adapted to a blue green stain. This
arbitrary but wide range of hues of stained wood naturally affects the
hue of the side walls. The plotting of the hues for the side walls,
Figure 457, shows a close relation to the hues of the stain to the wall.
In no instance do we find the hue rectangle of the wood work more than
three hues away from that of the walls. In four instances they are
within two hue rectangles of each other and in one instance they are
both within the same rectangle. This develops the fact that _analogous_
or neighboring groupings of hues prevail in relating the hues of wood
work and side walls.
[Sidenote: Analogous Hues]
An _analogous_ group of hues is an arrangement based upon a selection of
tints and shades within three rectangles of each other, as orange and
yellow. These harmonize because yellow is mixed with and becomes a hue
common to both. While the analogous arrangement of hues seems to be most
commonly used, and with a result that seems to justify its adoption into
general practice, there are other arrangements that are pleasing to the
eye.
[Sidenote: Contrasted Hues]
Figure 458 illustrates what is commonly known as a _contrasted_ grouping
or arrangement of hues. It consists of the tints or shades of one or
more hues and gray. It is the basis of color harmony between silver and
semi-precious stones. If two hues are used, one of them should be
reduced in chroma to nearly gray.
[Sidenote: Dominant Hue]
Figure 463 is typical of still another form of positive hue grouping. By
consulting the yellow hue rectangle of Figure 457 it is noted that the
wood work, side walls, and ceiling of Figure 463 _are all contained in
one rectangle_. This classes this color scheme as an example of
_dominant_ arrangement which may be simply defined as the _tints and
shades of one hue_. The arrangement does not have the variety supplied
by analogous grouping, introducing as it does, two hues from different
rectangles, but for large surfaces dominant grouping is a conservative
and safe arrangement. Its tendency toward monotony should be guarded
against by the introduction of some object high in chroma in the room
decorative scheme. A bright colored vase will accomplish this
successfully. Rule 12o, Chapter XVII.
Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should preferably
be selected from one of the following groupings: analogous, contrasted,
or dominant arrangements of hues. Analogous grouping is preferable where
variety of hue is desirable._
[Sidenote: Special Arrangements]
The above rule is not to be taken as arbitrary. In the hands of
competent designers attractive color schemes are developed that differ
materially from the above suggestions. But, for the usual home setting,
the above arrangement may be regarded as satisfactory, and is given with
the idea of bringing the school shop work and the home environment into
closer color harmony. A specimen of special arrangement is given by the
Circle 3A. This is delft blue, which harmonizes with dark mahogany in a
satisfactory manner.
[Sidenote: Hue Range for Side Walls and Ceilings]
In adjusting the hues for side walls and ceilings, the relations should
be of the closest. The plotting of ceiling hues in Figure 457 shows a
strong tendency for the ceiling to be colored with a tint of the side
walls (dominant arrangement), or by a tint selected from the next
rectangle (analogous arrangement). Yellow or yellow-green, very light
and much reduced in chroma, seems to be the almost universal custom.
This is due to the strongly _light reflecting_ qualities of yellow.
Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side
walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._
[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Stains]
Stains, as they occupy a comparatively limited area in the room color
scheme, are of their full chroma value or reduced to three-fourths
chroma. In only one instance (18), Figure 463, do we find a reduction
to one-fourth chroma, demanded by the nearly gray color scheme of the
walls. We find it to be an established fact that small areas are capable
of enrichment by colors of greater purity and higher chroma than larger
surfaces. A silver pin may be designed to contain a stone of high
brilliancy, but a wall surface has to be materially reduced in chroma to
possess color harmony.
[Illustration: PLATE 65]
[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Stain]
Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below three-fourths
chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, however, call for a
reduction to one-fourth intensity._
[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Walls]
As the walls occupy a large proportionate area of the color scheme of
the room we find it necessary to reduce them in chroma in order to
soften the glare of too brilliant colors. Figure 457 shows only one
instance (14) of a hue unreduced in chroma. It is retained at the full
chroma for that value on account of the brightness of the sage green
wood stain. The other hues represented in the diagram are grayed or
reduced in chroma from three-fourths to less than one-fourth, or to
nearly neutral gray.
Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a
minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma._
[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Ceilings]
The same tendency toward chromatic reduction is to be seen in ceilings,
although we have two examples in Figure 457 (10 and 13) of nearly white
and high light ceilings that have not been reduced. To avoid crudity a
reduction in chroma by the addition of gray is to be desired.
Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three-fourths
intensity with slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a minimum
reduction._
[Sidenote: Summary]
With a single exception (3A), the stains and wall tints have been
selected between and including the red and green rectangles. This is
customary and gives safe hue range as it insures the retention of wall
and ceiling hues in unified conformity with the warm tints of the
natural wood and its equally dark hued stains.
[Sidenote: Wall and Ceiling Pigments]
The following is a list of dry colors which may be purchased at a paint
or hardware store for a few cents a pound. It is suggested for the
designer or craftsman who desires to tint his own wall or ceiling. While
oil paint is to be preferred, these colors are readily and quickly
applied and form serviceable backgrounds.
[Sidenote: Calcimine]
The pigments are white, yellow ochre, chrome yellow light, chrome yellow
medium, and chrome yellow dark, burnt and raw sienna, turkey and raw
umber, ultramarine and ivory black. The greens are preferably mixed by
adding ultramarine to one of the chromes. Shades are formed by the
addition of the siennas, umbers, or black. Black and white, mixed to a
gray, are useful in reducing the chroma of a hue. The stains should be
mixed with hot water and a small amount of glue for a binder. White
occasionally comes prepared with glue in its composition.
[Sidenote: Opaque Wood Finishes]
While this chapter has emphasized the transparent finish for wood
treatment, as a method best fitted for woods with a distinct grain, it
is realized that oil painting of wood surfaces has a distinct and
important part to play in the interior decorative scheme of a room. This
latter method is adapted to soft woods without a strongly marked grained
surface. The warm hued rectangle of the spectrum: red, orange, and
yellow with their associated hues, which are so intimately connected
with the natural wood colors and their stains, no longer stand as a
limiting factor in controlling the color of the wood or the side walls.
The opaque nature of oil paints allows us to disregard the color of the
wood, and thus select any hue of oil paint which harmonizes with the
walls and decorative scheme of the room. The rules stated herein are
equally applicable to opaque colors. It may be necessary to reduce oil
paints in chroma beyond the point indicated in Rule 12h.
While it is not within the scope of this chapter to enter into a
complete discussion of the subject of interior decoration, the following
suggestions are considered as applying to our subject: viz., the surface
enrichment of large areas. Complete color harmony in interior decoration
generally demands the presence of the three so-called primary hues: red,
yellow, and blue, in some form in the wall color scheme. While this is
not always possible, two may be introduced as follows.
[Sidenote: Northern Exposure]
The light from the north, northeast, or northwest is cold blue,
supplying blue in the decorative scheme of three primary colors: blue,
red, and yellow. The wall tints should then be composed of combinations
of red and yellow, the remaining primaries. These may be applied to the
walls by means of tints of yellow and orange reduced in chroma, or
shades of orange and orange-red. No greens or blues should be used.
[Sidenote: Southern Exposure]
The light from the south, southeast, and southwest supplies plenty of
yellow. It is, then, necessary to add the remaining primaries or at
least one of them in the form of gray-blue, orange, or orange-yellow,
reduced to one-fourth chroma and practically to neutrality or
grayish-reds and greens, well reduced in chroma. Any hue strongly yellow
should be avoided.
[Sidenote: Effects of Hue upon Apparent Size]
Certain hues materially affect the apparent size of a room. If the room
is small certain values and hues will make it appear much smaller. Dark
values, as a rule, make the room look smaller by seemingly drawing the
walls closer together. Red contracts the apparent size of a room, while
yellow and blue expand it. Green and shades of yellow and red-orange, if
not too dark, have little effect upon the apparent size of a room.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(_a_) Determine, by its exposure, the kind of light the room
receives.
(_b_) Choose a hue for the walls embodying one or both of the
primary hues not represented by this daylight.
(_c_) Select a value and chroma for this hue in accordance with
Rules 12b and 12i.
(_d_) Select a hue, value, and chroma for the ceiling in
accordance with Rules 12g, 12e, and 12j.
(_e_) Select the correct hue, value, and chroma for paint or
stain for the wood work in accordance with Rules 12f, 12a, and
12h.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Develop the color scheme for the walls, ceiling, and wood work
of a room with a northern exposure; southern exposure. Mix the
stain for a piece of oak to harmonize with the wood work and
walls of the living room of your home.
Determine the wall tints to harmonize with dark weathered oak.
Mix them from dry colors.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the
values middle and low dark._
Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the
values light and middle._
Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the
values white (minus) and light._
Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture,
trim, etc., should be retained within the range of four values
or less, as low light and dark._
Rule 12e. _The relation between the side walls and ceiling
should be within the range of three values or less, as high
light and low light._
Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should
preferably be selected from one of the following groupings:
analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues.
Analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is
desirable._
Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the
side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._
Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below
three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls,
however, call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity._
Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths
chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth
chroma._
Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to
three-fourths intensity, with slightly less than one-fourth
chroma as a minimum reduction._
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What should we have in mind when staining furniture for the
home?
2. Why are the side walls important when considering the color
scheme of a room?
3. Give the value range for the average wood stains, side
walls, and ceiling.
4. State the value range to include wood work, furniture, trim,
and side walls.
5. State the value range that includes side walls and ceilings.
6. Give the hue range for wood work and side walls.
7. Explain the analogous, contrasted, and dominant groupings of
hues and name two examples of each.
8. Give the hue range for side walls and ceilings. Name several
good combinations.
9. Give range of chroma for wood work, side walls, and ceiling.
Explain the reasons for each change of chroma.
10. What experience have you had in mixing calcimine for wall
decoration?
11. Discuss opaque finishes for wood.
12. Give the hues for rooms with northern and southern
exposures. Why?
13. State the effect of hues upon the apparent size of a room.
CHAPTER XVII
COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN
SMALL SURFACES IN CLAY AND METAL
Before proceeding to the discussion of the application of color to clay
it becomes necessary to determine what technical possibilities are
presented.
[Sidenote: Color Applied to the Surface Enrichment of Clay]
Plain glazing of the entire surface is a common form of pottery
enrichment. A piece of ware, thus glazed, may become a point of
concentration in the color arrangement of a room, and should be
definitely located in that arrangement. The ware may harmonize with the
background (side wall) by analogy, dominance, or contrast or through
complementary coloring. Rule 12o. A glaze from the diagram in Figure 464
should be selected as forming a part in the selected arrangement. Side
wall (11), Figure 457, would harmonize with glaze C9 by virtue of its
dominant relation or with M7 through analogy. The glaze selected should
be higher in chroma than the side wall and will be found to form a
cheerful and brilliant element in the room color scheme. The definite
linking of these different factors of interior decoration into unity has
been earnestly advocated in these chapters. Figures 457 and 464 show the
possibilities of cross references.
[Sidenote: Stains for Glazes]
It soon becomes apparent because of the coloring of clay ware that the
designer must know something of the color possibilities of glazed
pottery forms. The decorative processes were explained at some length in
Chapter XII, wherein we described the common types of surface
enrichment. As we are now primarily considering the question of color,
we first regard the ware as uniformly glazed with either clear or matt
glaze. The former is brilliant, of high chroma, and has a highly
polished surface, while the latter is dull surfaced glaze of lower
chroma.
[Sidenote: Metallic Oxides]
Metallic oxides are used to stain or color clear glazes, while
underglaze colors are ordinarily used for matts. The percentage of
stains to be added to the dry glazes is stated in Figure 464 where they
can be readily traced to their approximate locations in the hue
rectangles by the reference letters M1, C1, etc. Certain oxides are weak
coloring agents and require larger amounts of oxide to color the glaze
perceptibly.
Iron and copper oxide may be mixed to produce a large variety of yellow
greens; other combinations will suggest themselves. It is possible to
use oxides as well as underglaze colors for staining matt glazes.
[Sidenote: Harmony of Color]
We have, to this point, considered the enrichment of large surfaces
whose areas were arbitrarily determined by construction, as, for
example, the extent of wall surface, ceiling, or wood trim and
furniture. The essential element in this type of problem is the
selection of a one, two, or three-hued color arrangement that would
harmoniously link ceiling, wall, and wood together. If we had introduced
stencilling or figured wall paper it would have immediately called for
the solution of another problem, the factor of _how much_ strong color
to use. In other words, it would have introduced the question of
_proportionate distribution_ of color upon a given area. It was thought
best to limit the subject of proportionate distribution to small areas,
where the designer is often forced to make decisions and to divide
surfaces into proportionate color parts for his surface enrichment.
We may now repeat the definition of harmony with the accentuation placed
upon a certain wording directly applicable to small surfaces. Harmony is
obtained by the proper balancing and _proportionate distribution_ of
value, hue, and chroma upon a surface to give a unified and pleasing
reaction to the eye and intellect.
[Sidenote: Proportionate Distribution of Color for Small Areas]
Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma in
surface enrichment calls for a small area, high in chroma, and
contrasting in value to the rest of the surface but harmonizing with it.
This is usually located in the area of concentration. The larger areas
are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form a slight
contrast with the background._
[Sidenote: Examples of Proportionate Distribution]
Figure 465 illustrates some of the salient factors of distribution of
values and hues. Hues of or near standard chromatic intensity should be
used in _small quantities_ and should accentuate the point of
concentration. These small areas are to be regarded as giving brilliancy
and life to the surface and to hold the eye at the point of
concentration. Very small surfaces are capable of sustaining spots of
high chroma, as is shown in the silver pin of Figure 468. The remaining
portions of the surface enrichment should be kept subordinated in hue
and value to the point of concentration, _but related to it_. The bands
of Figure 465 are well reduced in value and make little contrast with
the background, thus forming true surface enrichment or that which
neither rises above or apparently falls through the surface. The point
of concentration is higher in chroma than the surrounding areas.
Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should dominate all
color schemes. The point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue
related to the other hues by (1) contrasted, (2) dominant, (3)
analogous, (4) complementary relations. This hue should make slightly
stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues._
Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to
supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity. Restraint
in the use of values is essential._
Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the
decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made to this under
Rule 12o._
[Sidenote: Value and Hue and Chroma Range for Small Areas]
In the vase, Figure 464A, the designer selected hues from neighboring or
analogous rectangles green and blue-green. The value range is restricted
to four steps and the areas of concentration are placed at the top of
the vase by the stronger value and hue contrasts of the foliage of the
trees and dark blue rim. In both Figures, 464A and 465, the designer has
used analogous hue arrangements. This is suggested to the beginner as
serviceable for objects exceeding the dimensions of jewelry and includes
such problems as vase forms, book stalls, and brackets. Contrasted and
dominant arrangements are also good, safe, and sound arrangements, but
fail to give the variety of color to small objects afforded by analogous
grouping. At a later point in this chapter the subject of complementary
coloring will suggest a new arrangement to the reader, but this scheme
is to be left until he has sufficiently mastered the possibilities of
the arrangements just indicated.
Five values form a safe value range for small objects. It is good
practice to keep the larger areas, including the background, within
three steps of each other and to allow the point of concentration to
form the strongest value contrast.
[Sidenote: Over Reduction in Chroma]
The chroma may range from full to three-quarters intensity. Reduction to
one-half or one-fourth intensity is inclined to make a small object
appear washed out or chalky. Shades, at their full intensity, are good
colors to use for small surfaces in wood. Small enameled objects may be
developed in full chroma, while pottery forms range from full chroma to
one-half chroma in forms of slip and underglaze painting.
[Sidenote: Color Applied to the Surface Enrichment of Metal]
It is interesting to note the gradually increasing chroma percentage of
the different coloring media in direct proportion to the reduction of
the area of the surface to be enriched. By comparing the diagrams of
Figures 464 and 457 it will be seen that there is a steady movement
toward the left sides of the hue rectangles or toward stronger
intensity. The wall areas are shown to be lowest in chroma, followed by
the increasing intensity of wood stains, glazes, and enamels.
[Sidenote: Enamels]
Enamels, commonly used to enrich metal surfaces, are highest in chroma
of the decorative materials under discussion and are to be treated with
nearly as much restraint as one would use in enriching a surface with
semi-precious stones, for strong hues are cheapened by excessive use.
The plate in Figure 436 has small circles filled with enamel and a large
field of chased or uncolored design.
[Sidenote: Transparent Enamels]
Transparent enamels are comparable to clear glazes and the coloring
medium is the same. Their preparation is difficult and therefore trade
names have been given in the table of Figure 464. As will be seen by
consulting the diagram of Figure 464, T1, T2, T3, etc., they are all at
their full value intensity. Enamels, as supplied by the trade, are much
too intense for use in enrichment and consequently are applied over a
coating of colorless clear enamel, technically named flux or fondant. As
the thickness of coating of enamel may vary, the hue classification is
to be regarded as approximate.
[Illustration: PLATE 66]
[Sidenote: Opaque Enamels]
Opaque enamels may be compared with matt glazes, for, while the texture
of the surface has a distinct gloss, the enamels themselves are not
so strong in hue as the transparent enamels. By referring to the diagram
of Figure 464, it may be seen that many of the opaque enamels are
reduced in chroma, thus accounting for their softened hue.
[Sidenote: Oxidation]
Metals are capable of considerable change of color by the application of
chemicals to the surface. Potassium sulphuret will lower the surface
value of silver or copper to a rich velvety black associated with
antiques. This may be removed in places naturally subjected to wear,
thus varying the dead black appearance. Copper and brass may be coated
with salt and vinegar or verdigris to give the surface a corroded and
greenish appearance. Heating is a fugitive method of coloring and is,
therefore, not considered.
[Sidenote: Harmony through Oxidation]
These surface changes may be utilized to harmonize metal and its
environment, as, for example, copper trimmings and a shade for a pottery
lamp; or it may be used to reduce the brightness of the natural copper
surface.
The surfaces of metals may be changed with actual manipulation of the
surface by frosting or sanding and plating. Gold may be readily plated
with gold to bring it into closer harmony with the stone. Plating,
applied to base metals, merely to give the impression of a more
expensive metal, is to be discouraged.
[Sidenote: Metal Backgrounds]
One has to consider metal as a background in much the same manner as we
considered wall surfaces as a background for stained furniture. Whatever
color is applied to the surface must harmonize in proportionate
distribution as well as hue, value, and chroma. We have a small amount
of leeway for varying the background by the different processes of
oxidation and plating.
[Sidenote: Enamel on a Copper Background]
As one of the more common processes, let us consider the application of
enamel to copper in the form of champleve enrichment. Our first thought
would be the analysis of the natural copper color. It is found to be a
shade of orange-red and will, therefore, readily harmonize with the
_analogous_ oranges and reds, as they both have the common hue of red.
There should be a slight contrast of value between these enamels and the
background. If this contrast is not present, it is well to oxidize
slightly the copper to lower its value and thus produce the contrast.
[Sidenote: Complementary Arrangement]
The fourth harmonious hue combination, that of complementary arrangement
or grouping, has been left to the last as its use is more closely
associated with small multi-colored projects and small areas. A hue
approximately complementary to the initial hue is found by counting
seven rectangles to the right or left of that hue; this will give the
hue complementary to the initial hue. Thus, starting with red and moving
through seven rectangles toward the right, we find the complement to be
green. Any two hues so selected will be found to enhance the brilliancy
of each other. The best results are secured when one hue dominates the
color scheme by its increased area. Pottery may be adapted to a
complementary color scheme by Rule 12i.
Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to be used
as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a
contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side
walls of the room. The project may be much higher in chroma than the
side walls._
[Sidenote: The Relation of Colored Glazes to Interior Decoration of a
Room]
To find a glaze that will harmonize with the side walls of a room by
complementary arrangement of hues, select the desired wall tint from the
diagram in Figure 457. Find the similar hue rectangle in the diagram of
Figure 464 and, starting with this rectangle as one, count seven hues
from the side wall rectangle in either direction. In the seventh
rectangle or in a neighboring one will usually be found a number of
glazes answering the requirements and bearing a complementary relation
to the side walls. Select a glaze from these that will make a contrast
of chroma or value with the side wall. Example: background or side wall,
Figure 457, No. 8, is in the orange yellow rectangle. Counting seven
from this in Figure 464 we find the complement to be blue violet. As
there is no glaze in this rectangle we will move to its neighbor on the
left. This gives us clear glaze, C1, containing one and one-half per
cent black oxide of cobalt, or a matt glaze containing seven per cent
mazarine blue.
Glazes that will harmonize with side wall 8 through dominant
arrangements are found in the same rectangle, O Y, and are numbered M5,
M6, C7, C8. Glazes that will harmonize by analogy are C9 and M7, and are
found in the left and right neighboring rectangles.
In Figure 466, the copper fob, R O, is combined with its complementary
blue-green. Let us look at Figure 464. Counting seven intervals or hue
rectangles to the right of the orange red rectangle we find T4 which is
transparent blue green enamel. We may associate with this an analogous
enamel from the green rectangle; this proves to be T5 medium green
transparent enamel.
[Sidenote: Development of Design for Enamel on Metal]
The point of concentration may now be emphasized by an enamel
complementary to the blue green hue. Counting seven rectangles to the
_left_ we again encounter the red orange rectangle. Here there are no
enamels but in the red hue rectangle we find T7 which is slightly
orange-red. A small portion of this, Rule 12k, is applied and is found
to center the design at the point of concentration in a satisfactory
manner. Slight oxidation brings out the colors of the enamels.
Upon attempting to develop the same figure in opaque enamels it is soon
seen that there are no pleasing complementary enamels of this type, but
many analogous combinations. Autumn brown with the point of
concentration developed in orange (O5) would be an excellent compromise.
Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither
apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied,
but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma
range will accomplish this._
[Sidenote: Color for Silver Enrichment]
The gray-blue color of silver lends itself to a great number of gem
stones, forming examples of contrasted arrangements. Care should be
taken to form contrasts of _value_. Figure 467 is an example of a weak
and insipid combination, lacking in value and hue contrast. The amethyst
of Figure 468 corrects this error, while the oxidation of Figure 469 has
partially corrected the lack of contrast shown in Figure 467. These
illustrations tend to show that even stronger contrasts may be attempted
with small gems and semi-precious stones than with enamels. This again
proves the rule that the smaller areas are capable of sustaining
stronger contrasts of hue, value, and chroma than are large ones.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
The outline of the surface enrichment is considered as
complete.
(_a_) METAL OR WOOD. Analyze the background into its hue,
value, and chroma. CLAY. Select a background that will
harmonize with the controlling hue or hues of the proposed
color scheme. Rule 12o. If this is a one hued color scheme
without gradation or surface enrichment the design steps may
terminate at this point.
(_b_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select the extreme value range of
the color scheme, considering, if possible, the background as a
balancing or pivotal value point upon which the values may
balance above and below. As the side walls formed a balancing
point for the ceiling and furniture or wood work, so may the
background of metal, wood, or colored clay become a similar
balancing factor for small surfaces. Rule 12m.
(_c_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select a hue or hues which will
harmonize with the background through dominant, contrasting, or
analogous relations. Rule 12l. In selecting the hues consider
the final placing of the object.
(_d_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select a chroma range. Allow the
point or area of concentration to have a slightly higher
chromatic relation than the other hues. The point of
concentration may be one of the hues already selected or it may
bear a _complementary_ relation to them. The hues may be
averaged and a complementary to the average selected. Rule 12n.
(_e_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Apply the rule of proportionate
distribution, Rule 12k.
(_f_) METAL AND WOOD. Using the pigments suggested in Chapter
XV, design the problem. Test the result by applying Rule 12p.
(_g_) CLAY. If the design has been developed in slip or
underglaze painting, select a glaze for an overglaze coating
that will harmonize with the prevailing hues by _dominance or
analogy_. Other arrangements may destroy the hues of the
original color scheme.
(_h_) Develop the problem in its material.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Design a bowl for nasturtiums; make the color arrangement
harmonize through analogy with the hues of the flowers.
Design a vase for chrysanthemums; make the surface enrichment
and the color arrangement harmonize through dominance with the
hues of the flowers.
Design a hat pin for a blue hat; materials, copper, and
transparent enamels.
Design a brooch to be worn with a gray dress.
Design a pottery and copper lamp with amber art glass in the
shade. Through oxidation and glazing, bring the lamp into color
unity.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma
in surface enrichment calls for a small area high in chroma and
contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but
harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of
concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced
in chroma and value to form a slight contrast with the
background._
HUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS
Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should
dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be
emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1)
contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) analogous, or (4) complementary
relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and
chroma contrast than the remaining hues._
VALUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS
Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally
sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its
value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential._
CHROMA FOR SMALL OBJECTS
Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion
to the decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made
to this under Rule 12o._
Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to
be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room
should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary
relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much
higher in chroma than the side walls._
Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither
apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is
applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface.
Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this._
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State the value of mono-hued pottery in the decorative
scheme of a room.
2. What are generally used as stains for clear glazes; matt
glazes?
3. What is highest in chroma--matt, or clear glaze?
4. Make a table of metallic oxides and the hues produced by
them.
5. Why will iron and copper oxides produce a yellow green
stain? What stains will be produced by cobalt and copper
oxides; cobalt and manganese oxides; cobalt and nickel oxides?
6. Describe the type of room which you regard as best fitted
for clear glazed pottery forms; matt glazed pottery forms.
7. Define harmony of color.
8. What is meant by proportionate distribution? Describe
proportionate distribution.
9. Give the value, hue, and chroma range for small areas. See
Rules 12l, 12m, and 12n.
10. How does the size of the area to be enriched by color
affect the color medium, _i.e._, stains, glazes, enamels, etc.?
11. Describe enamels, their types, characteristics, and range
of hues. Consult catalogs for fuller possibilities.
12. What is the effect of oxidation; what is its value?
13. Describe fully complementary arrangements and give
illustrations for enamel on silver or copper.
14. State the color scheme for a fob to be worn with a
blue-green dress; with a gray suit for a man.
15. Select a stone for a silver brooch that would harmonize
with a light blue dress; for a dress of orange dark hue and
value. See catalogs of dealers in semi-precious stones for
color of stones.
16. What problems of hue, value, and chroma would arise in
Question 15?
SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL AND SPECIAL RULES IN THE PRECEEDING
CHAPTERS
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PRIMARY MASSES
Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal
according to the intended service, unless prohibited by
technical requirements._
PROPORTIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS
Rule 1b. _The primary mass should have the ratio of one to
three, three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to
ten, or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to detect
readily and analyze._
HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS
Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal
divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the
lower section._
Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal
divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the
center section with varying widths in the upper and lower
thirds._
SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS
Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more
smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger
mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the
height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or
divisions to be located at the top of the mass._
VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS
Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical
divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar in
form._
Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical
divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the
remaining divisions of equal size._
Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical
divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze
into Rules 3a, and 3b, or be exactly similar._
APPENDAGES
Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and
proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal
character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it._
Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing
smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._
Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat
some lines similar in character and direction to those of the
primary mass._
OUTLINE OR CONTOUR ENRICHMENT
Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and
support the structure._
Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and
variety to the design._
Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a
sense of oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent
members together._
Rule 5d. _Parts of one design differing in function should
differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire
design._
Rule 5e. _In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical
tendency should have their turning points or units of
measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of
Rules 2a and 2b._
Rule 5f. _Dependent outline enrichment should be related to
essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and
functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject._
Rule 5g. _A curve should join a straight line with either a
tangential or right angle junction._
SURFACE ENRICHMENT
Postulate. _The design should conform to the limitations and
requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be
durable and suitable for service._
Rule 6a. _Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment._
Rule 6b. _Surface enrichment must be related to the structural
contours but must not obscure the actual structure._
Rule 6c. _The treatment must be appropriate to the material._
CONTINUOUS BANDS AND BORDERS FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES
Rule 6d. _Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral,
that is, onward movement._
Rule 6e. _Bands and borders should never have a prominent
contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement._
Rule 6f. _All component parts of a border should move in unison
with the main movement of the border._
Rule 6g. _Each component part of a border should be strongly
dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main movements of the
border._
Rule 6h. _Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a
strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement,
provided the lateral movement dominates._
Rule 6i. _Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or
glaring contrasts with the parent surface._
Rule 6j. _Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance
of belonging to the parent mass._
ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT--PARTLY ENRICHED PANELS FOR SURFACE ENRICHMENT
Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be
related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it
is to enrich._
Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be
placed (1) preferably at the corners or (2) in the center of
each margin._
Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements
composing the point of concentration and links connecting them
must be related to the panel contour and to each other._
ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT--FULLY ENRICHED PANELS FOR SURFACE ENRICHMENT
Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel
the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._
Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched
square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin._
Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched
vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._
Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be
designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with
the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis
of the structure._
FREE ORNAMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES
Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces
should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the
structure._
Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to
the structural surfaces._
Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of
vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the
inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the
design._
SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY
Rule 9a. _Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to
be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must
be submitted._
Rule 9b. _Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay
should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of
the material._
Rule 9c. _A border should not be located at the point of
greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The
contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that
point._
SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS FOR SMALL MASSES
Rule 10a. _Designs in precious metals should call for the
minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the
designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of
material._
Rule 10b. _Contour and surface enrichment should never appear
to compete for attention in the same design._
Rule 10c. _Parts of a design differing in function should
differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire
design._
Rule 10d. _Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the
contours of both primary mass and point of concentration
especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel._
Rule 10e. _In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point
of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an
unobtrusive setting, or background._
Rule 10f. _Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration
should form contrast with the metal, either in color,
brilliancy, or value, or all three combined._
Rule 10g. _The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide
with one axis of a stone and at the same time be
sympathetically related to the structure._
Rule 10h. _The position of the inceptive axis should be
determined by: (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar
pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or
horizontal in proportion._
Rule 10i. _Caution should be exercised with regard to the use
of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen
both process and design._
Rule 10j. _All surface enrichment should have an appearance of
compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used
as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the
surface without thought to their coherence._
Rule 10k. _Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the
higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to
have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass.
When using this form of enrichment, the stone should never
appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be
approached by a series of rising planes._
Rule 10l. _The lanes or margins between enameled spots should
be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the
contour of the primary mass._
Rule 10m. _Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not
be used in the same design._
SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS FOR LARGE PRIMARY MASSES
Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment
should be thought out before they are drawn._
Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of
surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten
or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or
apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large
unbroken and uninteresting surfaces._
Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be
bolder than similar designs for small primary masses._
Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of
enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage,
terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be
subordinate to this area._
Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be
introduced into the same design._
Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into
surface enrichment._
APPLICATION OF COLOR TO LARGE AREAS VALUES
Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the
values middle and low dark._
Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the
values light and middle._
Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the
values white (minus) and light._
Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture,
trim, etc., should be retained within the range of four values
or less, as low light and dark._
Rule 12e. _The relation between the side walls and ceiling
should be within the range of three values or less, as high
light and low light._
HUES
Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should
preferably be selected from one of the following groupings:
analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues.
Analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is
desirable._
Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the
side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._
CHROMA
Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below
three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls,
however, call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity._
Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths
chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth
chroma._
Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to
three-fourths intensity, with slightly less than one-fourth
chroma as a minimum reduction._
DISTRIBUTION
Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma
in surface enrichment calls for a small area, high in chroma,
and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but
harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of
concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced
in chroma and value to form slight contrast with the
background._
HUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS
Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should
dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be
emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1)
contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) analogous, (4) complementary
relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and
chroma contrast than the remaining hues._
VALUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS
Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally
sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its
value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential._
CHROMA FOR SMALL OBJECTS
Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion
to the decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made
to this under Rule 12o._
Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to
be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room
should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary
relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much
higher in chroma than the side walls._
Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither
apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is
applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface.
Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this._
APPENDIX
The following plates comprise complete courses for applied art problems
in thin metal (copper and silver), and clay. The problems are based upon
what is known as the "group system." The process forms the basis for
each group in each course. The stated problem in each group is merely
one of many that might be selected which involves the process of the
group.
The design rule that should be applied to each problem has been
indicated by its proper figure and letter on each plate, as 10a, etc.
The plates are sequentially arranged in order of the difficulty of the
process and may be summarized as follows.
THIN METAL
Plate 67: Bending. Sawing. Riveting.
Plate 68: Bending. Soft Soldering.
Plate 69: Raising. Piercing. Etching.
Plate 70: Raising and Planishing.
Plate 71: Bending. Piercing. Etching. Hard Soldering.
Plate 72: Hinge Construction.
Plate 73: Raising. Planishing. Hard Soldering.
Plate 74: Raising. Planishing.
Plate 75: Champleve Enamelling.
Plate 76: Precious Stone Mounting; Pins.
Plate 77: Precious Stone Mounting; Rings.
Plate 78: Precious Stone Mounting; Pendants.
POTTERY
Plate 79: Hand Built Tile.
Plate 80: Hand Built Bowl, Coil and Strip Method.
Plate 81: Same with Appendage Added.
Plate 82: Hand Building; Spouts, Lids, Handles.
Plate 83: Poured Forms and Mould Making.
Plate 84: Slip Painting.
Plate 85: Glaze Testing.
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 1. BENDING, SAWING, RIVETING
PLATE 67]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 2: BENDING AND SOFT SOLDERING
PLATE 68]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 3: RAISING, PIERCING, ETCHING
PLATE 69]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 3: RAISING, PLANISHING: TRAYS
PLATE 70]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 4: BENDING, PIERCING, ETCHING, HARD SOLDERING
PLATE 71]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 5: HINGE CONSTRUCTION
PLATE 72]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 6: RAISING, PLANISHING, SOLDERING
PLATE 73]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 7: RAISING, PLANISHING
PLATE 74]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 8: CHAMPLEVE ENAMELLING.
PLATE 75]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 9: SEMI-PRECIOUS STONE MOUNTING
PLATE 76]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS: 10: SOLDERING, CARVING, STONE MOUNTING
PLATE 77]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL
PROCESS 11: PENDANT CONSTRUCTION, CHAIN MAKING
PLATE 78]
[Illustration: FIGURE 470.--Inceptive Axes. Partial Illustration of the
Metal Course]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY
PROCESS 1: HAND BUILT TILE. CUT FROM FLAT PIECE
PLATE 79]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY
PROCESS 2: HAND BUILDING. COIL AND STRIP
PLATE 80]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY
PROCESS 3: HAND BUILDING, SPOUT, HANDLE, LID
PLATE 81]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY
PROCESS 3: HAND BUILDING: SPOUT, HANDLE, LID
PLATE 82]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY
PROCESS 4: POURED FORMS. TWO AND THREE PIECE MOULDS
PLATE 83]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY
PROCESS 5: SLIP PAINTING (UNDER GLAZE DECORATION)
PLATE 84]
[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY
PROCESS 6: GLAZE TESTING
PLATE 85]
[Illustration: FIGURE 471.--Results of the Pottery Course]
Figure 471 shows the actual results produced by the preceding course.
The process to which the individual pieces belong is indicated by the
small figure placed on the table and in front of the ware. The preceding
sheets should be regarded in the light of suggestions for original
thinking on the part of the student. They merely suggest technical
guidance, in order that his progress may be sequential and fitted to his
increasing skill.
The glazes are stated in the terms of the ceramist with the proportions
of base, alumina, and acid content of each glaze clearly stated. By
referring to the textbooks mentioned in the preface, these glazes may be
developed into the potter's formulae.
In both metal and pottery courses, two or more types are frequently
represented upon one plate. These types will allow the teacher to assign
a more difficult problem to the student with some previous experience.
INDEX
PAGE
Accenting bands in wood, 105
Accentuation of functional parts, 79
Adapting data to material, 127
Analogous hues, 203
Analysis, intelligent, 7
Andiron design, 53
Aniline wood dyes, 199
Appendage design, 43-49
Appendage, use of, 43
Appendages, 43
Appendages and primary mass, 45
Appendages, contour enrichment of, 88
Appendages, design violations, 43
Appendages in clay, 47
Appendages, industrial applications, 47
Appendages, influence of tools and materials, 53
Appendages in metal, 51
Appendages in wood, 45
Artificial objects, 129
Architectural, horizontal divisions for, 21
Bands, wood inlay, 105
Backgrounds, 113, 201
Base metals, enrichment of, 87
Base and precious metals, surface enrichment of, 160, 163, 165, 167
Borders for wood, 107
Building, 165
Candlesticks, 81
Carving, 103
Carving and piercing, 141
Carving, design steps for, 105
Ceilings, 202-205
Center zone enrichment, 121
Chasing, 163
Chip carving, 115
Chroma, 197
Chromatic intensity, full, 195
Clay, coloring for underglaze, 151
Clay, decorative processes, 145
Clay, incising, 147
Clay, inlay, 149
Clay, introduction of pigments, 149
Clay, modeling, 147
Clay, piercing, 147
Clay, slip painting, 149
Clay, surface enrichment for, 145
Clay, surface enrichment, structural classification for, 151
Clay, underglaze painting, 151
Color for clay enrichment, 209
Color for small areas, 210
Color harmony, 201
Color pigments, 194
Color pigments, application of, 194
Color symbols, 198
Color systems, 194
Commercial pottery, 158
Complementary hues, 214
Conservative use of ornament, 101
Contrasted hues, 203
Containers, 81
Continuity and contrast, 63
Contour enrichment, influence of materials, 65
Contour enrichment, methods of varying, 70
Contour enrichment of clay, need of, 77
Contour enrichment, evolution of, 65
Contour enrichment, purpose of, 59
Contour enrichment, requirements of, 59
Contour enrichment, systematic development of, 81
Contour versus surface enrichment, 185
Corners, contour enrichment of, 88
Correlation, ideal, 11
Covers, design for, 49
Criticism, clear, 7
Criticism, non-technical, 7
Curve of beauty, 91
Curve of force, 61
Curve of force, approximate, 61
Curves for contour enrichment, 59
Curves, grouping of, 63
Curves of extravagance, 73
Dependent surface enrichment, 167
Details, contour enrichment of, 93
Design evolution, major divisions, 9
Design evolution, steps in, 11
Design, preliminary thought, 17
Dominant hue, 204
Dynamic curves and areas, 111
Edges, contour enrichment of, 87
Elements, 157
Enameling, 163, 212, 213, 215
Enrichment for small metal areas, 179
Enrichment, need and value of, 57
Enrichment of large metal areas, 179, 183
Enrichment, types of, 57
Essentials of good surface enrichment, 179
Exposures, 206, 207
Flat surfaces in base and precious metal, 185
Fobs, design of, 169
Four vertical minor divisions, 139
Free balance, 129
Free enrichment, 121
Free minor division treatment, 141
Free ornament, 117
Freehand curves, 30, 51, 63
Full size drawing, value of, 23
Functional parts, enrichment of, 88
Glazes for pottery, 149
Glazes related to interior decoration, 214
Glazes, stains for, 209
Greek scroll, 93
Handles, design for, 49
Harmonious color, need of, 194
Harmony of color, 210
High cylindrical forms in clay, 157
High cylindrical forms in metal, 191
Historic ornament in hardware, 186
Horizontal and vertical minor divisions, 137
Horizontal divisions, architectural precedent, 25
Horizontal divisions, nature and need of, 19
Horizontal divisions, steps in designing, 21
Horizontal minor divisions, 139
Hue and hue rectangles, 195
Hue groupings, 203
Industrial problems, requirements of, 9
Inceptive axes, 107, 121, 161
Inceptive axes for marginal enrichment, 119
Inlaying, 101-103
Intermediate points, contour enrichment of, 89
Ionic volute, 91
Leading lines, curved, 108
Links, 45
Links, contour enrichment of, 93
Low cylindrical forms in clay, 157
Low cylindrical forms in metal, 187
Major design division, first, 9
Major design division, second, 9
Major design division, third, 11
Marginal zone enrichment, 118
Material, adapting data to, 127
Material, economy of, 161
Material, relation to surface enrichment, 101
Metallic oxides, 210
Methods, architectural design, 13
Methods, industrial design, 13
Minor details, 141
Minor subdivisions in wood, 133
Moorish ornament, 107
Mouldings, 61
One vertical division, 35
Outlines, free and dependent, 87, 91 (See Contours.)
Oxidation, 213
Panels, 117, 123, 125, 127, 129
Panel design, steps in, 125
Parts differing in function, 77
Pendants and chains, design of, 173
Pierced enrichment, 123
Pigment table, 195
Pigments, wall and ceiling, 205
Pins and brooches, design of, 167
Point of concentration, 115, 161
Point of concentration for marginal enrichment, 119
Porcelain painting, 151
Pourers, 81
Precious metals, processes of enrichment, 161, 163, 165, 169
Primary hues, 198
Primary masses, 13
Primary mass, drawing of, 15
Primary mass, divisions of, 19
Primary masses, vertical and horizontal, 15
Primary masses, proportions of, 15
Proportionate distribution, 210
Ratios, unsatisfactory, 17
Rectangular panels, 127
Rings, design of, 169
Sequential progression, 135
Service, influence of, 9, 13, 15
Sets, designing of, 83
Shades, 197
Shallow circular forms in clay, 155
Shallow circular forms in metal, 187
Side walls, 202-205
Silver, color for, 215
Silver, contour enrichment of, 93
Silver, free outline enrichment, 97
Silver, motives for contour enrichment, 97
Spouts, design of, 49
Square and rectangular areas in clay, 153
Square panels, 125
Standard hues, 195
Standard hues, locating, 196
Stones, cutting, 95
Stones, relation to contour, 95
Stones, relation to metal, 173
Structural forms, classification, 160
Structural forms, classification for clay surface enrichment, 151
Structural reinforcement, 118
Surface design evolution, 180
Surface enrichment, nature and need of, 99
Surfaces, when and where to enrich, 99
Tangential junctions, 51, 93
Technical processes for metal, 163
Technical rendering, 161
Terminals, contour enrichment of, 89-91
Three horizontal divisions, 29
Three horizontal divisions in clay, 30
Three horizontal divisions in metal, 30
Three horizontal divisions in wood, 29
Three vertical divisions, 37
Three vertical divisions in clay, 39
Three vertical divisions in metal, 41
Three vertical divisions in wood, 39
Tints, 196
Transitional types in furniture, 139
Two horizontal divisions, 25
Two horizontal divisions in clay, 27
Two horizontal divisions in metal, 27
Two horizontal divisions in wood, 25
Two vertical divisions, 35
Two vertical divisions in clay, 37
Two vertical divisions in metal, 37
Two vertical divisions in wood, 35
Unit of measurement for vertical curves, 79
Unity, 29
Unity in clay design curves, 77
Value lines, 196
Varied panels, 129
Vertical divisions, architectural precedent, 33
Vertical divisions, more than three, 41
Vertical divisions, nature and need, 33
Vertical and horizontal division evolution, 40
Vertical sections and their minor divisions, 133-135
Vocabulary, designer's, 105
Walls and ceilings, 203-204
Walls and wood work, 202-203
Warm and cold colors, 198
Wood finishes, opaque, 206
Wood, methods of surface enrichment, 101
Wood stains, 198
Wood stains, chroma range, 205
Wood stain mixing, 199, 200
Wood stain rendering, 195
Wood stains, value range, 201
Wrought iron enrichment, 91
Zones of enrichment, 118
* * * * *
Transcriber's Notes
Inconsistent hyphenation and obvious punctuation and spelling errors
have been corrected.
{PC} and {IA} have been used to represent the letters P and C or
I and A overlaid on one another to label the "Point of
Concentration" and "Inceptive Axis" respectively.
Although referred to on page 75, no illustration is captioned as
"Plate 23" in the original text.
End of Project Gutenberg's Industrial Arts Design, by William H. Varnum