B.C. He adopted the Pythagorean system of philosophy, and submitted
himself to its ascetic discipline. He was credited with the possession of
supernatural powers, and parallels have been drawn between his character
and supposed miracles and those of Christ. He travelled in the East,
and is said to have visited Taxila, the capital of Phraortes, an Indian
prince, where he met Iarchas, the chief of the Brahmans, and disputed
with Indian gymnosophists. About a hundred years after his death an
account of his life was written by Philostratos, which, notwithstanding
that much of it is untrustworthy, is of great value for the investigation
of Indian antiquity.
APOLLOPHANES was appointed satrap of the Oritians, but was deposed not
long afterwards by Alexander for misgovernment.
ARIOBARZANES was the satrap of Persis. After the defeat of the Persians
near Arbêla, he fled to secure the pass called the Persian Gates, which
lay on the route to Persepolis. Alexander having gained the heights above
his camp, the Persians took to flight, and Ariobarzanes made his escape
with a few horsemen.
ARISTOBOULOS was a native of Kassandreia, a town on the isthmus which
connects the peninsula of Pallênê with the mainland. He accompanied
Alexander in his Asiatic expedition, and wrote a history of his wars,
which was one of the principal sources used by Arrian in the composition
of his _Anabasis_, and by Plutarch in his _Life of Alexander_. Arrian, in
the preface to his great work, thus characterises the two authors whom
he mainly followed: “Different authors have differed in their accounts
of Alexander’s life.... But I consider the narratives of Ptolemy and
Aristoboulos to be more worthy of credit than the rest; Aristoboulos,
because he attended Alexander in his expedition; and Ptolemy, not
only for that reason, but also because he was afterwards himself a
king, and for one in his position to have falsified facts would have
been more disgraceful than for a man of humbler rank. Both of them,
moreover, compiled their histories after Alexander was dead, when they
were neither compelled, nor tempted by hope of reward, to misrepresent
facts, and on this account they are the more worthy of credit.” Lucian,
nevertheless, accuses Aristoboulos of having invented marvellous stories
of Alexander’s prowess in battle; but it is thought that in the anecdote
which he relates in this connection he has used by mistake the name of
Aristoboulos for that of Onesikritos. _See_ Lucian’s _How History should
be Written_, c. 12. It is said that Aristoboulos began the composition of
his history when he was 84 years old, and that he lived to be 90.
ARISTONOUS was, like Alexander, a native of Pella, and was one of the
seven or eight chief officers who formed his body-guard, and had at all
times access to his presence. According to Curtius he was one of the men
who helped to save Alexander’s life when he was assailed and wounded by
the Mallians in their chief stronghold. On the death of Alexander he
advocated the claims of Perdikkas to the supremacy. After the fall of
Olympias, to whose cause he had attached himself, he was put to death by
order of her antagonist, Kassander, in the year 316 B.C.
ARISTOTLE was born in 384 B.C. at Stageira, a seaport town near the
isthmus which connects the peninsula terminating in Mount Athos with the
mainland of Macedonia. When he was studying philosophy in Athens under
Plato he received a letter from King Philip announcing the birth of his
son Alexander. This letter has been preserved by Aulus Gellius in his
_Noctes Atticae_ (ix. 3):—“Philip to Aristotle greeting: know that a son
has been born to me. I thank the gods, not so much for his birth, as that
it has been his fortune to be born when you are in the prime of life; for
I hope that being instructed and educated by you, he will prove himself
worthy both of us and of the succession to so great a state.” Thirteen
years afterwards Philip summoned the great philosopher to his court, and
entrusted him with the education of his son, which was conducted in quiet
seclusion at Stageira, at a distance from Pella, the centre of political
activity and court intrigue. Here Alexander remained for four years, at
the end of which he was called to govern the kingdom during his father’s
temporary absence on an expedition against Byzantium. Along with him
were educated other noble youths, Kassander, son of Antipater; Marsyas
of Pella; Kallisthenes, who was related to Aristotle; Theophrastos, and
probably also Nearchos, Ptolemy, and Harpalos. The course of instruction
embraced poetry, eloquence, and philosophy, and, no doubt, also politics,
though one of the leading aims of Alexander in after life, that of
uniting all the nations under his sway into one kingdom without due
regard to their individual peculiarities, was opposed to the views of
his master. Alexander regarded Aristotle with sentiments of the deepest
respect and affection, and rewarded him for his instructions with a
munificence which has never been surpassed. Pliny mentions how liberally
he supported the philosopher in his researches into natural science,
especially in the department of zoology, ordering his vicegerents
everywhere to supply him with specimens of all kinds of animals.
Unhappily the cordiality between them was interrupted when Kallisthenes
began to express disapproval of the change in Alexander’s conduct and
policy. Aristotle died at the age of 63, about a year after the death of
his pupil.
ARSAKÊS was the ruler of a small mountain kingdom which adjoined that of
his brother Abisares, King of Kâśmîr.
ARTABAZOS was a Persian satrap, who for some years maintained a war of
rebellion against Artaxerxes III. In the reign of Darius he distinguished
himself by his fidelity to his sovereign. He took part in the battle of
Gaugamela, and afterwards accompanied Darius in his flight. Alexander,
who approved of his fidelity to his master, rewarded him with the satrapy
of Baktria. Ptolemy married one of his daughters and Eumenes another. He
resigned his satrapy on account of his great age, and was succeeded by
Kleitos.
ARTEMIDOROS was a Greek geographer who lived about 100 B.C. His work on
geography was abridged by Markianos. Some fragments of the work, which
was of high value, and of the abridgment, have been preserved by Strabo
and other writers.
ASKLÊPIOS (AESCULAPIUS) was the god of the medical art. His descendants
were called Asklepiadai, and had their principal seats at Kôs and Knidos.
The Asklepiads were not only a fraternity of physicians, but an order of
priests, who combined religion with the practice of their art.
AŚÔKA was the son of Vindusâra and grandson of Chandragupta, called
Sandrokottos by the Greeks. He ascended the throne of Magadha in 270
B.C. Having been converted to Buddhism, he established that faith as
the state religion of his vast empire, which comprised the greater part
of India. He was zealous in promoting the spread of his creed, and even
sent missionaries to expound its doctrines to the sovereigns of the
West, Antiochos of Syria, Ptolemy of Egypt, Antigonos of Macedonia,
Magas of Kyrênê and Alexander of Epiros. His religious zeal, piety, and
benevolence inspire all the many edicts he promulgated, which are still
to be read cut on rocks, caves, and pillars. The date of his death is
uncertain, but is referred to the year 222 B.C. His inscriptions are
invaluable for the aid they contribute towards the solution of some of
the most important and difficult problems with which the investigators
of Indian antiquity have to deal. They throw light on many points of
historical, chronological, and linguistic inquiry, as well as on others
having reference to the social, political, and religious condition of the
Indian people in the days when Buddhism first rose to the ascendant. An
account of these inscriptions will be found in Lassen’s _Alt. Ind._ ii.
pp. 215-223.
ASSAGETES was, Lassen thinks, an Assakênian chief. His name probably
transliterates _Aśvajit_; according to the same authority the word would
mean “conquered by the horse.”
ASSAKANOS, the King of Mazaga, the capital of the Assakênians. According
to Arrian he was slain during the siege of that stronghold by Alexander,
but Curtius leads us to believe that he had died before the conqueror’s
advent.
ASTES, the chief of Peukelaôtis, submitted to Alexander when he entered
India, but afterwards revolted and was slain by the troops under
Hêphaistiôn.
ATHÊNAIOS was the author of the _Deipnosophists_, _i.e._ the _Banquet
of the Learned_, or, perhaps, the _Contrivers of Feasts_. This work
is described by a writer in Smith’s _Classical Dictionary_ as a vast
collection of anecdotes, extracts from the writings of poets, historians,
dramatists, philosophers, orators, and physicians, of facts in natural
history, criticisms and discussions on almost every conceivable subject,
especially on gastronomy. It contains numerous references to Alexander
and the events of his time. Athênaios was a native of Naukratis, in Lower
Egypt. He wrote in the earlier part of the third century of our aera.
ATHENODÔROS was the leader of the sedition of the Greek colonists settled
in Baktria who were anxious to return to their native country.
ATTALOS.—Three persons of this name are mentioned in this work:
1. _Attalos_, one of the generals of King Philip, and uncle of Kleopatra,
whom that king married in 337 B.C. At the nuptial festivities, Attalos
requested the guests to pray to the gods that a legitimate heir to the
throne might be the fruit of the marriage. This naturally gave great
offence to Alexander and his mother, Olympias, who both in consequence
withdrew from the kingdom. Attalos was in Asia at the time of Philip’s
death, and was instigated by Demosthenes to rebel against his successor.
Alexander then caused him to be assassinated. It will be seen from what
has been stated that the royal house of Macedonia practised polygamy.
2. _Attalos_, who commanded the Agrianians in the battles of Issos and
Gaugamela.
3. _Attalos_, the son of Andromenes of Stymphalia, a district in
Macedonia, or on its borders, was one of Alexander’s chief officers. He
was accused, along with his brothers, of complicity with Philôtas in his
alleged conspiracy, but was honourably acquitted. In 328 B.C. he was
left with other officers to hold Baktria in subjection, while Alexander
himself marched against the Sogdians. In the campaign of 327 B.C. against
the Assakênians and other tribes north of the Kabul River, Attalos served
in the division of the army which Alexander commanded in person. He
took part in the great battle in which the Assakênians were defeated,
and in the siege of Ora. He fought also in the battle against Pôros.
His division formed part of the troops which Krateros led by the route
of the Bolan Pass into Karmania. After Alexander’s death he supported
Perdikkas, whose sister he had married. After the murder of Perdikkas he
joined Alketas, his brother-in-law, but their united forces were defeated
by Antigonos in Pisidia. Alketas was seized and imprisoned. His ultimate
fate is unknown.
BAITÔN, one of the scientific men in Alexander’s army, employed, like
Diognêtos, in measuring the distances traversed in its marches, whence
he was called Alexander’s _bêmatistês_. He left a professional work,
which, as we learn from Athênaios (x. p. 442) was entitled _Stages of
Alexander’s Marches_.
BALAKROS.—There were three officers of this name in Alexander’s army. 1.
The son of Nikanor, who was a Somatophylax, and was appointed satrap of
Kilikia after the battle of Issos. He was slain in Pisidia in Alexander’s
lifetime. 2. The son of Amyntas was commander of the allies in succession
to Antigonos, and commander, along with Peukestas, of the army which
Alexander left in Egypt. 3. A commander of the javelin men who took part
in the great battle with the Aspasians.
BARSINÊ, called also Stateira, was the elder daughter of Darius, and
became the wife of Alexander at Sousa, 324 B.C. Within a year of
Alexander’s death she was treacherously murdered by Roxana.
BARZAËNTES, satrap of the Arachosians and Drangians, was one of the
murderers of Darius. To escape Alexander he fled to India, but was given
up by the inhabitants to Alexander, who ordered his death.
BÊSSOS, the satrap of Baktria, commanded the left wing of the Persian
army at Arbêla, and was thus directly opposed to Alexander himself in
that battle. After the battle he conspired against his unfortunate
master, who was also his kinsman, and caused him to be assassinated
lest he should fall into Alexander’s hands—a result which would have
frustrated his design of mounting the vacant throne. He fled across the
Oxus, but was betrayed and delivered up to Alexander, who caused him to
be tried before a council at Zariaspa, and after suffering mutilation to
be executed.
CHANDRAGUPTA.—_See_ Sandrokottos.
CHARÊS, or Cares, a native of Mytilênê in Lesbos, was an officer with
Alexander who discharged the functions of court usher. He wrote a book
(now lost) of anecdotes about Alexander’s wars and private life, which is
frequently quoted by Athênaios. Some fragments have also been preserved
by Plutarch, Pliny, and Aulus Gellius.
CLEOPHIS, Queen of Mazaga, surrendered that city to Alexander, by whom
she was kindly treated, and to whom she is said to have borne a son
who became an Indian king. In Racine’s tragedy, _Alexandre le Grand_,
Cleophis, who figures as one of the _dramatis personae_, is made the
sister of Taxilês.
DÊIMACHOS or DAIMACHOS was ambassador at the court of Allitrochades,
the son and successor of Sandrokottos, and wrote a work on India in two
books. He is pilloried by Strabo as the most mendacious of all writers
about India.
DÊMÊTRIOS was one of the officers who formed Alexander’s bodyguard. He
was accused by Philôtas as being one of his accomplices in the conspiracy
against the king’s life, and was in consequence deprived of his post, to
which Ptolemy was then preferred.
DÊMÊTRIOS, son of Pythonax, was one of the select band of cavalry called
the _Companions_. He took part in the Indian campaigns.
DÊMÊTRIOS POLIORKÊTÊS, the son of Antigonos, became king of Macedonia in
294 B.C.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.—DÊMÊTRIOS POLIORKÊTÊS.]
DIOSKORIDES, the famous writer on _Materia Medica_, was a native of
Kilikia, and flourished, so far as can be conjectured, about the
beginning of the second century of our aera.
EMBISAROS.—_See_ Abisares.
EPIKTÊTOS, the famous philosopher, was a native of Hieropolis in Phrygia,
and a freedman of Epaphroditus, the favourite of Nero. Arrian, who was
one of his disciples, composed a short manual of his philosophy as taken
down from his lectures, and known as the _Enchiridion_.
ERATOSTHENES was appointed by Ptolemy Euergetes (grandson of Alexander’s
Ptolemy) president of the Alexandrian Library, an office which he held
for upwards of forty years. He may be considered as the founder of
scientific geography, and in some measure also of systematic chronology.
He was born at Kyrênê in 276 B.C., and educated in Athens, where he
devoted himself to the study of learning and philosophy. He died in
Alexandria in the year 196 B.C. His works, which were numerous and
treated of a great variety of subjects, scientific and literary, have
perished, with the exception of some fragments cited by other writers.
ERIGYIOS was by birth a Mitylenaian, and was an officer in Alexander’s
army. He commanded the cavalry of the allies both in the battle of Arbêla
and when Alexander set out from Ekbatana in pursuit of Darius. He was
slain fighting with Baktrian fugitives.
EUDÊMOS.—When Alexander heard in Karmania that Philip, who had been left
in India as satrap, had been treacherously murdered by the mercenaries,
he sent orders to Taxilês and Eudêmos to administer affairs till a new
satrap should be appointed. Sometime after Alexander’s death Eudêmos
decoyed Pôros into his power and cut him off. He then left India either
because Eumenes requiring his services in contending against Antigonos
recalled him, or because he was unable to hold out against the native
revolt headed by Sandrokottos. The troops and elephants which he took
with him from India were of great service to Eumenes. After the fall of
his chief Eudêmos was put to death by Antigonos.
EUMENES was a native of Kardia, a Greek colony situated in the Thracian
Chersonese. He was private secretary to King Philip, and then to
Alexander, whom he attended throughout his Asiatic expedition. It was
one of his duties as royal secretary to keep a diary (_Ephêmerides_) in
which the transactions of each day had to be recorded, and this work
is quoted both by Arrian and Plutarch. He showed himself a man of
consummate ability in the arts both of war and of politics. His alien
origin, however, exposed him to the jealousy of the Macedonian officers.
Hêphaistiôn in particular, Alexander’s chief favourite, sought by every
means to compass his overthrow. Eumenes, however, by his prudence and
tact frustrated all attempts made to undermine his influence with the
king who had a just appreciation of his merits. Though his labours were
chiefly those of the closet, he was sometimes employed in the field,
more especially on occasions of unusual emergency. When Alexander,
on returning to Sousa, celebrated his own nuptials and those of his
companions with oriental brides, he gave, as Arrian tells us (vi. 4), to
Ptolemy, and Eumenes, the royal secretary, the daughters of Artabazos;
to the former Artikama, and to the latter Artonis. After the king’s
death Eumenes obtained Kappadokia, Paphlagonia, and Pontos, and after
some delay was established in the government of these provinces. After
the death of Perdikkas, to whom he owed this service, he was requested
by Olympias and Polysperchon to undertake the supreme command throughout
Asia on behalf of the king. He had in consequence to contend against
the faction opposed to the royal family which was headed by Antigonos,
and supported by Ptolemy, Peithôn, Seleukos, and Nearchos. After coping
successfully for a considerable time against this powerful confederacy,
he was delivered up by his own troops to Antigonos, who, notwithstanding
the remonstrances of Nearchos, ordered him to be put to death, 316 B.C.
GORGIAS, a commander of a division of the phalanx. He marched with
Hêphaistiôn and Perdikkas by the Khaiber Pass to the Indus, and fought in
the battle against Pôros.
HARPALOS was of princely birth, and nephew of King Philip. He was
educated along with Alexander, whom he accompanied into Asia in the
capacity of superintendent of his treasury. Having betrayed his trust
he fled to Greece, but was recalled by Alexander, who overlooked his
offence and reinstated him in his office. Alexander, on setting out from
Ekbatana to pursue Darius, left Harpalos in that stronghold in charge
of the vast treasures which had been transported thither from Sousa and
other plundered capitals. Harpalos removed thence to Babylon, where he
ruled as satrap while the king was in India. Here his licentiousness and
extravagance exceeded all bounds. On hearing that Alexander had returned
to Sousa, and was punishing with the utmost severity all officers who had
misgoverned in his absence, he set out for the coast, taking with him
the vast sum of 5000 talents and a large escort of troops. He crossed
over to Attica, but the Athenians would not permit him to land until
he had disbanded his followers. When he was admitted into the city he
employed his wealth in bribing the orators to gain over the people to his
cause in opposition to Alexander. He was, however, obliged to take to
flight, and having landed with his treasures in the island of Crete, was
there assassinated.
HÊKATAIOS, one of the earliest and most distinguished Greek historians
and geographers, was a native of Milêtos, and lived about 520 B.C. He is
the first Greek writer who distinctly mentions India. Some fragments of
his works have been preserved.
HÊPHAISTIÔN was a native of Pella, and in his childhood appears to have
been brought up with Alexander, who was of the same age as he, and not
only continued to be his friend through life, but lavished upon him when
removed by death the most extravagant honours. In the Egyptian expedition
he commanded the fleet, and he distinguished himself in the battle of
Arbêla, where he was wounded in the arm. When Philôtas was put to death
the command of the horse guards was divided between him and Kleitos. He
conducted important operations in Sogdiana and Baktria, and throughout
all the subsequent campaigns until the army returned to Sousa. He was not
possessed of any striking share of ability, and would certainly not have
risen to eminence through his own unaided exertions. At Sousa Alexander
gave him to wife Drypatis, one of the daughters of Darius, and the sister
of Stateira, whom he himself married. Hêphaistiôn was soon afterwards cut
off by fever at Ekbatana.
HERAKON, one of Alexander’s officers, was appointed with two others to
command the army in Media on the death of Parmenion. During Alexander’s
absence in the far east he committed many excesses, for which he was put
to death on Alexander’s return from India.