famous and the most frequently discussed, the Sacrifice of Iphigenia,
probably a copy, though a feeble one, of a famous picture of an
earlier period. Ulysses and Diomedes are holding the hapless maiden
through whose sacrifice Agamemnon desires to appease the wrath of
Artemis and to obtain a favourable wind for the expedition to Troy;
they hold her ready for sacrifice before the image of Artemis standing
on a column. Calchas the priest has already drawn the knife from its
sheath to give the fatal stroke, but still he hesitates, as though he
felt some scruple as to undertaking the cruel deed. Agamemnon stands
aside, shrouded entirely in his robe, since as a father he cannot
bring himself to look with his own eyes upon the carrying out of the
sacrifice, to which as king and leader of the army he sees himself
compelled. In the gaze which Ulysses directs to the image of Artemis
we may read the reproach that she, the goddess, should demand such
cruelty. Yet the merciful solution is prepared by the scene enacted
above in the sky; there we see the goddess Artemis herself, to her
hastens a nymph who brings the deer that is to fall by the sacrificial
knife in place of Iphigenia. Figure 71 is derived at any rate from a
famous ancient theme, perhaps after a painting by Timomachos; this is
the single figure of Medea, who sword in hand plans the murder of her
sons. The sword is still sheathed, sunk in deep deliberation she has
folded her hands, and pressed thumb against thumb, she is a mother who
loves her children tenderly, but she is also a wife who is bitterly
sensible of every neglect on the part of her husband. Which feeling
will gain the victory? Will it be gained by a mother’s love which
pardons everything, or by the jealousy that knows how to strike the
husband in the most painful way through the slaying of his children?
The conflict of feelings is undoubtedly expressed in a most striking
manner in the picture. Figure 73 also represents a picture remarkable
for excellent preservation, the abduction of Europa by Zeus in the
form of a bull. Europa daughter of Agenor, sports with her companions
on the shore of the sea, gathers flowers and weaves garlands. There
a bull approaches them (Zeus had concealed himself under this form),
who through his tameness gives the maidens courage to busy themselves
sportively with him. They deck him with flowers, caress him, nay at
last Europa becoming bold mounts his back. It is this moment that the
painter has chosen to depict. Europa has lain down on his back, the
girls are still playing with him, yet he is already striding forward,
only a few steps and he is in the sea, and then will Zeus bear his
sweet burden to Crete, and her terrified playmates will vainly stretch
forth their arms after the king’s daughter borne far away.
[Illustration: Fig. 71. Medea, from Herculaneum (p. 52).]
[Illustration: Fig. 72. The so-called Ephebus of bronze (p. 57).]
[Illustration: Fig. 73. Europa with the Bull (p. 52).]
[Illustration: Fig. 74. Mars and Venus (p. 54).]
[Illustration: Fig. 75. Paquius Proculus and his wife (p. 54).]
[Illustration: Fig. 76. Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (p. 59).]
Figure 74 represents a subject often occurring at Pompeii, Venus united
with Mars. Mars lays his left hand on the left arm of Venus, who
resting at ease lays her left arm on the right thigh of Mars, who with
his right hand raises the robe of the goddess so that the whole upper
part of her person is uncovered. That the god of war has already quite
forgotten his own peculiar mission, and is quite given up to love, is
shown by the two Cupids, of whom the one is engaged in girding himself
with the god’s sword, while the other is trying his helmet on his own
head. Figure 75 offers us a picture with quite a modern interest. The
worthy baker Paquius Proculus has had his portrait painted with his
better half, since photography has not yet been invented. But for this
purpose it is not sufficient to have brought the external form into
order, to have neatly smoothed the moustache, and to have crisped the
little locks so that they curl daintily over forehead and cheeks and
roll deep upon the neck, no, they wish their intellectual interests
to be recognised; therefore he takes in his hand a written roll, and
she grasps with her left hand a diptychon, while with her right she
holds to her lips the style to write on the wax tablet, as though in
the next moment some brilliant idea would occur to her which she need
only write down in order to be included for all time in the list of
the intellectual Bluestockings. Just as in our own day many people get
their portraits taken with books in their hands as though the study of
literature formed their whole ordinary day’s work.
[Illustration: Fig. 77. The Dancing Faun (p. 55).]
[Illustration: Fig. 78. The so-called Narcissus (p. 56).]
[Illustration: Fig. 80. Casa del Balcone pensile (p. 59).]
[Illustration: Fig. 79. Cupid with a Dolphin (p. 57).]
The decoration too of houses by means of statues of marble and bronze
must here be briefly mentioned. It has already been stated that in the
temples and public buildings numerous marble and bronze statues have
been found. These discoveries can therefore be passed over here. As
the most beautiful of the works of art which have been discovered in
private houses may be mentioned the statue of the Dancing Faun (after
which the Casa del Fauno is named) and the so-called Narcissus, found
in a house of the Vico del Balcone pensile. In the former (fig. 77) the
artist has represented a comrade of the circle of Dionysos, full of
Bacchic pleasure, turning in wild dance; it is a rough sensual comrade,
whose half animal being is sufficiently suggested by his goat’s ears
and the little tail that is just visible. The strained muscles show
with what energy he gives himself up to the activity of the dance,
while on the other side the unrestrained joyousness expressed in his
countenance, and the freedom and ease he displays in the movement
of the upper part of his body and his arms clearly reveal with what
sportive agility he copes with the exertion. Almost more beautiful is
the so-called Narcissus (fig. 78) a youth just outgrown the years of
boyhood, over whose left shoulder hangs the skin of a goat or a doe,
who however is otherwise naked except the feet which are clothed with
elegant sandals. With slight movement of the arm he supports the left
hand against the hip, and stretches out the right hand, while at the
same time he bends his head to this side as though he were turning his
attention to some distant sounds. People have chosen to see in this
figure a Narcissus listening to the flattering words of Echo, but such
a situation is nowhere to be found in the myth. Others suggest Dionysos
playing with his panther; for this the doeskin and the wreath of ivy in
the hair would be very suitable, as also the beautiful sandals; but
then we should have to suppose that the figure had already in antiquity
been removed from its original base and placed on a new pedestal. For
the enjoyment however which the work of art affords us the name which
is given it is a matter of indifference, and this enjoyment will be
experienced by every one who contemplates the beautiful statuette.
Also the recently found statuette of a youth, completely plated with
silver, (fig. 72) which in antiquity was altered into a lampholder, and
therefore has experienced some damage, deserves careful inspection on
account of its beauty.
[Illustration: Fig. 81. Mosaic Fountain (p. 59).]
[Illustration: Fig. 82. Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio Rufo (p. 60).]
[Illustration: Fig. 83. Bust of the Banker L. Caecilius Jucundus (p.
60).]
[Illustration: Fig. 84. Bust of Cornelius Rufus (p. 60).]
While this figure was to be employed in the house for lighting
purposes, both the others seem to have had their place at the fountain
of the house, with which in a certain way they were connected, in that
the relation of Satyrs and similar beings to springs is a well-known
one in antiquity. In other places the marble and the bronze statues are
employed actually as fountain figures, so in the case of figure 79,
the bronze statuette of a Cupid who exerting all his strength holds
a dolphin up high, from whose mouth the water flows. As to how such
statuettes were grouped with fountains and how also in small houses an
attempt was made to enliven the narrow space left for the garden by the
erection of all sorts of works of art, a sufficiently clear example
is afforded by the little garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (fig. 76).
Here on both sides of the fountain niche in which stands a Silenus as
distributor of water, double Herms or busts are placed which represent
Bacchus with Ariadne. Of the other figures above all let the group
standing in the foreground be mentioned, a group of a Satyr extracting
a thorn from Pan’s foot. A dainty motive too is that of a fountain
figure (fig. 80) from the Casa del Balcone pensile. A boy whose dress
falls down long over his back (in this way a support for the marble
figure is obtained) stands in easy pose, while he lays his right arm on
his head and stretches out the left hand with a mussel shell. From this
shell trickled the water, and a more copious stream flowed from the
waterpipe straight into the marble basin.
[Illustration: Fig. 85. A _Bisellium_ (p. 62).]
[Illustration: Fig. 86. Marble Table (p. 62).]
Mosaic is frequently united with sculpture in the ornamentation of
fountains, for example in that of the Casa delle Fontana Grande (fig.
81). Here the fountain takes the form of a retiring arched niche, in
which the water from beneath the mask of a water-god flowed out of an
aperture in a broad jet over a flight of steps, while marble masks with
wide opened eyes are placed on the piers of the niche.
Between the columns of the Peristyle, to judge from the wall-paintings,
there were often placed also medallions hung on ribbons, the so-called
_Oscilla_, now and then shaped like a _pelta_ (i. e. as the shields of
Amazons are commonly represented). These are sculptured in relief on
both sides. None are of course found in their original position, but a
whole series of such medallions, which were found lying on the ground,
is exhibited in the Naples Museum.
[Illustration: Fig. 87. Dining-couch of Bronze (p. 62).]
An entirely different class of ornament is to be found in the Atrium;
here sometimes a portrait bust of the owner has been found inserted in
its pedestal, which in at least one instance is plainly designated as a
dedication on the part of one formerly belonging to the house. Figure
84 represents the bust of C. Cornelius Rufus, an interesting work in
marble, which clearly shows how remarkably well the sculptors of the
earlier Roman Empire understood how to seize and to reproduce the
characteristic features of their sitter. The bust is let into a square
pillar, from which, right and left, instead of arms, quadrangular
stumps protrude, on which it was customary to hang wreaths as ornaments
on days of commemoration. Figure 82 gives a view of the whole atrium
with the bust, by which we are enabled to recognise the harmonious
way in which this ornament fits into the whole surroundings. Still
more striking perhaps in its effect is the bronze bust of L. Caecilius
Jucundus (fig. 83:--the original is now in Naples), the Banker, in
whose house was found the chest with wax tablets, of which mention
has been made on another page. Here is a bronze bust which has been
inserted in its marble pedestal, a dedication by the Freedman Felix
to the Genius of his master (_Genio L. nostri Felix L._). Many a one
who has seen the bust in the Museo Nazionale, has, at a first glance,
without knowing any more about it, been led to exclaim that he might
be off at once to the Exchange, so characteristically has the sculptor
rendered his portrait. Friend Caecilius is certainly not handsome, so
he cannot have been flattered by the artist, who has suppressed neither
the broad outstanding ears, nor the great ugly wart, almost suggesting
representations of Satyrs. But through the marvellous mixture of
bonhomie which is stamped on his countenance and keen calculation and
decision which are expressed in the closed lips and the glance of
the eyes (unfortunately the pupils formerly represented by coloured
smalt have fallen out) a personality has been successfully depicted
which carries in itself the stamp of genuineness. Caecilius Jucundus
evidently knew full well how to feather his nest, but he was no mere
miser who only brooded over his treasures, no, he not only prized very
highly his cheerful enjoyment of life, but he also loved gaiety and
good fellowship, and in the circle of his boon-companions he was ready
to take a joke, and was himself capable of enlivening conversation by
many a jest.
[Illustration: Fig. 88. A Symposium. Pompeian Wall-painting (p. 63).]
So much for the decoration that was provided for the house by painter
and sculptor. How stands it then with the household furniture?
[Illustration: Fig. 89. Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale (p. 73).]
Our rooms are filled with a quantity of furniture, numerous tables,
chairs, cupboards with every possible name and object, sofas, and
whatever else pertains to modern housekeeping. Compared with all
this the ancient house would seem to us empty. In the first place
cupboards for keeping clothes and the like are hardly to be found. To
a great extent small rooms were made available for keeping movable
articles by putting up shelves, but for clothes chests standing on
the ground had to serve, which might be compared with our presses and
trunks. They were the better suited for this purpose inasmuch as the
dress consisted more of stuffs which did not assume their definite
form as dress until they were put on. These trunks could at the same
time be used as seats, often, as at the present day in the East, for
reclining on. There were too regular seats, for the most part without
backs, and like foot-stools; among them we ought particularly to
mention the _bisellium_ which properly could hold two persons, but as
a special honour was granted by decree of the Decurions to a single
individual (fig. 85). Tables, especially show tables of costly woods,
to display the ornamental tableservice may have existed, but none of
these have come down to us; on the other hand marble tables, generally
placed close to the impluvium (fig. 86), have in many instances been
preserved. Among them are some that can be raised at pleasure. They
often have feet artistically shaped, the forms of all possible fabulous
beings, griffins &c. being employed as ornaments. Such tables as we
are accustomed to take our meals at are no where to be seen, because
the custom of the ancients was to eat while lying down. The furnishing
of a triclinium was as follows:--around a central point of masonry
only about a foot and a half in height, on which the table-top or tray
was placed, stand three low couches abutting on one another at right
angles, occasionally (in the open air) of masonry, otherwise of bronze
(fig. 87), or of wood, on each of which three persons recline at meals;
the fourth side is left open for the attendants. The arrangement of
the couches can often still be seen by examining the mosaic floor. To
one or other of the couches a still lower seat is frequently attached,
probably for the children. The inner side of the _lecti_ (for that is
the name of these sofas) was as a rule somewhat higher than the outer;
people got upon them from the lower side, and lay with the left arm
on the cushions serving as a support in such a manner that the right
arm was free to take the food to the mouth. The tables of masonry were
generally without ornament, since they were covered by the tray with
food; once only has an ornament been found in this position at Pompeii,
a mosaic representing a death’s head, a motive borrowed no doubt from
the Egypto-Alexandrian custom of inviting people to brighter enjoyment
of life by allusion to its fleeting nature and the nearness of death.
When towards the beginning of the Empire round tables (_orbes_) came
more generally into use in place of square ones, the three couches
arranged at right angles around the table had naturally to be united
in a single semicircular sofa corresponding to the circular shape now
adopted for the table. Such a semicircular sofa received the name
_Sigma_ or _Stibadium_ on account of its resemblance to the Greek
letter C. This style must--to judge from wall-paintings--have been
usual in Pompeii, yet we are unable to point it out among the existing
remains in the rooms. (Fig. 88 is from a wall-painting; this gives also
the conversation of the guests at table: _facitis vobis suaviter_, you
are having a good time, says one; another, _ego canto_, I sing; _est
ita_, _valeas_, so it is, good luck to you, says the third.)
[Illustration: Fig. 90. Food-warmer (p. 64).]
[Illustration: Fig. 91. Tripods and Bronze Table (p. 63).]
[Illustration: Fig. 92. Portable Stove (p. 64).]
[Illustration: Fig. 93. Bronze Vessel for the preparation of _Calda_
(p. 65).]
Of tripods, which in the ancient house formed part of the necessary
furniture, beautiful shapes have come down to us, (cf. fig. 91). Tables
then and chairs, chests and couches, with these the house furniture
is pretty well exhausted; but one must include with them the movable
stoves by which in winter some measure of warmth could be secured.
Stoves, as we know them were non-existent in antiquity, as even now in
the greatest part of Italy. If it became cold, a brazier of charcoal
was brought, as at the present day, at which people warmed themselves.
(The best example of such a brazier is that dedicated by one Vaccula
in the Baths, which may be seen in figure 48 behind the railing.)
Richer folk had for this purpose also a special stove which could be
carried from one room to another, as now in Paris, see figure 92. The
question of heating, as that of chimneys in the kitchen, is for us
northeners one of great importance, which however for the South plays
no great part, as one can see any day at the present time. Apart from
the resorts of foreigners, in which on practical grounds full allowance
is made for the ideas and usages of people belonging to northern
countries, the Italy of to-day remains for the most part at the stand
point of antiquity. There are no stoves and as few chimneys, because
the fuel used is almost exclusively charcoal, which kindled in the open
air continues to glow without requiring a special exit for smoke. And
if there is any smoke, it has to find its way where it pleases. This
is the origin of the name _Atrium_, because everything became black
(_ater_) through smoke. However we must not omit to mention that in
some Pompeian kitchens a wide pipe or channel is provided, through
which an escape to the street is allowed to any smoke that there may
be, subject to its own good will. To suppose any such thing as an
actual chimney (apart of course from baking ovens) would be mere wild
imagining, there was in fact absolutely no necessity for such a thing.
We must consider charcoal as the fuel also for various utensils which
served for the preparation of warm drinks, the so-called _Calda_, or
for keeping food warm, and which certainly had their place not in the
kitchen but in the diningroom or other apartments. One of such utensils
(fig. 90) is garnished after the fashion of a fortress with towers
at the four angles and battlements on the surrounding wall; while
the interior served for the reception of charcoal and for keeping
food warm, the surrounding wall and towers were used for water, which
at pleasure could be drawn off by a tap. On the other hand the vase
represented in figure 93 is near akin to the Russian samovar; here a
wide pipe is introduced into the body of the vessel, which could be
filled with glowing charcoal in order to heat the liquid contained in
the vessel. Or on the contrary if the liquid was to be cooled, all
that was necessary was to fill the pipe with snow. Of course owing to
the open pipe the liquid could in neither case be poured out, but had
to be ladled out. For the preparation of warm drink as well as for
the heating of food the apparatus represented in figure 94 was also
undoubtedly employed. In this instance a high cask-like vessel is
connected with a cylindrical one having a spout, while the enclosed
space holds charcoal.
The question of lighting also merits some brief consideration. It has
already been stated that the apartments on the principal floor had
scarcely ever any direct light from the street, but received indirect
light from the atrium or the peristyle. We are not however on this
account to imagine them to have been dark; the sun’s power in the
South is so great that even in the case of indirect light a very
considerable brightness is attained; if the door-spaces were closed by
wooden doors, or by curtains, still sufficient light fell into the room
through an opening introduced above the door, or the doors and curtains
were so arranged that the light above was not shut out. Artificial
lighting was supplied by oil lamps, which must have been employed in
great numbers, to ensure sufficient brilliancy. Hence lamps, especially
of course the ordinary terracotta lamps, are the most numerous of the
objects found. Candelabra served to support them, of these very elegant
forms have been preserved. One of the most interesting is represented
in figure 96, where four lamps, each with two wicks, hang down from a
pillar raised on a basis semicircular in front. The candelabra also
often take the form of trees, on the boughs of which the lamps are
suspended, so for example in figure 97. Besides these there are lofty
candelabra which spring from a basis usually supported by the feet of
an animal, and rise to a considerable height in the form of slender
columns; on the top, which generally spreads out as a calyx, there
usually stood only one lamp with several wicks.
[Illustration: Fig. 94. Food-warmer (p. 65).]
[Illustration: Fig. 95. Silver Cups (p. 68).]
[Illustration: Fig. 96. Candelabrum (p. 66).]
[Illustration: Fig. 97. Candelabrum (p. 66).]
[Illustration: Fig. 98. Bronze Vessel (p. 67).]
Next to the candelabra may be mentioned under the head of domestic
utensils more or less costly vases, which were frequently displayed on
handsome tables or the tripods described above. Of these too a great
number have been found in Pompeii and deposited in the Museo Nazionale
at Naples. Thus figure 98 shows a large vessel of bronze, a crater or
mixing bowl, the elegant twisted handles of which are fastened to the
body of the vase by means of a winged Medusa mask. That its purpose was
merely ornamental is shown by the circumstance that it is placed on a
separate basis supported by lion’s claws. A more bowl-like vessel, also
supported by lion’s claws, is represented on page 107.--On each side
of this two united bodies of lions connected with serpents are employed
as handles. The jugs in figure 99 display different shapes, in the
one the handle is formed by a soaring bird with broad bill (a swan or
perhaps a goose), while an eagle sits enthroned above the mouth; in the
other the body of the vessel consists of a head with eyes separately
inlaid, but now lost. Numerous too are the ornamental vessels of
silver. Two cups famous above all are represented in figure 95, on one
side of which is placed a male centaur, on the other a female. On their
backs are seated Erotes (Loves). Although both cups are without doubt
intended as companion pieces which belong so to speak to the same set,
yet there are distinctions in details. These cups, so finely chiselled,
are provided with a smooth lining inserted specially for the reception
of the liquid, a circumstance illustrating a well-known passage in the
speech of Cicero against Verres. There it is stated that Verres in
Sicily had in preference to everything seized the silver vessels, that
he had not however set so much value on the silver, but had restored
the cups _emblemate_ or _sigillo avulso_. Now the _emblemata_ or
_sigilla_ are nothing else than the outer cases adorned with work in
relief, which were united by solder to the smooth inner cases.
If we would form a more accurate estimate of the valuables with which
the show tables (_abaci_) were loaded, we can avail ourselves of a
recent discovery not indeed made in Pompeii itself, but yet in its
entire character belonging to Pompeii. In Bosco Reale, a small town
situated nearer Vesuvius, where in ancient times there seems to have
been a sort of suburb of Pompeii, a villa had been discovered in 1894
on the estate of Cav. de Prisco, buried under the ashes from Vesuvius,
and in this every chamber was found in an undisturbed state. In one
apartment, the storeroom, there were found large vessels full of corn
and pulse, in another place the explorers came upon a great heap of
agricultural implements, a furnace for baths was unearthed, in which
all the water pipes with their taps were preserved (the same that is
now placed in position behind the Forum), in short everything was found
intact, exactly in the condition (except of course changes brought
about by length of time) in which the villa was on the 24th of August
in the year 79. But still greater treasures were destined to come to
light from the villa. On the 13th of April 1896 the skeleton of a man
was suddenly discovered: he had fallen with his face on the ground,
stifled under the hot showers of ashes which pressed upon him from
every side. In his convulsively clasped hands he grasped bracelets and
a long gold chain; many gold coins with the heads of the Emperors from
Augustus to Vespasian, several of them still quite fresh as if they had
just been issued by the mint, lay scattered near him on the ground. He
had sunk to the earth before a little niche, in which he had doubtless
just laid down a part of his burden, and where he had wished to put
also the remainder that he was carrying, in order to protect all from
unbidden intruders.
[Illustration: Fig. 99. Silver Jugs (p. 68).]
[Illustration: Fig. 100. The Tutelary Goddess of Alexandria (p. 70).]