with a rapid-fire gun provided with shields and capable under peace
conditions of firing as many as twenty shots per minute. Its caliber
varies from 7.5 to 8.38 cm. (Germany, 7.7; France, 7.5; Russia,
7.62, and England, 8.38 cm., the last-named being an 18 pdr.). The
German gun fires shrapnel weighing 6.85 kg. (the Russian, 6.5, and
the French 7.25 kg.) and high explosive shell of approximately the
same weight, with an initial velocity of 465 m. (the Russian 588 and
the French 530 m.). The projectiles are burst through the action of
combination fuzes (in Germany graduated to 5000, in France and Russia
to 5500 m.). The projectiles have a maximum range of 8000 m., when
percussion fuze is used. Canister has been replaced by shrapnel, which
bursts approximately 200 m. in front of the gun when the fuze is set
at zero. The German field artillery is also equipped with a light
field howitzer, cal. 10.5 cm., which fires shrapnel weighing 12.8 kg.
(time fuze ranging from 300 to 5600 m.) and shell weighing 15.7 kg.
(time fuze ranging from 500 to 5600 m.). The Germans use heavy field
howitzers (cal. 14.91 cm., firing shell that has an extreme range of
6870 m.) in the heavy artillery of the field army. France uses the 15.5
cm. Rimailho howitzer, England a 12.7 cm. howitzer and another long
piece of 12 cm. caliber.
=Percussion shrapnel= is used for defense at short range, and in fire
for adjustment; its effect depends upon the range and the nature of
the ground. It is effective against troops lodged in tall timber.
Masks, branches of trees, etc., frequently cause the premature burst of
the projectiles.[108]
[108] Engagement of Azay (6th January, 1871). _Geschichte des
Regiments Nr. 20_. HOFFBAUER, _Deutsche Artillerie_, I, pp. 16 and
49. _Taktik_, VI, p. 42.
Percussion shrapnel is effective only when bursting immediately in
front of the target (5-25 m. in front of it, depending upon the range).
However, even in this case, the bullets often pass over low targets,
such as skirmishers lying down, and low parapets afford sufficient
protection. An adequate effect can be obtained only when the fire is
directed on vertical targets. Soft ground, newly ploughed fields,
terrain covered with snow or underbrush, small folds of the ground,
or a rising slope, diminish the fire effect. When the angle of fall
is 10 degrees or more (with the German piece at ranges of 3300 m. and
over) half of the bullets penetrate the ground, the remainder ricochet
and pass on at a greatly reduced velocity. The explosive or incendiary
effect of shrapnel is insignificant owing to the smallness of the
bursting charge. However, some incendiary effect is possible if the
projectile strikes an easily inflammable target.[109]
[109] Consult _Taktik_, VI, p. 45, in regard to the incendiary
effect of projectiles.
[Illustration: Percussion Shrapnel.]
=Time shrapnel= (used in Germany up to 5000 m.) is fairly independent
of the terrain, the burst being easily observed since the bullets are
embedded in a “smoke-producing composition.” The extreme range at which
this projectile can be employed is fixed by the facility of observing
the fire and by the remaining velocity of the shrapnel bullets, both of
which diminish as the range increases. Field guns, model ’96, may be
effectively employed up to a range of 4000 m.; under 3000 m. their fire
is so annihilating that decisive results are produced in a short time.
(Par. 630 German F. S. R.). The use of the combination fuze, on account
of its certainty of burst, either by time or percussion, permits
the trajectory to be accurately determined in every case. This fuze
also makes it possible to employ shrapnel against rapidly advancing
targets, and in warding off a sudden attack at short range. The French
Regulations give the width of the beaten zone of a single shrapnel
as 20, that of two from the same piece as 25 m. The maximum depth of
the beaten zone is 300 m. The angle of the cone of dispersion of the
German shrapnel, model ’96, is 16 degrees at 2000 m. German shrapnel
(model ’91) fired at a line of infantry did not strike lines following
250 m. in rear of the first, whereas in case of base charge shrapnel
these lines would be safe only at 350-400 m. from the first line. The
German shrapnel gives very good results when set to burst 30 to 150 m.
in front of the target, the height of burst being regulated accordingly
(approximately ¹⁄₃ of the whole number of hundreds of meters of the
range). At ranges under 1500 m., an adequate fire effect may, however,
be expected even when the fuze is set to burst the projectile 300 m. in
front of the target. (Par. 30 German F. A. F. R.).
Shrapnel is most effective against skirmishers lying down from 1000 to
3000 m. when burst 28 to 22 m. short, and against standing skirmishers
at the same ranges when burst 56 to 45 m. short. The two tables given
below, borrowed from the work of Lieutenant-General Rohne on artillery
tactics,[110] give an idea of the effect of a single time shrapnel,
and of the effect per minute of shrapnel fire after adjusting upon the
target:
======================+=======================================
|When firing at the targets named (1
|skirmisher per m.) with time shrapnel,
TARGETS. |mod. ’96, set to burst 50 m. short, the
|following _hits per shrapnel_ may be
|expected after the adjustment has been
|effected:
----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
| 500 m.|1000 m.|2000 m.|3000 m.|4000 m.
----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Skirmishers standing | 18.4 | 14.2 | 12.0 | 11.0 | 10.4
Skirmishers kneeling | 10.6 | 8.2 | 6.9 | 6.3 | 5.8
Skirmishers lying down| 6.4 | 4.9 | 4.1 | 3.8 | 3.5
Head targets | 3.5 | 2.7 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 1.9
----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
======================+=======================================
|When firing at the targets named
TARGETS. |(skirmish line with 1 skirmisher per
|m.), under service conditions, with time
|shrapnel, mod. ’96, set to burst 50-100
|m. short, the following hits per minute
|may be expected on an average:
----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
| 500 m.|1000 m.|2000 m.|3000 m.|4000 m.
----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Skirmishers standing | 364 | 202 | 109 | 46 | 14
Skirmishers kneeling | 210 | 117 | 63 | 27 | 8
Skirmishers lying down| 126 | 70 | 38 | 16 | 5
Head targets | 70 | 39 | 21 | 9 | 3
----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
[110] ROHNE, _Die Taktik der Feldartillerie_, Berlin, 2nd Edition,
p. 9.
More than 80% of the men struck by fragments and bullets from shrapnel
bursting within 100 m. are disabled. The penetration of shrapnel
bullets is so great, at ranges under 2000 m., that when they strike
bones or vital organs of horses, they produce instant incapacity for
action. This is especially true when the interval of burst is less than
100 m. The effect of shrapnel directed against batteries provided with
shields is insignificant. Time shrapnel is the principal projectile
employed by artillery against animate objects, provided these are not
located immediately in rear of parapets, within tall timber, or under
bomb-proofs. This projectile is ineffective against such cover on
account of the flatness of the trajectory and the sensitiveness of the
fuze.
Shrapnel is to be supplemented by =shell= filled with explosive charge,
model ’88, which has a great explosive effect at extreme ranges and in
tall timber. (See pars. 159-160 German F. A. F. R., in regard to action
against shielded batteries).
Percussion shell, on account of its very sensitive fuze, bursts on
penetrating the shield, while percussion shrapnel goes entirely
through the shield and bursts about ¹⁄₂ m. in rear of it.
[Illustration: Percussion Shell, Model ’96.]
Targets located immediately in rear of parapets or under light splinter
proofs may be reached with time shell burst directly over or close
in front of them. The depth of the beaten zone of this projectile is
small, seldom exceeding 50 m., even when the fire is directed against
targets in the open. About 75% of all the fragments are capable of
inflicting disabling wounds when the interval of burst is short. The
peculiar character of the projectile necessitates a very careful
adjustment in range and in height of burst. The French _obus allongé_,
a high explosive percussion shell (melinite charge; angle of the cone
of dispersion exceeds 100 degrees) is employed only for the destruction
of material objects.[111]
[111] When firing on animate objects, the beaten zone of this
projectile does not exceed a space 50 m. wide and 20 m. deep, but the
concussion of the explosion will undoubtedly be felt at a greater
distance. The explosive effect of the projectile is equivalent to
that of 30 kg. of powder. The explosion of the projectile produces a
cone-shaped crater having a diameter of 2 and a depth of 0.50 m. Ten
melinite shells per running meter are required to destroy a parapet 3
m. thick and 2.30 m. high.
The French projectile, on account of the fuze used, bursts only after
it has pierced thin walls or shields.
[Illustration: Time Shell, Model ’96.]
2. THE LIGHT FIELD HOWITZER.
The realization that the power of resistance of a defender lodged in
deep trenches, could not be broken by the fire of guns having a flat
trajectory, led to the re-adoption of a gun capable of high angle fire,
which had been eliminated from the field artillery upon the advent of
rifled cannon.[112]
[112] After March, 1859, the artillery of a mobilized Prussian
army corps consisted of three horse batteries, each armed with six
6-pounder guns and two 7-pounder howitzers; six foot batteries, each
armed with eight 12-pounder guns; and three foot batteries, each
armed with eight 7-pounder howitzers. Thus the artillery of an army
corps numbered 30 howitzers and 66 guns.
For both flat trajectory and high angle fire, the light field howitzer,
model ’98, employs shrapnel weighing 12.8 kg. (500 jacketed bullets, @
10 g.; time fuze graduated from 300 to 5600 m.) and shell weighing 15.7
kg. (0.37 kg. explosive charge, model ’88; time fuze graduated from 500
to 5600 m.). As delay action fuzes are used, it is possible to utilize
to the fullest extent the power of penetration of the projectile before
it bursts.
A single shrapnel from a light field howitzer produces a greater number
of hits, when the point of burst is favorably situated, than one fired
from a field gun. However, the projectiles fired from the latter have a
deeper beaten zone on account of the flatter trajectory of the piece,
and a greater penetration owing to their greater remaining velocity.
The German Artillery Firing Regulations (par. 30) consider the effect
of both projectiles “very good” and of equal value at the principal
ranges, when burst at a moderate distance (30 to 150 m.) from the
target. The effect of shrapnel from the field gun and from the light
field howitzer is considered adequate at ranges under 1500 m., when
bursts are regulated to occur within 300 and 200 m., respectively, in
front of the target. The superiority of the shrapnel fired from a field
gun is due to the greater penetration of the jacketed bullets (a result
of greater velocity of the projectile itself at the point of burst).
But in this connection it is to be borne in mind that the effect of
single shots only is here considered. The shrapnel fire of the field
gun is considerably superior to that of the howitzer. This is due to
the fact that the howitzer fires more slowly than the field gun and
must expend twice the weight of ammunition to produce the same results.
If, in addition, it is remembered that the field battery carries
approximately 2¹⁄₂ times as many shrapnel as the light field howitzer
battery, it is obvious that the fire of the former will be 2¹⁄₂ times
as effective, against targets in the open, as that of the latter.
The superiority of the heavier projectile asserts itself when it
becomes necessary to destroy material objects.
The shell fired from pieces having a flat trajectory is employed
against troops immediately behind cover. The shell is burst immediately
in front of, over, or in rear of the target, which is thus struck by
splinters from above. The more nearly perpendicular the splinters
strike the target, and the greater their number and weight, the greater
will be the effect produced. The angle of the cone of dispersion is
about 200 degrees; with appropriate points of burst, fragments weighing
15 g. (80%) incapacitate for action. In curved fire, at ranges beyond
2100 m., shell with delay action fuze is capable of penetrating the
splinter proof cover usually employed in the field. At ranges under
2100 m. its angle of fall is too small to make an adequate effect
certain.
[Illustration: Time Shell, Model ’98.]
3. THE HEAVY FIELD HOWITZER.
The heavy field howitzer employs shell weighing 39.5 kg., containing an
explosive charge of 0.85 g., and fitted with a percussion fuze either
with or without delay action. This shell is designed to penetrate the
roofs of splinter proofs. An earth covering 5-6 m. thick is necessary
to afford protection against these projectiles. At 3000 m. a 15 cm.
shell produces a crater 1 m. deep and 2.4 to 3.6 m. in diameter,
_i.e._, 2 cu. m. (in made ground this crater is three times this size).
The heavy field howitzer is a very effective weapon against shielded
batteries. A single shell, owing to its lateral explosive effect, is
capable of placing a whole battery temporarily out of action.
4. EXPEDIENTS FOR MINIMIZING THE EFFECT OF FIRE.
Movements of infantry under artillery fire are unavoidable when firing
lines are to be reinforced and when troops intended for the decisive
attack are to be pushed closer to the enemy. Formations calculated to
minimize the effect of the hostile fire must be taken up in time,
since it is not always possible to make use of cover. The efficacy
of the fire depends upon the accurate determination of the range and
height of burst (fire for adjustment) and upon the careful observation
of the subsequent fire (fire for effect).[113] The effect of this fire
is considerably increased when the opponent’s infantry, against whom
the fire is directed, takes up unsuitable formations (particularly
broad line formations). Infantry has frequently found it advantageous
to advance in small detachments moving rapidly at irregular intervals
in extended order.
[113] The color of uniforms exerts considerable influence on
observation. According to experiments made in France, colors rank
as follows as regards visibility: white (invisible at night), light
blue, alizarine red, green, dark brown, gray, or yellowish brown.
_Schweizer Zeitschrift für Artillerie und Genie_, 1896, I, p. 39. The
following colors protect against heat, in the order named (in reverse
order against cold): white, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet,
black. The position of gray in the list depends upon the amount of
white or black mixed with it.
(a) Increasing the Difficulties in the Adjustment of the Hostile Fire.
A battery requires about 0.8 minutes (5 to 6 rounds with percussion
fuze) to secure adjustment at ranges up to 750 m. The time required for
securing adjustment at the longer ranges is as follows:
At 800-1500 m., on low infantry targets, 1.5 min., 6-9 rounds with
perc. fuze;
At 1700-2250 m., on low infantry targets, 3.7 min., 11 rounds with
perc. fuze;
At 2000-3000 m., on artillery targets, 4.6 min., 11 rounds with
perc. fuze;
Narrow columns moving to their right or left front are very unfavorable
targets for artillery, as it is very difficult for a battery commander
to determine the relative position of bursts on the flank of a column
with respect to the leading element thereof. Such shots are frequently
considered as over. Numerous small columns, which make it difficult to
designate a target, increase the time required by the hostile artillery
to secure adjustment.
Troops should not be posted in the vicinity of conspicuous objects,
as, for example, trees, visible at a great distance.[114] Intrenchments
that have just been thrown up should be made to look as nearly as
possible like the surrounding country by covering them with snow, sod,
or brush. It is made more difficult for the hostile artillery to secure
adjustment, if our infantry changes position to the front or to a
flank, if it moves rapidly or advances by rushes.
[114] The cutting down of a poplar at Königgrätz decreased the
effect of the Austrian artillery fire, which, previous to this, had
caused rather serious losses. _Geschichte des Regiments, Nr. 2_, p.
36. A similar effect was produced by tearing down a house at Lovtcha.
KUROPATKIN-KRAHMER, _Kritische Rückblicke auf den Russisch-Türkischen
Krieg_, I, p. 59.
It is easy, as a rule, for the artillery to adjust its fire upon masks,
but difficult to determine the distance between mask and target. It is
an advantage when masks are situated obliquely to a position. As masks
(rows of trees) may cause the premature burst of projectiles having
percussion fuzes, they should be at least 200 m. from the troops they
are to =screen=.[115] When so situated they frequently afford better
protection than actual intrenchments.
[115] Fight of some Prussian batteries against a French battery
masked by chaussee trees at Weiszenburg. See HOFFBAUER, _Deutsche
Artillerie_, I, pp. 13 and 49. The 4th Light and the 4th Heavy
Batteries of the 10th Field Artillery (German) were able to
maintain their position east of Mars-la-Tour, under the fire of
superior hostile artillery, because they were screened by the trees
and the embankment of the chaussee thirty paces in their front.
_Kriegsgeschichtliche Einzelschrift_, 25, p. 18.
The sustained bombardment of Schlosz Ladonchamps (situated on
the Moselle flats north of Metz) with 12 cm. guns, which fired 200
shots per day from Oct. 9th to 10th, and 100 per day from Oct. 11th
to 16th, 1870, was unsuccessful, because the percussion shells
were ineffective. This will not be changed in the future by the
adoption of high-explosive shells. According to DICK DE LONLAY,
the garrison of the castle and its park lost only 5-10 men per day
during this time. The defensibility of the castle was not impaired,
although projectiles finally fell into the building itself during
the sustained bombardment. According to the same author (IV, p. 556)
1,022 shells fell into the park and castle of Ladonchamps on October
7th, but only ten men were placed out of action.
(b) Minimizing the Effect of Fire.
Formations that increase the effect of artillery fire, as for example
lines and columns, and positions in which a flank is refused, should be
avoided. It is a good plan to increase the number of targets and to
employ narrow columns (column of twos) that are not too deep. Supports
must be far enough in rear (300-400 m.) to prevent two targets being
struck by one and the same shrapnel.
Of the close order formations used in the Russo-Japanese war, platoons
or sections in columns of squads or twos,[116] separated by a maximum
interval of 50 paces, were indeed found more suitable under fire than
line formations, but the losses were nevertheless very serious except
where cover screened the advancing troops from view or afforded them
actual protection.
[116] The advance against Beaumont and the height of Chancy during
the battle of Beaumont. HOPFFGARTEN-HEIDLER, _Beaumont_, pp. 124 and
238. _Geschichte des Regiments, Nr. 93_, II, p. 97. At Gravelotte
this formation was employed with advantage by the _Königin_ Regiment
during its advance on Amanweiler, and later in the campaign during
the assault on Le Bourget. _Geschichte des Regiments Königin_, pp. 9
and 132.
During the Franco-German war, line of platoons in columns of twos was
found advantageous on several occasions.[117] This formation has the
following disadvantages, however: it is very susceptible to flanking
fire; the influence of the officers is principally restricted to
the leading elements; intervals are easily lost and on that account
it becomes more difficult to form line. It would seem to be better,
therefore, to advance in line of platoons (or sections) in columns of
squads, or, under flanking fire, in line of squads in columns of twos
or files. In the last-named formation the intervals between squads are
easily lost, however, and the company then becomes a dense skirmish
line of from four to six ranks. To echelon the platoons slightly has
very little value on account of the depth of the beaten zone of modern
shrapnel.
[117] This formation is also well adapted for passing through
woods. _Taktik_, VI, p. 108.
In attacks made during the latter part of the Russo-Japanese war, both
belligerents finally made use of thin successive skirmish lines for
advancing; these lines followed each other at 200-300 m. and united
again on reaching cover.
5. THE RESULTS OBTAINED BY ARTILLERY AGAINST VARIOUS TARGETS.
_Germany._ According to computations made by Lieutenant-General
Rohne,[118] the following hits may be expected from every time
shrapnel, model ’96, when burst an average of 50 m. short of the
targets named:
=====+=========+=========+======+=================
Range|Standing.|Kneeling.|Prone.| Intrenched
m. | | | |Skirmishers.[119]
-----+---------+---------+------+-----------------
500| 18.4 | 10.6 | 6.4 | 3.5
1000| 14.2 | 8.2 | 4.9 | 2.4
2000| 12. | 6.9 | 4.1 | 2.3
3000| 11. | 6.3 | 3.8 | 2.1
4000| 10. | 5.8 | 3.5 | 1.9
-----+---------+---------+------+-----------------
[118] _Die Taktik der Feldartillerie_, p. 9 _et seq._
[119] One skirmish figure per meter.
The number of hits per minute obtained by a battery firing 50 shots at
500 m., 30 at 1000 m., 20 at 2000 m., 10 at 3000 m., and 4 at 4000 m.,
is as follows:
=====+=========+=========+======+=================
Range|Standing.|Kneeling.|Prone.| Intrenched
m. | | | |Skirmishers.[120]
-----+---------+---------+------+-----------------
500| 364 | 210 | 126 | 70
1000| 202 | 117 | 70 | 39
2000| 109 | 63 | 38 | 21
3000| 46 | 27 | 16 | 9
4000| 14 | 8 | 5 | 3
-----+---------+---------+------+-----------------
[120] One skirmish figure per meter.
_France._[121] According to the French Field Artillery Regulations
(footnote to par. 277), a gun firing time shrapnel covers effectively
a front of 25 m., and a battery of four pieces, a front of 100 m. This
intensity of fire, which is obtained when each piece fires one shot
with proper corrector and range settings (the battery four shots)
Aubrat calls “_Density 4_.” When _rafale_ fire (two shots per piece)
is employed against a front of 100 m., with proper corrector setting,
density 8 is obtained. When the front exceeds 100 m., the deflection
of the pieces must be changed between successive shots (_tir avec
fauchage_). To obtain density 8 against a front of 150 m., each
piece must fire three shots, as prescribed in the regulations. When
progressive fire (_tir progressif_) is employed, four different ranges
are given, of which only one can be considered effective. When not
sweeping, in this fire, each piece fires two shots, thus also obtaining
a density of 8. A density of 1 always corresponds, therefore, to one
round, fired, with proper corrector and range settings, against a front
of 100 m. When a battery (four pieces) fires one salvo against a target
having a front of 50 m., density 8 is obtained; by firing two salvos,
density 16 is obtained.
[121] The following is taken from Lieutenant-General ROHNE’S essay
on the work of Squadron Commander AUBRAT, _Les exercices de service
en campagne_. The essay mentioned appeared in the December, 1907,
number of _Artilleristische Monatsschriften_.
The _Commission d’études pratiques du tir_ has made a thorough
investigation into the effect produced by shrapnel fire. The following
table gives a general idea of the effect to be expected when firing
against service targets (_i.e._, the percentage of figures one may
expect to hit when employing fire of varying density):