formed directly. It has not been found necessary in Germany to provide
an open column permitting prompt deployment toward a flank. The column
of platoons unites the company on the smallest space and facilitates
supervision, but in companies at full war strength it is not well
adapted for executing changes of front and for taking advantage of
cover, on account of the size of the platoons (40 files each). In
platoons at war strength the men look more toward the point upon which
they are to march than upon the enemy, and the deployment of the rear
platoons offers difficulties which occur principally when a deployment
in an oblique direction or one by the whole company becomes necessary.
The column of platoons is formed by the flank platoons placing
themselves in rear of the center platoon. Line is again formed by rear
platoons moving to right and left and abreast of the leading platoon.
The German company column is much more flexible, and the advantage
of a prompt deployment for action, made possible by the fact that
all platoon commanders and the heads of platoons are in the lead and
therefore can see the objective, should not be underestimated. The
company column is formed from line by the center platoon forming column
of squads to the front (or rear), the flank platoons, each in column
of squads, closing on the center platoon, heads of the three columns
on the same line. Company column is formed as follows from column of
platoons: the leading platoon executes squads right (left), column left
(right), the two rear platoons execute squads right (left), and are
led to a position abreast of the leading platoon. Company column from
column of squads is formed by rear platoons moving to the right and
left respectively, and abreast of the leading platoon.
When line is to be formed from company column, the flank platoons
have to incline to the right and left respectively in order to gain
sufficient interval.
Movements in Column.
For marching short distances to a flank, column of twos may be
employed; for longer distances, column of squads (or fours); and the
march direction may be changed by inclining in the proper direction.
* * * * *
Since March 1904, experiments, which deserve to be mentioned here,
have been made in France under the direction of Colonel Fumet, having
for their object the simplification of the drill regulations. In the
experiments a four-rank formation is being considered. In this proposed
scheme the platoon is formed so as to place the four single-rank squads
(_escouades_) in rear of each other at the very close facing distance
of 0.50 m., the leaders of the _escouades_ taking post on the right
flank, a first class private being posted on each flank and in the
center of each _escouade_.
[Illustration: Forming Double Rank from the Four-Rank Formation and the
Reverse Movement.]
[Illustration: Deployment of a Half-Platoon formed in Four Ranks into
Two Half-Platoons formed in Double Rank.]
[Illustration: The Platoon (_section_) in Line.]
[Illustration: Deployment of a Half-Platoon Into Line of Skirmishers.]
[Illustration: The Company.]
The platoon at war strength (50 men) has a front of 8-10 m. and a
depth of 3 m. The movements are very simple. Route column is formed by
simply facing to flank, without first dividing the platoon into squads.
Double rank line may be formed from column of fours, by executing
right and left front into line. The double rank line may be deployed
into half-platoons. Furthermore, a single rank line may be formed by
the men of the rear rank stepping up into the front rank. One drawback
of this scheme is, that, in forming route column, facing distance of
0.80 m. between ranks is to be gradually gained after stepping off.
The deployment of half-platoons into line of skirmishers offers no
difficulties. It is otherwise, however, when the platoon is formed in
four ranks and marching in platoon front, for then line of skirmishers
can be formed only by deploying each rank in turn. The depth of the
column may be decreased by placing platoons (formed in column of twos
or fours) abreast, this expedient affording a suitable route formation
on broad roads. The company is formed by placing the platoons on a
line and abreast of each other at intervals of 2 m. In the battalion,
column of platoons and “mass” are the only formations considered. In
the “mass” formation the companies, each in line, are in rear of each
other.
7. THE BATTALION.
The movements of the battalion have been considerably simplified
in all armies. Battalion drill is, however, necessary, since, as
shown by the advance of the IInd Army on the morning of August 18th,
1870, simultaneous movements of large masses across country will be
unavoidable in future wars on account of the great size of modern
armies.[76]
[76] Additional examples: Advance of the 6th Infantry Division on
Vionville. _Gen. St. W._, I, p. 556. The flank march made by the 3rd
and 4th Bavarian Brigades from La Maladerie toward Schloss Goury (5
km. battle of Loigny). HÖNIG, _Volkskrieg_, IV, p. 22.
Advance of the 33rd Infantry Brigade from Champdoux against Loigny
(_ibid._, IV, p. 80).
Advance of the 22nd Infantry Division from Lumeau on Poupry, 4.5
km. (_ibid._, IV, p. 139).
Advance of the French to the battle on December 1st, 1870 (_ibid._,
III, p. 164).
Normal Formation of the German Battalion.
The four columns of platoons, or the company columns of a battalion,
may be placed, as dictated by space or purpose, abreast of each other
as a =broad column= (_Breitkolonne_), or in rear of each other as a
=deep column= (_Tiefkolonne_). The numerical order of companies is
immaterial.
[Illustration: Deep Column.]
[Illustration: Broad Column.]
[Illustration]
The deep column is employed for assembling troops if the terrain
necessitates a formation on a narrow front. If sufficient distance is
allowed between companies, line may be formed to a flank, but this
increases the depth of the column to such an extent that movements
at attention are impossible. The deep column may be used as a route
formation in addition to the column of squads. During the change from
route formation to that of action, the deep column formation may be
retained so long as the depth of the whole column does not have to be
further reduced. When necessary, the deep column may be replaced by a
formation in which the four companies, each in route column, are placed
abreast of each other.
The broad column finds proper employment, aside from parades, in cases
where the terrain or the contemplated deployment requires more front
than depth. It is also advisable to assemble the widely scattered
troops in a broad column after an action. The broad column does
not lend itself, however, to the execution of changes of front by
battalion; but should such changes of front become necessary, they are
always to be executed by company.
The color is posted between the right and left center companies, in
broad column, and on the right flank of the third company, in deep
column. In action the color remains with the company with which it
happens to be at the moment.[77] Should this company also join the
firing line, the color accompanies it; but under all circumstances one
squad must remain with the color. (Par. 236 German I. D. R.). It has
been contended that this is a disadvantage, as the enemy can direct
his fire on the color and the men in its vicinity. If the colors, upon
which the soldiers have been sworn, are taken into the field, it is
always better to endure the unavoidable losses incidental to carrying
them, and even to expose them to capture, than to send them back to
a safe place under escort.[78] At the Albrechtshaus farm (Wörth)
the colors served as rallying points around which the disordered
skirmishers rapidly assembled.[79]
[77] In Japan the color joins the battalion commander. British
troops leave their colors in their garrisons. In Russia and France
the color is carried only by one battalion of each regiment.
[78] See KUNZ, _Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele_, 14, p. 180,
battle of Wörth. A platoon of the Füsilier-Battalion of the 47th
Infantry was sent to the rear with the color, and a squad of the
Füsilier-Battalion of the 46th Infantry finally had six colors
to guard. In the 88th Infantry, out of a total of 48 sections, 9
sections remained in rear as a guard for 2 colors, but finally 6 of
these sections crossed the Sauer.
[79] KUNZ, _Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele_, 13, pp. 77, 152.
The figures given on pages 72 and 73 of the German Infantry Drill
Regulations illustrate formations with organizations at peace strength.
The approximate dimensions of broad and deep columns at war strength
are as follows:
[Illustration]
=Russia.= Numerous formations are prescribed. In addition to route
column, columns with half company front and with company front are
prescribed. Reserve columns are mentioned. These, according to the
number of companies on the same line, are called single platoon
column (deep column), two platoon column (double column), or four
platoon column.
=Austria.= _The mass_, in which the companies of the battalion are
on the same line, each company in company column[80] with intervals
of three paces between companies, is employed for assembling the
battalion in a restricted space in a position in readiness when out
of range of hostile fire, or for assembling the battalion under
cover. The _line of columns_, in which the companies, each in column
or some other suitable formation, are formed abreast of each other at
deploying intervals plus three paces, is also used.
[80] In the Austrian company column (_Kompagniekolonne_), the
platoons, each in line, are formed one in rear of the other. This
formation was formerly called company column (_Kompagniekolonne_)
by the Germans also, but at present they designate it by the term
“column of platoons” (_Zugkolonne_). _Translator._
_The line._ In this formation the companies, each in line, are placed
abreast of each other at intervals of three paces.
_The column._ In this formation the companies are placed in rear of
each other, each either in line or in column, with distances of nine
paces between companies. The companies are numbered 1st, 2nd, 3rd,
4th, etc., from head to rear, if in column, and from right to left,
if in line.
=Italy.= The formations are like those of Austria, but the double
column has been retained.
=Japan.= The only formations prescribed are the broad and deep column.
=France.= The companies are formed in column or in _ligne de sections
par quatre_, intervals and distances being 10 paces. Distances and
intervals may be increased when required. The _battalion in line_ in
which the companies are formed in line in numerical order, abreast of
each other at intervals of six paces, is only retained as a parade
formation.
_Line of company columns_ (_ligne de colonnes_). Companies abreast
with intervals of six paces.
_Deep column_ (_colonne de bataillon_). The companies in normal
formation in rear of each other at distances of 10 paces.
_Double column_ (_colonne double_). Intervals and distances 10 paces.
The formation in which the companies are abreast of each other, each
in column of fours at deploying intervals, is employed in marching
across country and also under artillery fire. Only the regiment
carries a color, the battalion a guidon (_fanion_).
[Illustration: =Deep Column=
(_colonne de bataillon_).
The companies in line of platoons in column of fours (_ligne de
sections par quatre_).]
[Illustration: =Double Column=
(_colonne double_).]
[Illustration: =Deep Column=
(_colonne de bataillon_).]
[Illustration: =Line of Company Columns=
(_ligne de colonnes_).]
[Illustration: =Double Column=
(_colonne double_).
The companies in line of platoons in column of fours (_ligne de
sections par quatre_).]
=England.= Columns are formed, in view of the (8) weak companies in
a battalion, with company or half-company front at full or reduced
distances (_quarter column_). In actions with savages echelon
formations and the square are also employed.
=Switzerland.= The company is divided into four platoons. The line is
used as an assembly formation and for purposes of parade. The company
column, corresponding to the German formation of the same name, is
used for movements on the battlefield. In both line and company
column the platoons are posted abreast, at intervals of three paces.
Finally the route column is used. This is formed either by wheeling
by squads, or by platoons executing column right (left). On the
battlefield the platoon may be deployed and formed in several lines.
In the battalion, company columns in line of columns, or route
columns in the battalion column, are posted abreast at intervals of
10 paces. Line and double column are abolished.
Opinions are divided as to the value of the double column. Formerly,
when the double column was still the column of attack from which
deployment for fire action had to be made, a discussion of its merits
was of special importance. While Austria abandoned the double column
formation in 1881 and Germany in 1905, Switzerland replaced it by a
column having a front of two platoons (_Plotonkolonne_), and Russia
readopted it again recently. All other states utilize it as of equal
value with the deep column in making movements beyond range of
artillery fire and as an assembly formation in addition to the deep
column. The change from double column to any company column formation
is easier than a like change from the Swiss “Ploton column” (double
column of platoons), which has the same front, since in the double
column two companies can be deployed at the same time toward both
flanks.
The deep column appears to be better adapted for making movements and
for advancing under cover, and, on account of its narrow front, a force
in this formation is better able to adapt itself to the forms of the
ground in hilly or close country than a body of troops in double column
of twice the width of front.
The Battalion in Route Column.
(Par. 316 German F. S. R.).
The companies are formed in route column and follow each other at
distances of 8 m. Mounted officers, musicians,[81] led horses and
vehicles are to be included in actual depths of columns given and not
in the distances. A permanent extension of distances for the purpose of
restricting checks of the march to a single organization is as little
permissible as the permanent elimination or reduction of distances;
distances may be dispensed with temporarily only. The reduction of the
depth of a column, obtained by eliminating distances between elements
entirely, is so small that the rapidity of deployment gained does not,
by any means, compensate for the increased exertion of the troops.[82]
[81] A trumpeter marches in rear of the battalion for the purpose
of blowing “Give way,” when necessary to open one side of the road.
At this signal all the troops close in toward the flank of the guide.
[82] The depth of a brigade of six battalions on the march is
about 2500 m. By eliminating distances between elements a space of
only 100 m. is gained, while by marching in a front of six files,
approximately 750 m. is gained. The march of the 10th Infantry
Division from Weiszenburg to Preuschdorf, on August 5th, 1870, proved
exceedingly fatiguing. The distances between organizations had been
eliminated pursuant to orders. “Some of the rearmost elements had to
double time uphill to keep up whenever the head of the column went
down hill. Great fatigue and many cases of overexertion were the
result.” _Geschichte des Regiments Nr. 37_, p. 124.
During the march the company commander goes wherever his presence may
be necessary for the proper supervision of his company. Neither are
platoon commanders tied to a fixed place; one officer is, however,
required to march in rear of the company. The company ammunition
wagons follow in rear of their respective companies, or, assembled, in
rear of the battalion. In marches in campaign the field train marches
separately.
The depth of the battalion on the march, without field train, is 400
m., and the depth of the field train is 100 m.
=Austria.= Column of fours. Depth of a battalion on the march,
including combat train, 670 paces (502 m.). The distance between
companies is nine paces (6.7 m.).
=France.= The distance between companies is 10 paces (7.5 m.). The
depth of each rank is reckoned at 1.40 m. on the march (in Germany
1.10 m.), and that of every 100 men at 50 m. Depth of a battalion,
including combat train, on the march is 450 m.
=Russia.= The distance between companies is 10 paces (7.1 m.). The
battalion without combat train has a depth of 350 paces (249 m.). The
combat train follows in rear of the regiment.
A German regiment of four battalions with combat train has a depth of
1,650 m. on the march; a Russian regiment, a depth of 1,725 paces (@
71 cm.)=1,215 m. (elongation on the march not considered).
=Italy.= The distance between companies is 10 paces (7.5 m.). The
battalion has a depth of 422 m. on the march.
8. THE REGIMENT AND THE BRIGADE.
For a discussion of the importance of the regiment and of the brigade
see page 37 _supra_. All movements must be executed in an orderly
manner by regiment and brigade, in any formation, without breaking up
tactical units, and the entity of the whole body must be preserved at
the same time by a skillful use of the terrain. If necessary, a base
battalion may be designated.
When regiments or brigades are assembled, the formation, disposition,
intervals and distances of the tactical units depend upon the terrain
and the intentions of the commander. Frequently the tactical units
(battalions and regiments) are assembled in separate groups.
When considerations of the enemy and the terrain do not dictate
otherwise, the battalions, each, as a rule, in deep column, are
posted in one or more lines, at 30-pace intervals and distances,
rear battalions covering those in front or the gaps between them. An
appropriate formation will frequently be that in which route columns
are placed abreast and on the same line.
In the brigade, when assembled or deployed, the regiments may be placed
abreast of each other, on the same line, or in rear of each other,
_i.e._, in line or in echelon. When the regiments are formed side by
side, two adjacent independent sections are created, each commanded
by a regimental commander; this insures better supervision, better
control, and a more energetic conduct of the action, since the first
line can be reinforced by troops belonging to the same organization.
This formation, moreover, facilitates tactical combinations. It may,
however, be a disadvantage that the first line is not subject to the
orders of a single commander; that it is difficult to employ the
reserve battalions in one body; and that the brigade commander can
influence the action only by withdrawing units from the regiments for
the purpose of forming a reserve.[83] The echelon formation, each
echelon consisting of a regiment, is frequently used in rencontres,
because troops are thrown into action directly from route column.
The regimental commanders then become leaders of echelons, the first
line cannot be reinforced by its own troops, and the organizations of
different regiments finally become mixed. The echelon formation is
proper only when the second line is intended to be used independently
abreast of the first in the course of the action; for example, on a
flank, for the purpose of making or warding off a flank attack.[84]
When part of a larger force, the most suitable combat formation for
troops is usually the one in which the regiments are formed side by
side.
[83] For historical reference as to the importance of the brigade
in action, see essay published in _Jahrbücher für Armee und Marine_
(August and September numbers 1877) entitled: _Die Infanterie Brigade
in ihrer Entwickelung aus der Brigade von 1812_. In regard to the
employment of regiments in line or in echelon, see Memoir by General
von Moltke on the tactical lessons gained in the campaign of 1866.
MOLTKE, _Taktisch-strategische Aufsätze_, p. 99, et seq.
[84] The fight of François’ Brigade at Spicheren. _Gen. St. W._ I,
p. 310, et seq. The formation, side by side, of the six battalions
of the IIIrd Army Corps in the attack on the hill at Forbach
(Spicheren) would have been inappropriate and would have disrupted
all organizations.
The disadvantages of the echelon formation, when taken up from route
column, can be obviated by deploying the second regiment in rear of a
flank of the first. It should be kept intact in that position until the
decisive moment, although the state of the fight may, at the outset,
invite a more rapid extension of front.
9. EXTENDED ORDER.
Combats are begun and carried out in extended order. The defender can
be induced to disclose his dispositions, to occupy his position, and
to open fire, only by the advance upon him of a skirmish line. The
deployment of a thin firing line will frequently suffice to furnish
the commander of the attacking force with a clue to the strength of
the force holding the hostile position. In close country, skirmishers
are pushed forward primarily to guard against surprise the force which
sends them out, but when thrown forward only a few hundred meters in
open country, such skirmishers are unable to furnish protection. The
strength and density of a firing line (by means of which the fight is
sustained) depend upon marksmanship, upon the purpose of the action,
and upon the terrain. The poorer the marksmanship or the weapon, or
the more unfavorable the field of fire, the greater the number of
skirmishers needed (_i.e._, the denser the firing line).[85] If the
enemy is merely to be kept at a distance, less skirmishers (_i.e._,
a thinner firing line furnished with plenty of ammunition) will be
required, than if the action is to be carried to a decisive conclusion.
[85] The Boers with their superior weapons and better marksmanship,
and further because they never cared to become involved in a fight at
close quarters, found thin firing lines sufficient.
Cohesion and order are best maintained, and the least time is lost in
action, if efficient, dense firing lines are led forward as units up to
the moment of opening fire. (Pars. 169, 321, 334 and 413 German I. D.
R.). But on open terrain such dense firing lines would begin to suffer
too great a loss at ranges at which they could not reply to the fire.
Nothing remains then but to cover the available front with a very thin
firing line, followed at irregular distances by thin skirmish lines
which ploy for the purpose of utilizing cover or for opening fire.
Skirmish lines of this description will hardly justify the opponent’s
expenditure of ammunition, as he can only cover broad spaces with
volley fire. On the other hand, these skirmish lines are in themselves
too weak to facilitate the approach of the following echelons by their
fire. Besides, it must not be overlooked that the soldier, separated by
a considerable interval from his comrades in line during the advance,
and withdrawn from the influence of his officers, succumbs more easily
to temporary spells of weakness and is more apt to remain behind
than the skirmisher in a dense firing line. The advance in several
successive, thin skirmish lines is therefore only an expedient. In each
case the leaders will have to decide whether, in view of the close
proximity of the enemy, a united advance with dense, powerful skirmish
lines is possible or advisable (for instance, when entering at once
upon the decisive stage of the action). Before opening fire the firing
lines must be sufficiently reinforced. (Par. 334 German I. D. R.).
This advance in thin skirmish lines stood the test both in the Boer war
and in the Russo-Japanese war,[86] but we must not forget that thin
skirmish lines are only maneuver formations in an attack that is to be
pushed home, and that the mistake made by the British of attempting to
make an attack with such weak skirmish lines should not be imitated.
The Japanese also used this formation after they had once opened fire
with a dense skirmish line.[87]
[86] Four battalions of the 6th Division advanced at Paardeberg on
February 18th, 1900, on a front of 2000 m. with 800-1000 rifles, in
two lines of equal strength and separated by a distance of 300 m.,
the remainder following at 400 m. Three battalions of the Highland
Brigade even advanced on a front of 4000 m. See my lecture: _Lehren
des Burenkrieges_. _Kriegsgeschichtliche Einzelschriften_, 33, pp. 43
and 67.