bodies, so long as they have sufficient numerical strength. They are
placed side by side and constitute the company in line. In Germany
and Russia the company is at each formation divided into platoons of
approximately equal strength. In the armies of Austria, France, and
Italy, it is contended that the soldier has nothing further to learn
when once he is taken up for duty in the company. All movements are
executed, after preparatory commands given by the company commanders,
by commands of execution or signals given by platoon commanders. The
execution of movements is retarded by this procedure and the movement
itself becomes clumsy. It would also seem that the multiplicity of
commands in the simple, oft-repeated movements, is superfluous,
especially in the weak platoons at peace strength.
[Illustration: France.]
Column of platoons from line (par. 121 German I. D. R.: “Form column
of platoons”) is formed in Austria as follows (Austrian I. D. R. par.
360): At the preparatory command, “Column,” given by the company
commander, the leaders of the 1st, 3rd, and 4th platoons command
at once, as in forming column of fours to the front, “Fours right
(left), column right (left).” At the command “march,” the platoons
step off, each turning in column to the rear, and are conducted to
their new positions, halted, and dressed to the right (left).
The companies of all powers, those of Germany, Japan, and Belgium
excepted, are divided into four platoons; each two platoons may in
addition be combined into a half-company. The German, Japanese, and
Belgian companies are divided into three platoons. “The platoon is not
an independent subdivision by reason of the mere fact that it consists
of a certain number of men, but because the term platoon denotes a
force led by a man of superior intelligence. The officer commanding
the platoon makes it what it should be. The strength of the platoon is
therefore solely dependent upon the number of officers available.” (VON
SCHERFF).
The obvious advantage of the three-platoon organization of the company
is that fewer platoon commanders are required, which fact is well
worthy of attention in the mobilization of units of both Line and
Reserve, especially in view of the extraordinarily heavy casualties
among the troop leaders in the course of a campaign.[66]
[66] See also _Taktik_, V, pp. 81, 88.
It is only necessary to recall the situation of the Guard Corps and
of the IIIrd Army Corps after the battles around =Metz=, and the
condition of the German troops during the advance to =Le Mans=. On
January 7th, 1871, there were 36 officers with the 57th Infantry, of
which 16 led platoons of the 36 platoons in the first line, and 8
lieutenants commanded companies. On mobilizing, 25 lieutenants were
assigned as platoon commanders and six as company commanders in the
57th Infantry.[67]
[67] HÖNIG, _Gefechtsbilder_, I, p. 25. For additional facts in
regard to the dwindling of the number of officers consult _Die
sieben Tage von Le Mans_, by V. D. GOLTZ; also _Supplement to
Militär-Wochenblatt_, 1873, p. 368; also VON KORTZFLEISCH, _Feldzug
an der Loire_, p. 43.
The eight infantry regiments and the Jäger-Battalion of the Xth Army
Corps had, at this time, instead of the required 506 officers, only
286, of which number 174 were for duty. The 22nd Infantry Division
had only 108 officers left; companies and even half-battalions were
led into action by very young officers of the Reserve, and, on many
occasions, even by vice 1st sergeants.
On the morning of August 17th, 1870, the 40th Füsilier Regiment
had two field officers and four captains present for duty. Two
captains, two first lieutenants and eight second lieutenants
(four of these belonging to the Reserve), led companies; only two
lieutenants of the Reserve, one cadet, and four vice 1st sergeants
remained available for duty as platoon commanders. The regiment
participated in the battle of =Gravelotte= with this small number
of officers.[68] The 6th Grenadier Regiment, which, in July, 1870,
had marched out with four field officers, seven captains, six first,
14 second lieutenants, and four cadets, all on the active list,
lost so many officers at =Wörth= and =Sedan= that a field officer
of the 46th Infantry had to take command of the regiment; three
first lieutenants of battalions; and four second lieutenants, two
officers of the Reserve, and six vice 1st sergeants of the companies.
The 12 companies had available five vice 1st sergeants as platoon
commanders. The 1st Battalion of the 58th Infantry had only seven
officers left (including its commander and the adjutant) after its
losses at =Weiszenburg=.[69]
[68] KUNZ, _Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele_, 8/9, p. 162.
[69] _Geschichte des Regiments Nr. 58_, p. 56.
The 7th Grenadier Regiment lost 40 officers at =Weiszenburg= and
=Wörth=. On August 7th, three captains commanded the battalions and
three officers of the 5th Jäger-Battalion were detailed to command
companies in it.[70] At =Gravelotte= the Füsilier-Battalion of the
1st, the Ist Battalion of the 2nd, and the IInd Battalion of the
3rd Regiment of the Guard lost all of their officers. The French
organizations, having more officers and less men than we, were by no
means so badly off in 1870-71. Upon mobilizing in 1870, the German
army had 13.7 officers to every 1,000 men, the French army, 32.2
officers.
[70] KUNZ, _Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele_, 14, p. 122.
On the other hand, it should be remembered that in armies consisting
of militia it is considerably more difficult to command a platoon of
60-70 men than to command one of 40-50 men. A disadvantage inseparably
connected with the four-platoon company is the small size of the
platoons during peace exercises. On account of this circumstance most
regulations permit the three-platoon formation when the company is
small, because platoons consisting of less than ten files are of no
instructional value. An advantage of the three-platoon company is
the simplicity and rapidity with which changes from one formation to
another may be effected.
The three-unit column of platoons is very broad for movements on the
battlefield. It offers, when numbering 200 rifles, a target about
25 m. wide and only 15 m. deep. The four-unit column of platoons is
better suited for movements. With a front of 17 m., its depth is only
15 m., when the distances between platoons are assumed to be 6 paces
(Austria, France, Italy, Russia, 5 paces). (See p. 62).
For a company consisting of 200 rifles, the following would be the
forms:
[Illustration]
The other advantages praised by advocates of the four-unit company are:
1. That a smaller platoon is more suitable for field service--that a
picket is perhaps only in the rarest cases to be made 60 men strong.
2. That a small platoon makes a better and more comprehensive
employment of the company in action possible, as the company commander
has an opportunity to use ¹⁄₄, ¹⁄₂, or ³⁄₄ of his company according to
the requirements of the situation, while the three-unit company affords
less favorable combinations, permitting only an employment of ¹⁄₃ or
²⁄₃ of its strength.
These advantages can also be obtained in the German company by the
employment of sections (¹⁄₆, ¹⁄₃, ¹⁄₂, ²⁄₃, ⁵⁄₆) so that the objections
to the three-unit company would appear to be groundless.
The platoons (in Italy called _plotone_, in France, _section_) are
subdivided into sections (_demi-sections_, _Halbzüge_), in Austria
into two skirmish groups (_Schwärme_) of 4-7 files each, and, when
consisting of 16 files, into four skirmish groups (in Italy this is
also done, the groups being called _squadriglio_). In Germany the
platoons are divided into groups or squads of four files each, and
in Russia the platoons are divided into sections of 8-15 files each
and these again into groups or squads of 4-6 men each. If the squad
is to have any importance at all in action, it must have a leader,
and it might easily happen that a mobilized company lacks the number
of leaders necessary to provide one for each group. The withdrawal
from the line of a number of good shots for duty as squad leaders is
compensated for, in our opinion, by the more thorough supervision over
the men. This consideration has, however, apparently caused other
states (Austria and France) not to count on the activity of the squad
leaders in a fire action to the same extent as is the case in Germany.
4. LENGTH OF PACE AND MARCHING.
An extended, swinging step, without haste and without unduly taxing
the lungs, is advantageous in all movements. When accustomed to this
pace on the drill ground, the men will march with practically the
same step on varied ground, and this appears more desirable than to
shorten the step, while at the same time increasing the distance to be
covered in a given time. The length of the pace depends largely upon
the height of the individual, but even small men can maintain a step
of 0.80 m. without undue exertion.[71] In Switzerland the cadence has
been fixed at 116-120 steps per minute “with a view of suiting the
peculiarities and the varying degree of mobility which characterize
the inhabitants of the different cantons.”(!) For purely practical
reasons it is advisable to fix upon some even number of paces in order
that the cadence may be tested with the watch. (Austria excepted). The
longest pace in conjunction with the highest cadence (_Bersaglieri_,
whose march is almost a double time, excepted) is found in England
and Switzerland. Such a performance could not be kept up by a fully
equipped man without impairing health.
[71] When the leg is extended at an angle of 57 degrees the length
of pace would be as follows:
Height of man. Length of leg. Length of foot. Length of pace.
1.6 m. 0.8 m. 0.24 m. = 0.75 m.
1.675 „ 0.857 „ 0.253 „ = 0.776 „
1.70 „ 0.87 „ 0.26 „ = 0.80 „
1.75 „ 0.88 „ 0.26 „ = 0.82 „
===========+====================++====================++
| QUICK TIME. || ACCELERATED TIME. ||
+------+-------------++------+-------------++
| | PER MINUTE. || | PER MINUTE. ||
| +------+------++ +------+------++
|Length|Number| ||Length|Number| ||
| of | of | || of | of | ||
| pace.|paces.| || pace.|paces.| ||
| m. | | m. || m. | | m. ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
Germany | 0.80 | 114 | 91.2 || 0.80 | 120 | 96.00||
| | | || | | ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
Austria | 0.75 | 115 | 86.25|| 0.75 | 125 | 93.75||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
Italy, Line| | | || | | ||
and Alpini | 0.75 | 120 | 90.00|| ... | ... | ... ||
Bersaglieri| 0.86 | 140 |120. || ... | ... | ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
France | 0.75 | 120 | 90.00|| 0.80 | 124 | 99.00||
| | | || | | ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
| 0.71 | 118 | 84- || 0.71 | | ||
Russia | | | || | 122 |119. ||
| 0.89 | 122 |109 || 0.89 | | ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
Japan | 0.75 | 114 | 85.5 || ... | ... | ... ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
England | 0.84 | 128 |107.5 || 0.91 | 128 |116.5 ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
| | 116- | 92.8-|| | 120- | 96- ||
Switzerland| 0.80 | | || 0.80 | | ||
| | 120 | 96.00|| | 140 |112 ||
===========+======+======+======++======+======+======++
===========++=====================
|| DOUBLE TIME.
++--------+------------
|| | PER MINUTE.
|| +------+-----
|| Length |Number|
|| of | of |
|| pace. |paces.|
|| m. | | m.
-----------++--------+------+-----
Germany ||0.75- | 170- |127-
||0.90 | 180 |162
-----------++--------+------+-----
Austria ||0.90 | 160 |144
-----------++--------+------+-----
Italy, Line|| | |
and Alpini ||0.90 | 170 |153
Bersaglieri||1.00 | 180 |180
-----------++--------+------+-----
France ||0.30[72]| 180 |136
|| | |
-----------++--------+------+-----
|| | 170- |181-
Russia ||1.066 | |
|| | 181 |192
-----------++--------+------+-----
Japan ||0.85 | 170 |144
-----------++--------+------+-----
England ||1.02 | 180 |183.6
-----------++--------+------+-----
|| | |
Switzerland||0.90 | 160 |144
|| | |
===========++========+======+=====
[72] The following, taken from _La marche du fantassin_ (_Journal
des sciences militaires, 1897_), is here inserted for comparison.
_French Drill Reg. of 1791_ (in force until 1862):
_Pas ordinaire_ 100 paces at 0.65 m. = 65 m. per minute
_Frederick The Great’s
Infantry_ 75 „ „ 0.70 m. = 52 m. „ „
_Prussian Drill Reg. of 1812_:
_Ordinary pace_ 75 „ „ 0.70 m. = 52 m. „ „
_Accelerated pace_ 108 „ „ 0.70 m. = 75.6 m. „ „
In general, double time is considered of little value. In Austria
double time is to be maintained for periods of two minutes, quick
time of five minutes duration alternating, up to sixteen minutes,
_i.e._, until a distance of 1,726 m. has been covered. In Germany,
an alternating quick and double time march in heavy marching order
is prescribed. A different practice prevails in Italy. According
to the Italian Regulations all troops are to be trained to march
in double time without rest and without knapsacks for 2 kilometers
(with knapsacks, 1 km.); _Bersaglieri_ without knapsacks, 3 km. (with
knapsacks, 1¹⁄₂ km.), also without rest (_i.e._, 13 and 16.8 minutes
respectively). When we consider that in double time with the necessary
alternating step, 2,000 m. can be covered in 17 minutes, and in
accelerated step, in 19-20 minutes, the time gained is unimportant when
compared to the fatigue of the men and the exertion of the lungs, which
interferes with deliberate, accurate firing. During an Austrian firing
test the number of hits fell from 76.5%, attained while advancing in
quick time, to 51% after a period of double time.
The run, without keeping step (_Marsch! Marsch!_) is employed in
rapidly crossing short, fire-swept spaces, in changing quickly from one
formation to another, and in the charge.
5. MOVEMENTS OF THE COMPANY IN LINE.
The commander of the center platoon is the guide.
A change of direction is effected by inclining toward the new direction
(at the command: “Half right, march!” when the angular change of
direction is less than 45 degrees), by indicating a new point to march
on, or by executing a turn.
6. THE COLUMNS OF THE COMPANY; MOVEMENTS IN COLUMN; FORMATION OF LINE.
Column of Twos.[73]
[73] _Reihenkolonne._
Column of twos is formed by facing in the indicated direction. Marching
at attention the depth of an organization in column of twos is equal
to its front when in line. The column of twos is used in marching by
the flank for short distances only, as the march at attention in this
formation unduly fatigues the men. In addition, this formation may be
used, in exceptional cases, on narrow roads; but the column becomes
considerably elongated (as much as 165%), when marching at route step.
Line is formed from column of twos either by facing, or by executing
front into line.
Column of Squads.
This is an open column formed (the company being in line at a halt or
in motion) by each squad executing a turn of 90 degrees. It may also
be formed from line at a halt by the squad on the designated flank
moving straight to the front, the others executing a turn of 90 degrees
toward the proper flank, then following the leading squad.[74] Column
of squads may also be formed by executing “Squads right (left), column
right (left).” Line is formed by each squad executing a turn of 90
degrees or by executing front into line (without regard to the original
front).
[74] “Right forward, fours right.” _Translator._
[Illustration: Column of Squads.]
[Illustration: Route Column.]
Route column is formed from column of squads by the squads in each
section closing to facing distance, the file closers, musicians,
and hospital corps men forming ranks of four men, in the gaps thus
created. (Par. 91 German I. D. R.) With the exception of Russia, which
employs a section column, of Switzerland, which uses a column of
squads, and of France, which has adopted a wheel by fours like that of
the cavalry, all other armies employ the _column of fours_[75] as their
march formation.
[75] _Doppelreihenkolonne_.
Column of fours is, as a rule, formed as follows:
The even numbered men place themselves on the right or left of the odd
numbered men by making an appropriate turn, thus forming a column of
fours whose length is equal to the front of the company in line. In the
plate below let the Roman numerals represent front rank men, the Arabic
numerals rear rank men, and the horizontal line the original front
occupied; column of fours will then be formed to the right, in the
different states, as shown:
[Illustration: Austria.
Russia, England, Belgium, Sweden, and Japan.
Italy. Netherlands.]
For the purpose of increasing the front of the column, the double
column of squads, having a width of 8 files, may be employed. This
is formed in practice by placing the columns of two organizations
(companies or battalions) side by side. In large bodies of troops,
the depth of a column is reduced in this manner by one-half. A column
of fours formed by closing on the center instead of by wheeling to a
flank, is employed in Italy and Russia for the purpose of reducing the
front of an organization.
Comparison of Column of Fours with Column of Squads.
The column of fours has the advantage over our column of squads in that
it can be more quickly and easily formed; that the front rank men must
make a turn, while, at the same time, observing the march direction,
can scarcely be considered a disadvantage.
The column of fours and the column of squads have the same depth. The
Austrians consider movements made in column of fours on the battlefield
more clumsy and fatiguing than when made in column of squads, because
checks are transmitted to the whole column of fours owing to its
rigidity, while in column of squads the march is easier, more rapid
and more orderly. The squad organization, moreover, facilitates the
employment of small parties in the service of security and increases
the importance of the squad leader in fire action. For the last named
reason we should not like to dispense with the column of squads.
The Employment of the Column of Squads.
The route column is suitable for movements under frontal artillery
fire, as the cone of dispersion of bursting time shrapnel combines
small lateral spread with great effect in the direction of depth,
and as it is very difficult for the opponent to observe whether a
shot falls short or goes over, unless it strikes just in front of the
column. When artillery can bring a flanking fire to bear on the column
it becomes necessary to neutralize this by placing the platoons side
by side so as not to present an easily observed target to the enemy.
Movements by the flank and changes of front are easily made in column
of squads, and after some practice the deployment into line of
skirmishers from this formation offers no difficulties. This column
is best adapted for movements over varied ground. In column of squads
difficult terrain can be crossed and advantage can be taken of the
most insignificant cover. In addition, it is difficult for an enemy
to observe a force moving in column of squads along the edge of woods
and rows of trees, and such a column entails the least expenditure of
energy on the part of the men. The leaders must insist, however, that
the men cover in file, and that elongation of the column does not take
place. The column of squads or the route column is therefore to be
employed on the battlefield as long as possible.
A column of squads or route column may be shortened by placing the
platoons, each in column of twos or squads, side by side. By this means
the =Company Column= (_Kompagniekolonne_) is formed.
[Illustration]
The normal interval between platoons in this formation, measured from
the leading guide of one platoon to the leading guide of the next in
line, is nine paces. This interval may be increased as required by the
nature of the ground and the intended deployment for action (deployment
on a broader front). Movements in company column are facilitated by
the fact that platoon commanders are posted four paces in front of
the center of their respective platoons. The leading squad follows
the platoon leader, the guide of that squad moving directly in that
officer’s tracks. Thus, small, unimportant deviations, unavoidable on
varied ground, can easily be adjusted, while too definite rules would
tend to restrict the mobility of the platoon commanders in front of
their platoons. The principal thing is that the platoon follow its
leader who guides it without command.
The musicians distribute themselves in rear of the platoons in
readiness for their subsequent duty in action--that of maintaining
communication between the several parts of the company. The intervals
of nine paces between platoons are not rigid, but rather the reverse.
The flexibility of the formation considerably facilitates movements in
difficult country. This “meandering” of the company over the terrain
requires special training. The old, historic company column, in which
the platoons were formed in line one in rear of the other at a distance
of nine paces (Russia 5 paces = 3.55 m., Austria, Italy, France, 6
paces = 4.50 m., and Japan, 8 paces = 6 m.), their commanders on their
respective right flanks, is now called the
Column of Platoons.
Austria, France, and Italy have retained the old designation.
The front of the column of platoons may be decreased by forming column
of sections. The column of sections is suitable as a route formation on
broad roads; the transition from column of sections to column of squads
is not difficult, and for the purpose of passing through occasional
narrow stretches of road, the files on the flanks may be removed. In
most cases it is, however, more desirable to place several columns
abreast than to employ column of sections, because deployment is
facilitated in the former case.
Company in Column of Platoons.
[Illustration: Germany.]
[Illustration: Russia.]
=Russia.= The four squad leaders of each platoon are posted on the
flanks of the rear rank and in the center of each rank. The ranking
non-commissioned officer of each platoon stands on the left flank of
the front rank of his platoon. The 1st sergeant, the guidon bearer,
and one trumpeter, and behind them two drummers, are posted in rear
of the company.
[Illustration: Austria.]
The staves of the guidon flags (_Jalonneurflaggen_) are inserted into
the rifle barrel of a soldier (in case of a battalion into the rifle
barrel of a N. C. O.) and serve to indicate battalions and companies.
According to the color scheme used in Russia: red = 1, blue = 2,
white = 3, green = 4. “R” indicates the number of the regiment in
the division, “B” the number of battalion, and “K” the number of the
company. A red flag is carried by the 1st Company, and a red flag
with one green horizontal and one blue vertical stripe is carried by
the 8th Company of the 1st Regiment of an infantry division. In Japan
and England so-called storm-flags (small national flags) have been
adopted to facilitate mutual recognition of friendly troops.
[Illustration]
Posts of Platoon Commanders.
In Switzerland, in Russia, and in Germany, the post of platoon
commanders is on the flanks of their respective platoons when the
company is in column of platoons. In England and Austria platoon
commanders are posted in rear of their platoons, with the exception of
the commander of the leading platoon, who is posted beside his guide.
In all other states platoon commanders are posted in front of their
platoons. Officers are posted in front of their platoons so as to
facilitate observation on their part, and so that their platoons can
follow them. This position becomes a necessity when the regulations
require that all movements of the company be executed at commands given
by platoon commanders. When they are posted in front of their platoons,
they cannot supervise their men unless they turn around to do so.