"no"; she had even some slight acquaintance with the numbers and
counting. The bridge leading from man to animal had been started, and
the first difficulties embarked on. The further I pursued these studies
with Lola, the keener became my curiosity to know whether I should be
equal to the task of tackling this work where an animal in its primeval
state was concerned, thus driving in the first props of this bridge
myself! I tried my 'prentice hand in this work on Geri, the beautiful
German sheep-dog, who had come into my possession in 1914. This
dog--owing to excess of breeding, and also, perhaps, to the impressions
imbibed in his youth was unusually shy and melancholy--he lacked all
natural energy to "cut a figure" in any way; he had learnt to say "yes"
and "no," and I feel sure that he understood me very well, but his
nervousness and his constant fear held him back from rapping out
anything beyond his _yes_ and _no_ answers. (At a later date I was
obliged to give him away, owing to the scarcity of food.) Lola's
progeny, therefore, seemed to offer more promising material for fresh
ventures, but all--excepting the little lady-dog--Ulse--had been
dispersed, going to their several new owners, before the winter days
immediately after Christmas brought me sufficient leisure for further
study, and as I had to give part of this time to Lola, as well as to
the writing of this book, I had but a small margin left to expend on
the little newcomer. Nor can I say, to tell the truth, that my interest
in her was very great; she had already been promised to someone, and
the fact of her still being with me was due to the difficulties of
travel in these abnormal times. But, finally, sheer pity for the small
creature--sitting alone in the stable--led me to bring her in for a few
hours at a time so as to play about with me and Lola. One day it so
happened that I had sent Lola off, and, being alone with Ulse, (mostly
accustomed to intercourse with the maids) I attempted to teach her to
understand: "Sit down!" To do this I pressed the little creature down
on her haunches, saying, "_Sit down!_" And after I had repeated this
three times she understood quite well what I meant, sitting down
obediently at my slightest touch, and looking at me inquiringly out of
her little bright eyes. I repeated this again the next day, and also
touched her paw, saying: "_paw!_" Then I took the small paw in my hand
and said: "Give a paw!" and in a few days this, too, had been learnt. I
next taught her which was her right paw--and she very soon knew the
difference. Indeed, Ulse seemed to think it all great fun, and was
hugely delighted at the little rewards she earned. My interest, too,
had now been aroused, and I repeated the numerals to her from 1 up to
5, and got her to understand "look here!" and "attention!" Though she
was on the whole more fidgety than Lola had been, yet would she
sometimes sit quite still, intent on watching my hand, but the least
movement in the room would start her little head off twisting to and
fro to every side. One day I took her paw, saying: "Now you must learn
to rap! And placing the little pad on the palm of my hand, I first
counted two with it, and then continued up to 5; then I held my hand
out to her and said: "Ulse, rap 2!" and she actually did! I was
delighted. I should add that before Ulse had learnt to "give a paw,"
she had already, of herself, shown inclinations to "rap," for she would
hold up her paw--gesticulating with it in the air! These vague
"pawings," moreover, were distinctly the movements of _rapping_,
although she, of course, did not know their meaning at the time. And so
the ground was laid for further work, during the short time I had to
spare for her--as well as the limited period she was yet to remain with
me.
There can be no doubt but that heredity plays a great rôle in these
cases; her quick responsiveness bore witness to this, while, in
addition, Lola evidently regarded her as the "flower of her flock," for
she had always singled Ulse out for special attentions, generally
retiring with her alone to a distant part of the barn. The question is
whether Lola may not have given her some instruction, for, to some
remark of mine, she had once replied: "Teaching Ulse!" Yet, for my
part, I feel doubtful whether animals do transmit to others of their
kind the things taught them by human beings. However, this may be, Ulse
seemed predestined, so to speak, to learn to count and spell, mastering
the numbers up to _five_ in a fabulously short time. Moreover, she
_rapped_ better than Lola, or, rather, quite as well as Lola had
done when in her very best days, raising her small paw high, and then
bringing it down on my hand with a decided, though rather slow, beat.
Ulse was also soon able to signify "yes" by two raps, and "no" by
three, but I had to keep my questions within a very narrow limit, for
her intercourse was of too short a duration to enable her to acquire a
lengthy or varied vocabulary. Still, we practised 2 × 1, 2 × 2, 3 × 2,
and her answers were always excellent, as long as nothing else was
going on to excite or distract her.
The amusing thing was that she loved doing it so that the little paw
would be up in mid-air as soon as ever she saw me, as much as to show
that she was quite ready for work. This was doubtless due to the very
quiet existence she had led before coming indoors, and also perhaps to
the little favours and tit-bits she had learnt to associate with her
new accomplishments. Indeed, until these had blossomed out, her innate
cleverness and brightness had gone almost unnoticed.
When I had assured myself that she fully comprehended the rapping, I
endeavoured to teach her to rap on a board, instead of on my hand, a
thing I had never been able to get Lola to agree to. Indeed, I had had
to relinquish any hope of it, in the case of the older dog; whether it
was that the scratching of her toe-nails on the board irritated her or
what, I do not know, but it practically stopped her working. My only
reason for trying to introduce this method at all had been to put an
end to the suggestions sometimes put forward by sceptical persons that
I might be "helping her with my hand!" Anyway, the ease with which Ulse
took to rapping on the board, and the excellent work she did by that
method should have proved a sufficient reply to all doubters, and I had
been full of hope that her gifts would, in time, have been further
developed by her new mistress, yet it was to be otherwise. Ulse was to
have gone to her new home in Meran (in the Tyrol), but the regulations
as to travel obtaining during war-time prohibited this, so I placed her
under the temporary charge of a young lady, and while there she
unfortunately died of mange.
LAST WORDS
Everything that I have so far experienced or even heard of concerning
dogs, I have attempted to set down here, and to do so has taken some
fourteen months of close work. I have further added certain
observations dating from an earlier period. It is my full intention to
continue this work of experimentation, and should be glad if I might
hope that what I have communicated in these pages may raise a desire on
the part of some of my readers to embark on similar work in reference
to other animals; for, in so difficult a field of discovery it can only
be after much independent spadework has been done that the "complete
form" we are groping after will be laid bare. Up to the present it may
be thought that little of really practical value has been proved, and
to some this may suggest that the work is therefore superfluous. But,
do we study astronomy for mere _practical_ reasons? Does the seeker in
this field of science imagine that he is going to derive _practical_
results for us, _in the immediate future_, from his study of the
heavens? It is for purely _ideal_ reasons--and in order to give seeking
humanity that which is indeed theirs, that we humans send forth our
thoughts, exploring every region of the world--be this "of use" or not!
And in thus probing the depths of our own subject do we not come up
against those weightier questions which are of Cosmic importance? Does
not Nature here fix man's eye with her own gaze--granting him new
riches? For rich, indeed, is this gift that proves to him that not he
alone is dowered with a soul[25]--nor dwelling in a world destitute
of thought, nay--that his companion-beings along life's highway are
well able to respond to and comprehend all his labour, his love, and
his care for them. And above all, should it teach him to more clearly
apprehend them--doing so in the spirit of a know-er and with a kindly
sympathy begotten of that knowledge. For _To Know_--_to Understand_--means
to give to each its rights! And, in this matter, have we to concede so
much to our higher animals? The simplest form of thought contents them;
the childlike adapting itself to animal uses; and, from such "small
beginnings" has not our own primeval soul--the best that is within
us--risen to higher glory, to become a moulder and organizer of
thought--even of creative ideas? Therefore, from all that wealth with
which we are dowered we may well allow this tiny morsel to our animal
friends--they will assuredly infringe no further upon our rights, for,
after all, they are dumb, and cannot even utter the small store of
thoughts they may learn to express; they can only look at us--but, oh!
how well they can do _that_--it needs no more than our eyes to tell us!
And--if we review the entire animal kingdom, are not these _higher
animals_ closely akin to us, both in bodily structure as also in all
that appertains to their functional activities? So near, indeed, do
they approach us in the degree of evolution that for that very reason
it would seem natural to attribute to them some rudiments of
thought--some latent abilities; but the greatest importance of all
would seem to lie in the Cosmic aspect of this question! If it _does_
"fit in" ought we, then, to dismiss it? Is it not the same thing with
all subjects that open up a new point of view? Yet may those for whom
such new investigations present no "disturbing elements"--those for
whom, on the contrary, it chimes with their own desire--extend their
hand and gratefully accept this gift from Nature--repaying her with
reverence and with love. May this new science serve to enrich our ever
increasing knowledge! The work will indeed mean a long struggle against
the conservative elements, and all those accepted rules of procedure;
every weapon will be turned against us, but, be this as it may, time
will in its due course show the truth to be on our side, for ONLY WHAT
IS TRUE SURVIVES.
[25] See the Song of Solomon.
CONCLUSION
_By Professor H. F. Ziegler_
The most important contribution that had been made to the study of
Animal Psychology consists in the new "Alphabet of Raps," which enables
dumb creatures to give reasonable expression to their thoughts, and
provides us at the same time with the means of gaining some insight
into their thinking and feeling. This method owes nothing to scientific
investigators, yet may these gladly acknowledge the great progress thus
indicated, rather than reject it with impatience and distrust. To
proudly decline anything to do with it would indeed be out of place:
rather is it careful study and independent confirmation--a personal
application of this new method--that is here most needed. The inventor
of this "Rapping and Spelling Method" was the late Wilhelm von Osten,
in Berlin, reference to whom has been made in the opening chapter of
this book. But the specialists refused to recognize his labours--they
destroyed his position by their erroneous findings and their
disapprobation--the campaign carried on against von Osten being by no
means free from a spirit of unfairness.[26]
[26] I would here refer the reader to the references I made to
the work issued by Pfungst; they may be found in "The Animal
Soul" (Reports of new observations made with respect to horses
and dogs), 2nd ed. (W. Jung) 1916, p. 38.
It was Karl Krall who took up and continued the work, improving on the
original method and finally making known the most astounding results
which he himself had succeeded in obtaining with his horses. These
accounts may be read in detail in Krall's great book, a work the
publication of which has been of immeasurable importance in the history
of animal psychology.[27] Any reader of unbiased opinion will be bound
to acknowledge the value of this new method, and the remarkable results
achieved in the case of Krall's horses have been equally successfully
applied when working with dogs. Frau Dr. Moekel of Mannheim evolved an
independent rapping method of her own, which admitted of the
possibilities for _counting_. This lady, however, soon became aware
that a similar method had already been invented and applied by Herr von
Osten, and she then enlarged on her own efforts so as to include the
spelling method above mentioned. The feats of her dog Rolf were so
remarkable as to arouse as much surprise in his mistress as in anyone
else present. Frau Dr. Moekel was exceedingly careful to note down
everything that could serve as evidence, and in spite of her long and
serious illness was yet able, by dint of great exertion, to complete
her MS. She died in 1915, and her book, which could not be published
during the war, has only recently become available to the public. It is
gratifying to be able to welcome the appearance of another little book
on the same subject, the one now before us, written by Fräulein Henny
Kindermann; this volume having also suffered postponement, owing to the
war. This lady taught her dog on independent methods of her own,
devoting much loving and conscientious care to the work and, in a
general way, the results have been much the same as those obtained from
Rolf, although, in the matter of detail, there is much that is new;
indeed, many of the observations set down by this investigator raise
questions of fascinating interest. Here, again, the author has been
able to improve on the method as previously applied by others; teaching
the dog to rap tens and units with different paws, as had been done by
Krall's horses, and also introducing a better method of spelling by
teaching the proper value of the consonants.[28] Fräulein Kindermann
further applied her tests systematically in order to solve certain
problems, proving the animal's ability to the full extent in one
particular subject at a time. It is indeed the experience thus gained
which gives to this book its special value, even though all the
problems submitted may not have been fully solved. I would here draw
attention to the fact that the author's dog invariably replies in "High
German," whereas Rolf of Mannheim employs the dialect of the Pfalz--and
the Stuttgart dog, Sepp, expresses his views in Suabian; indeed, each
dog naturally learns the "form of speech" he hears in his own locality.
The results that have come under notice seem at times so extraordinary
that doubts may arise as to the authenticity of what has here been set
down; yet should we be careful not to reject new evidence because it
happens to exceed all we have hitherto known or experienced. For this
is a case of exploring new ground, ingress to which has now become
possible owing to an entirely new method, and none should take upon
themselves to decide in advance what may, or may not be, found possible
within this new domain. Careful examination of all evidence put forward
is desirable, yet can this be undertaken only by such persons as are
themselves in the possession of an intelligent dog, one to which they
can apply the test of similar instruction. It should be needless to say
that the experimenter must abstain from anything in the nature of a
sign given to the animal. It is a far easier matter to train an animal
in _that_ way than to bring out the latent possibilities attaching
to its understanding by training it so as to state its own thoughts.
The proof of the genuineness of such "utterances" on the part of the
dog lies in the fact that it so often gives an entirely different reply
to that which is expected of it--it may even say something that is
quite unknown to the person carrying out the experiment. Many such
examples will be found in this book, as well as in that of Frau Dr.
Moekel, while many more could be furnished by the owners of other
"Spelling Dogs." Indeed, the more reckoning and spelling dogs there are
the sooner will the value of this new method become generally
recognized and the easier will it be to rid the truth of any errors
that may still obscure it. Here in Stuttgart my Lectures delivered on
the subject have so far led to the training of four dogs in counting as
well as spelling, this having been done with best results. In addition
to these, I myself have a dog, "Ava," by name a daughter of Lola, who
is already proficient in both accomplishments. There is nothing
mysterious about this new animal psychology that has been brought into
evidence by the method here explained, it is no secret, but at the
service of all who care to explore what is entirely free ground--not
reserved for the learned alone, but at the disposal of any
animal-lover, if he will but co-operate in a spirit of patience and
devotion, and is endowed with the particular "gift" for teaching an
animal. The truth under discussion here is not likely to be find
elucidation in the study of the learned man--rather will it be the
result of the collective, convergent and corresponding evidence brought
together by the labours of many a patient investigator.
STUTTGART
_September_, 1919
[27] Karl Krall, "Denkende Tiere, Beiträge zur Tierseelenkunde,
auf Grund eigener Versuche," Leipzig, Engelmann, 1912.
[28] Rolf could only rap with one paw owing to the other fore-paw
having been injured; he generally leaves out the vowels, these
being already contained within the consonants. This habit gives
rise to a somewhat curious form of writing.
NOTE
There are in all now twelve dogs known to communicate by means of
"raps." The experiences I have had with my own dog have been
reported by me in the article entitled "Respecting a Dog's Memory,"
and appeared in the "Zoologischen Anzeiger," 1919, No. 11-13. The
name of my dog "Awa" is quite intentionally put together, as Lola
has herself "invented" all the names given to her progeny.
"THINKING" ANIMALS
A CRITICAL DISCUSSION OF DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1914 TO 1919
BY
DR. WILLIAM MACKENZIE
OF GENOA
[Translated from the Italian with the omission of
I. An Introductory Section, and
II. A Section giving the Story of "Lola."]
III. THE HYPOTHESIS OF INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS
Assuming, as I have done, and as I think I must do, that we have not
here to do with a trick or fraud, we seem to be dreaming, or to be
reading the account of a dream. Those poor horses of Elberfeld, so
greatly extolled and so much discussed in their day, are not in the
same field with Lola. And yet I am convinced that it is not a dream. It
is another kind of psychological reality, but it is a reality probably
too complex to be reduced to a single formula. Let us then try to face
the facts.
As to the "intelligent" character of the manifestations, there is no
possible doubt, even though we put on one side for the present the
arithmetical phenomena, which perhaps must be treated from a particular
standpoint, as I shall explain. The question before us is therefore a
dilemma. Is there intelligence in the dog, or is the intelligence in
others?
If, by intelligence in this case we mean the possibility of the animal
under observation giving replies to questions with, in the human sense,
actual understanding of the import of such replies, as well as the
possibility of the animal, a dog two years old, being able after a
maximum of fifteen hours' lessons to read, write and count, _and know
what it is learning_; if that is what is meant by intelligence in this
case, I must say that I do not believe in it, and that I feel compelled
for scientific reasons to examine every other hypothesis before having
recourse to this one.
And again, "Intelligence in others"? This may be so, but it is not
necessary to suppose that the intelligence is in others alone. I mean
that a few of the manifestations may within narrow limits probably be
rightly attributed to the intelligence of the animal, (but, I repeat,
the arithmetical facts must be considered by themselves).
If all the manifestations were to be attributed to the intelligence of
others and none to the animal, we should have to accept the supposition
of an absolutely _mechanical_ automatism in the animal itself of the
type suggested by Neumann (8)[29] as the result of his experiments with
Rolf, when, for instance, the dog mechanically kept on tapping an
unlimited number of times on the cardboard, which Neumann held out to
it without, as far as possible, moving it.
[29] NOTE.--The numbers in the text refer to the Bibliography at
the end.
This negative result of Neumann's is capable of various possible
explanations, and in no way gives any clear indication (just
because it is negative) as to how a positive result is at all
possible; that is, we cannot conclude from it any better than
before, whether the apparently "mechanical" behaviour of the animal
was intentional, and therefore whether the animal itself could or
could not have behaved otherwise; whether, given the impossibility
of the animal behaving differently, we should say that this
impossibility was absolute or only happened to occur on this
occasion; whether perchance the action of some psychical factor
unknown to Neumann between the animal and himself may not have been
omitted; and whether such factor was not in operation when the
animal was working with its late mistress, etc., etc. In this
connexion I feel it incumbent upon me to recall that I myself saw
Rolf on two or three occasions behave in this same apparently
mechanical way with his mistress (Mrs. Moekel) (II), whose
annoyance thereat seemed so real that I felt certain that it was
not feigned. From Neumann's point of view this would be
incomprehensible--since he makes use of the argument from the
supposed absolute automatism under the impression that it had taken
place in Rolf with _him_, Neumann, alone, _but not_ with the
Moekels. Here, then, it is clear that the intelligence is, or at
least that it is also, "in others."
But whatever value we may attach to Neumann's experiment, it appears to
me sufficiently clear that the supposition of an absolutely mechanically
passive process in the animal will not hold as a sufficient explanation
of the _whole_ of the facts related by Miss Kindermann, nor will it
hold with regard to what science certainly seems to me to be compelled
to admit in the case of the Elberfeld horses, which (as is known)
"worked" magnificently without contact with anyone, tapping their
replies on a board, completely isolated on the ground, and even when
all alone in their stable with the one door tightly closed and all the
spectators outside. The spectators heard and observed the rapped
answers of the horses (for example, to written questions) through a
little glass window. Neither will it hold with regard to the many
experiments made, some also by myself, by means of requests, pictures,
questions, presented to the horses in such a way as to be unknown to
_everyone_, including the experimenter. Besides, the animals at times
gave spontaneous communications. This Assagioli and I, and many others,
have observed even without the presence of Krall and of members of the
Moekel family. Miss Kindermann also gives some of Lola's replies tapped
on the arm of a friend of the authoress, although the latter held out
as usual her own hand to the dog.
Therefore, there must be some "intelligence" in the animal, as
everything cannot come from outside it in these experiments. Probably
this intelligence is not human in quality, but nevertheless not quite
rudimentary, and is such as we may imagine without too much effort to
exist in domestic animals which by many signs often give us proof that
they understand at least in part what is taking place around and within
us. That such an intelligence could very probably be educated, always
within prehuman limits or in a lesser degree than in human infancy,
does not on the whole seem to me so contradictory to our actual
psychological knowledge: since we may very well suppose that the animal
under examination may make use of its proper faculties, as far as lies
in its power, to profit by the situation for the purpose of
accomplishing that which is required of it, under the stimulus of
allurements or threats. (It may even be rather assumed that the
exercise of its proper faculties, which I regard as "intelligent," may
procure for the animal a certain degree of pleasure.) All this is apart
from the question of the arithmetical phenomena which, as I have
already said, deserve separate consideration.
Upon the facts as now established the knowledge of numbers seems to be
the basis of any educability in animals. And this is perhaps the first
and most important discovery in the "new zoopsychology."
In their search for others things, Von Osten, Krall, and the
Moekels have brought out clearly among various other facts, without
exactly accounting for it, the fundamental fact of the existence in
the animal of a psychic substratum predisposed in some manner to
arithmetic. I say "in some manner," and by that I do not wish to
prejudge any particular view of the argument; and above all I do
not make of this predisposition or mathematical permeability, a
criterion of intelligence. I do not forget either the mentally
deficient or the prodigies among child calculators, etc. But
likewise I cannot forget another thing: that all organisms are
already throughout permeated with mathematics, and that the more we
descend the scale, from man down to the most "simple" biological
fact, the more nearly we approach to physics, which is nothing but
mathematics.