#quod.#
1838. The conjunctive particle #quod#, originally the neuter of the
relative pronoun, has both a declarative sense, _that_, and a causal
sense, _because_. In both senses it regularly introduces the indicative
(1721). For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is often used, and
particularly in indirect discourse (1722).
1839. In some of its applications, particularly in old Latin, the
conjunctive particle #quod# can hardly be distinguished from the pronoun
#quod#, as follows:
1840. (1) In old Latin, #quod#, _why_, _for what_, is sometimes used
with #veniō# and #mittō#. Thus, as in #id vēnimus#, Pl. _MG._ 1158,
_that’s why we’ve come_, #id# is used to define the purpose of the
motion (1144), so also #quod#, in #quod vēnī, ēloquar#, T. _Hau. prol._
3, _what I’ve come for, I’ll set forth_. Instead of #quod#, more
explicitly #quam ob rem#: as, #quam ob rem hūc sum missa#, Pl. _R._ 430,
_what I am sent here for_.
1841. (2.) #quod#, _why_, _for what_, is used in such expansions as
#quid est quod?# #quid habēs quod?# or #nihil est quod#: as,
#quid est quod mē excīvistī?# Pl. _E._ 570, _why is it that you’ve
called me out?_ (1144). Usually with the subjunctive (1563): as, #quid
est quod plūra dīcāmus?# _Clu._ 59, _what reason is there for saying
more?_ For #quod#, sometimes #quā rē#, #quam ob rem#, #cūr#, &c. The
question itself is also sometimes varied: as, #quid fuit causae, cūr in
Āfricam Caesarem nōn sequerēre?# _Ph._ 2, 71, _what earthly reason was
there, why you should not have followed Caesar to Africa?_
1842. (3.) #quod#, _as to what_, or _that_, is used, especially at the
beginning of a sentence, to introduce a fact on which something is to be
said, often by way of protest or refutation: as,
#vērum quod tū dīcis, nōn tē mī īrāscī decet#, Pl. _Am._ 522, _but as to
what you say, it is n’t right that you should get provoked with me_.
#quod multitūdinem Germānōrum in Galliam trādūcat, id sē suī mūniendī
causā facere#, 1, 44, 6, _as to his moving a great many Germans over to
Gaul, that he did for self-protection_ (1722). This construction is
particularly common in Caesar, and in Cicero’s letters.
1843. When #quod#, _in case_, _suppose_, _although_, introduces a mere
conjecture or a concession, the subjunctive is used (1554): as, #quod
quispiam ignem quaerat, extinguī volō#, Pl. _Aul._ 91, _in case a man
may come for fire, I want the fire put out_. This use is principally
found in old Latin, but once or twice also in Cicero.
1844. #quod#, _that_, _the fact that_, is often used in subordinate
sentences which serve to complete the sense of the main sentence.
1845. The sentence with #quod# may represent a subject, as with
#accēdit#; an object, as with #praetereō#, &c.; or any case of a
substantive; frequently it is in apposition with a demonstrative or an
appellative: as,
(_a._) #accēdēbat, quod suōs ab sē līberōs abstrāctōs dolēbant#, 3, 2,
5, _there was added this fact, that they lamented that their own
children were torn from them_; or less clumsily, _then too they
lamented_. #praetereō, quod eam sibī̆ domum sēdemque dēlēgit, in quā
cōtīdiē virī mortis indicia vidēret#, _Clu._ 188, _I pass over the fact
that she picked out a house to live in, in which she would see, day in
day out, things to remind her of her husband’s death_. #illud minus
cūrō, quod congessistī operāriōs omnēs#, _Br._ 297, _I am not
particularly interested in the fact that you have lumped together all
sorts of cobblers and tinkers_. (_b._) #Caesar senātūs in eum beneficia
commemorāvit, quod rēx appellātus esset ā senātū#, 1, 43, 4, _Caesar
told of the kindnesses of the senate to the man, the fact that ‘he had
been styled king by the senate’_ (1722). #quō factō duās rēs cōnsecūtus
est, quod animōs centuriōnum dēvinxit et mīlitum voluntātēs redēmit#,
Caes. _C._ 1, 39, 4, _thus he killed two birds with one stone: he won
the hearts of the officers, and he bought golden opinions of the rank
and file_. #hōc ūnō praestāmus vel maximē ferīs, quod conloquimur inter
nōs#, _DO._ 1, 32, _in this one circumstance do we perhaps most of all
surpass brutes, that we can talk with each other_. #labōre et industriā
et quod adhibēbat grātiam, in prīncipibus patrōnīs fuit#, _Br._ 233,
_thanks to his untiring industry, and to his bringing his winning
manners to bear, he figured among the leaders of the bar_.
1846. #accēdit#, as the passive of #addō#, often has the subjunctive
with #ut#: see 1965. #addō quod#, especially in the imperative form
#adde quod#, occurs in Accius, Terence, Lucretius, Horace, and Ovid.
#adiciō quod# begins with Livy.
1847. The sentence with #quod# is often introduced by a prepositional
expression, such as #eō# with #dē#, #ex#, #in#, #prō#, rarely with
#cum#; or #id# with #ad# in Livy, #super# in Tacitus.
1848. #nisi quod#, or in Plautus and Terence #nisi quia#, _but for the
fact that_, _except_, _only that_, and #praeter quam quod#, _besides the
fact that_, are used in limitations: as, #nihil peccat, nisi quod nihil
peccat#, Plin. _Ep._ 9, 26, 1, _he erreth naught, save that he naught
doth err_. Livy has also #super quam quod#. #tantum quod# in the sense
of #nisi quod# is rare; more commonly of time, _just_, _hardly_.
1849. #quid quod?# for #quid dē eō dīcam quod?# _what of the fact that_,
or _nay more_, marks an important transition: as, #quid quod salūs
sociōrum in perīculum vocātur?# _IP._ 12, _nay more, the very existence
of our allies is endangered_.
1850. With verbs of doing or happening, accompanied by some word of
manner, #quod# introduces a verb of coincident action (1733): as,
#bene facis quod mē adiuvās#, _Fin._ 3, 16, _you are very kind in
helping me_. #videor mihī̆ grātum fēcisse Siculīs, quod eōrum iniūriās
sum persecūtus#, _V._ 2, 16, _I flatter myself that I have won the
gratitude of the Sicilians in acting as avenger of their wrongs_. In
this sense #quī# (1826) or #cum# (1874) is often used, or in Plautus and
once in Horace #quia#.
1851. #quod#, _that_, _because_, is used to denote cause with verbs of
emotion.
Thus, as with #id# in #id gaudeō#, T. _Andr._ 362, _I’m glad of that_
(1144), so with an object sentence, as #gaudeō quod tē interpellāvī#,
_Leg._ 3, 1, _I’m glad that I interrupted you_. Such verbs are:
#gaudeō#, #laetor#; #mīror#; #doleō#, #maereō#, #angor#, #indignor#,
#suscēnseō#, #īrāscor#, &c. In old Latin, Cicero’s letters, Livy, and
rarely in Tacitus such verbs may have #quia#, sometimes #quom# (1875).
For the accusative with the infinitive, see 2187.
1852. Verbs of praising, blaming, accusing, and condemning, often take
#quod#: as,
#quod bene cōgitāstī aliquandō, laudō#, _Ph._ 2, 34, _that you have ever
had good intentions, I commend_. #laudat Africānum Panaetius, quod
fuerit abstinēns#, _Off._ 2, 76, _Panaetius eulogizes Africanus, ‘for
being so abstinent’_ (1725). #ut cum Sōcratēs accūsātus est quod
corrumperet iuventūtem#, Quintil. 4, 4, 5, _as when Socrates was charged
with ‘demoralizing the rising generation’_ (1725). #grātulor#,
_congratulate_, and #grātiās agō#, _thank_, have regularly #quod# or
#cum# (1875). Verbs of accusing sometimes have #cūr#.
1853. Causal #quod#, _owing to the fact that_, _because_, introduces an
efficient cause, or a reason or motive: as,
(_a._) #in hīs locīs, quod omnis Gallia ad septentriōnēs vergit, mātūrae
sunt hiemēs#, 4, 20, 1, _in these parts the winter sets in early, owing
to the fact that Gaul in general lies to the north_. #Helvētiī reliquōs
Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt, quod ferē cōtīdiānīs proeliīs cum Germānīs
contendunt#, 1, 1, 4, _the Helvetians outshine the rest of the Gauls in
bravery, because they do battle with the Germans almost every day_.
#hōrum fortissimī sunt Belgae, proptereā quod a cultū prōvinciae
longissimē absunt#, 1, 1, 3, _of these the stoutest fighting-men are the
Belgians, for the reason that they live furthest away from the comforts
of the province_. (_b._) #T. Mānlius Torquātus fīlium suum, quod is
contrā imperium in hostem pugnāverat, necārī iussit#, S. _C._ 52, 30,
_Torquatus ordered his own son to be put to death, because the young man
had fought with the enemy contrary to orders_. #exōrāvit tyrannum ut
abīre licēret, quod iam beātus nōllet esse#, _TD._ 5, 62, _he induced
the monarch to let him go, ‘because he didn’t care to be Fortune’s pet
any longer’_ (1725). #Bellovacī suum numerum nōn contulērunt, quod sē
suō arbitriō bellum esse gestūrōs dīcerent#, 7, 75, 5, _the Bellovacans
would not put in their proper quota, saying they meant to make war on
their own responsibility_ (1727).
[Erratum:
1845a ... Caesar told of the kindnesses of the senate
told off]
1854. #quod# often has a correlative in the main sentence, such as #eō#,
#ideō#, #idcircō#, #proptereā#. In Sallust, #eā grātiā#. In Plautus,
causal #quod# is very rare compared to causal #quia#.
1855. An untenable reason is introduced in Plautus by #nōn eō quia#, in
Terence by #nōn eō quō#; in Cicero very rarely by #neque# or #non eō
quō#, usually by #nōn quod# or #nōn quō#; by #nōn quia# rarely in
classical Latin, but commonly from Livy on. The valid reason follows,
with #sed quod#, #sed quia#, or with #sed# and a fresh main sentence.
The mood is usually subjunctive (1725): as, #pugilēs ingemīscunt, nōn
quod doleant, sed quia prōfundendā vōce omne corpus intenditur#, _TD._
2, 56, _boxers grunt and groan, not because they feel pain, but because
by explosion of voice the whole system gets braced up_. Sometimes, but
very rarely in classical prose, the indicative. Correlatives, such as
#idcircō#, _ideō_, &c., are not uncommon. Reversed constructions occur,
with #magis# followed by #quam#, as: #magis quod#, #quō#, or #quia#,
followed by #quam quō#, #quod#, or #quia#. The negative _not that . . .
not_, is expressed by #nōn quod nōn#, #nōn quō nōn#, or #nōn quīn#.
[Erratum:
1855 ... #nōn quō nōn#, or #nōn quīn#
quin]
#quia.#
1856. #quia#, a neuter accusative plural of the relative stem (701) is
used in both a declarative and a causal sense, like #quod# (1838). It
is, however, more prevalent in Plautus, less so from Terence on.
1857. For the uses of declarative #quia#, see under 1848, 1850, 1851.
1858. Causal #quia#, with or without a correlative, such as #ideō#,
#eō#, #proptereā#, &c., is common in old Latin (1854) and poetry,
unusual in prose (once in Caesar) before Tacitus. For #nōn quia#, &c.,
see 1855.
#quom# or #cum#.
1859. #quom# or #cum# (157, 711), used as a relative conjunctive
particle (1794), has a temporal meaning, _when_, which readily passes
over to an explanatory or causal meaning, _in that_, _since_ or
_although_. In both meanings it introduces the indicative in old Latin.
In classical Latin, temporal #cum# in certain connections, and causal
#cum# regularly, introduces the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also
used with #cum# for special reasons, as in the indefinite second person
(1731), by attraction (1728), and commonly by late writers to express
repeated past action (1730). #cum#, _when_, is often used as a synonym
of #sī#, _if_, and may then introduce any form of a conditional protasis
(2016, 2110).
(A.) TEMPORAL #cum#.