PATROLS--TRANSMISSION OF REPORTS--CYCLISTS
I have already, in a former section, insisted on the fundamental
proposition that reconnaissance and security are two diametrically
opposite conceptions, and cannot on a large scale be confided to one
and the same body of troops. This conflict of purpose becomes most
evident when we come to the service of patrols in the field.
Reconnoitring patrols regulate their movements on those of the enemy.
They must keep touch with and follow him, quite irrespective of the
movement of their own side, often being compelled to creep after
him--_i.e._, to utilize intersected ground in order to avoid the
necessity of fighting.
Security patrols, on the other hand, flanking detachments, piquets,
vedettes, and the like, have to choose their position with reference
to the force it is their purpose to cover, and with which they must
remain in communication. It is their duty to attack and beat off the
enemy's patrols, as far as their strength will allow them, to prevent
these latter gaining an insight into the conditions of the marching or
resting troops whose safety they are intended to secure.
If they were to attempt to follow up their enemy to find out his
position--_i.e._, to reconnoitre--they would lose their connection
with their own troops, and endanger the security of the latter by
relinquishing the special object they are set apart to provide for.
Hence it is absolutely necessary that the two systems should be kept
separate one from the other, and that each patrol should know clearly
and distinctly for which of the two purposes it is specifically
intended. Only then can the troops in rear rely on being kept
thoroughly informed, and at the same time secure from the possible
attempts of the enemy.
The more clear and precise the mission, the more can the patrols be
relied on to execute it; but this, of course, does not exclude the
necessity for them to keep their eyes open for other things, and to
report all they may notice.
Such a systematic arrangement brings other advantages in its train. It
effects a marked economy of one's available forces, for being certain
that every mission will be settled by a special party detailed for that
purpose, it ceases to be necessary to keep on despatching fresh patrols
again and again in the same direction, a practice most detrimental to
the troops, which is constantly followed in peace-time; and it can never
happen that a body is surprised by the enemy because its scouts are
absent reconnoitring, or that it fails to receive information because
its patrols are busy with security. If, therefore, all patrols thus
naturally fall into one of these two groups--reconnoitring and security
patrols--there is still another line of distinction to be observed
between these patrols themselves, arising from the nature of the tasks
which the circumstances impose upon them.
It is impossible to lay down any distinct rules in this matter--for
War will always present new and changing problems--but broadly two
points of view must be kept in sight, which require fundamentally
different treatment, and are conditioned by our distance from the
enemy.
If the opposing forces are still engaged in preliminary approaches one
to the other, and separated by wide stretches of country, the
procedure will be altogether distinct from that to be adopted when the
outposts mutually confront one another.
Between the two extremes there are innumerable intermediate degrees,
to which one's conduct must be adapted without losing sight of the
guiding points involved.
Let us take first the period of approach, and consider the
reconnoitring problem from this aspect, taking into consideration the
broad requirements of modern War.
It will be apparent at once that there is here a double purpose to be
fulfilled--viz., to ascertain the whereabouts and direction of
movement of the elements of the enemy's main fighting force, the
primary object of all reconnaissance; and, secondly, to find the
enemy's preceding Cavalry screen, whose purpose it is, on the one
hand, to prevent our object, and, on the other hand, to conceal their
own main body. This cavalry we shall have to defeat, but we cannot
afford to await this event, but must initiate our own reconnaissance
before the decision, and endeavour to carry this through, even if the
latter prove unfavourable to us.
Hence it follows that our patrols must be systematically divided from
the first into strategical and tactical patrols, according as to
whether they are intended to find the enemy's main army or to beat his
Cavalry.
The former must not allow themselves to be held up by the enemy's
Cavalry, but must endeavour to ride through the opposing
screen--straight for the heads of the enemy's marching columns. They
must, therefore, avoid all fighting, and act by cunning and stealth,
and hence their conduct should be entrusted always to officers. They
will be directed against the probable lines of the enemy's approach,
as determined by the general strategic situation, and will further be
given all possible information as to the known whereabouts of the
enemy, together with the intentions of their own Superior Command, in
order that they may be in a position to distinguish between important
and unimportant details, and adapt their action accordingly.
That the position of heads of columns in time and place, their depths,
the flanks of the enemy's positions, extent of his outposts, districts
in which troops are quartered, the appearance of new uniforms,
indicating the presence of regiments believed to be elsewhere, etc.,
should all be carefully determined, forms part of their normal
instructions; but, in spite of that, it is very desirable to direct
their attention very particularly to all such points as are at the
moment of preponderating consequence. They must also be kept well
informed as to the mission of their neighbouring patrols, so that
under all circumstances the systematic subdivision of their several
tasks can be maintained intact.
For these patrols one must choose the best mounted officers and men
and horses, since long distances must be covered under difficult
circumstances, and it would be well to allot to each a competent
non-commissioned officer, who can carry through the task if his
Commander is killed or taken prisoner. If possible, they should also
be supplied with a concentrated horse-ration, so as to be as far as
possible independent of the resources of the country. (See Part II.,
Section I.)
As to the strength of these patrols, it will be necessary to keep
within very narrow limits, because if they are large it is difficult
for them to escape observation; on the other hand, a certain degree of
strength is necessary, because one cannot, of course, count on being
able to send back one's information by single messengers. Since it is
a prime condition of the problem that a district thoroughly commanded
by the enemy must be ridden through, the safe return of a single
messenger can never be guaranteed; hence the Commander will either be
obliged to send his reports in duplicate or triplicate, or in the last
resort fight his way through with them himself. Hence it will be
advisable to compose each party of two or three patrols, each of three
men, assigning a smart lance-corporal to each.
One officer, one non-commissioned officer, two lance-corporals, and
five men must, therefore, be considered as a fairly normal type.
The Commander can then despatch two reports, and the third he must
bring in himself, and must well consider how long it will be safe to
continue his observation, and what it is of real importance for his
superiors to know.
But he must never allow himself to be hurried into the despatch of
unimportant information. He must always keep before his mind the
essential strategical elements of the whole situation. It seems to me
altogether wrong to send off such patrols with general instructions to
keep in touch with the enemy, a common manoeuvre practice. Since
these latter generally last only a few days, there is not much
difficulty in maintaining such a system, particularly when information
is sent by single messengers. But in War everything is very different.
One would very soon have got through all one's officers and still not
be well informed. The patrols must, therefore, be told to return
within a certain time limit, and their reliefs, who are to be fully
instructed as far as the information available goes, must be
despatched before this time limit is expired. Even then we shall soon
exhaust the available supply of officers who will have been driven to
the limit of their endurance in purely strategic missions, and in the
end we shall have to fall back upon Non-commissioned Officers for
tactical observation.
This tactical reconnaissance will, in the first place, devote its
attention to the enemy's Cavalry. The patrols assigned to these duties
will attack the enemy wherever they meet him, to find out what is
going on, and as soon as possible establish a moral superiority over
them.
But even they cannot remain permanently in touch with the enemy,
because they, too, must send in their information by messenger, their
strength thus rapidly diminishing, and they, in turn, will require
relief.
If permanent observation of a yet distant enemy is necessary, we must
turn to other means. It will, then, be as well to send out whole
reconnoitring squadrons or troops (F.D.O.,[15] 128) towards the enemy,
and through them maintain a permanent tactical observation.
[Footnote 15: Feld Dienst Ordnung.]
These serve as a patrol reserve and collecting station for
information, remaining day and night in touch with the enemy, and, of
course, will also require periodical reliefs.
It goes without saying that, in addition to these squadrons, single
patrols may be despatched in important directions from the main body
of the Cavalry, whose duty it will be to report to the latter direct.
These, again, must send off their reports by several men, whilst those
despatched from the patrols sent out by the reconnoitring squadrons
will often, owing to the shorter distance and the nearness of the
support, be able to avail themselves of the despatch riders. In
general, it cannot be insisted upon too much that the despatch rider,
so very popular in peace, can only be very occasionally employed in
War in the interval before the enemy's Cavalry is completely beaten
out of the field. In peace a man is always riding in his own country;
if he himself has not a map, he has at least been instructed from a
map, and every civilian will help him out. Even if he stumbles up
against an enemy's patrol they will generally let him pass unnoticed;
but it is quite different in War. Here even a patrol leader has rarely
got a map. The despatch rider rides across thoroughly unknown
districts, coming in contact with a foreign, perhaps hostile,
population; he cannot make himself understood, if, indeed, he is not
obliged to avoid them. The enemy's patrols are also everywhere, and if
anything happens to his horse the message does not arrive. Further,
the enormously increased distances to be traversed in modern War have
to be taken into account, and these alone render the despatch of
single horsemen a very doubtful undertaking. We must, therefore,
recognise that the conveyance of reports by individual despatch riders
is only possible under very limited conditions, and within the
districts fully controlled by one's own troops, and that even in one's
own country reconnoitring patrols sent out to a great distance can
only be very occasionally employed.
Here we come upon an increased difficulty in the whole system of
intelligence, and yet all reconnaissance is useless unless the return
of information works without a hitch. We must, therefore, endeavour to
regulate it accordingly.
Above all, the connection between the reconnoitring squadrons and the
main body by relays must be very carefully assured, and their strength
must be proportionate to the number of the enemy's patrols moving in
the district. In these cases a co-operation between Cavalry and
cyclists will be of service, whilst within the radius which we
completely command the whole rearward intelligence service, so far as
it can move upon roads, must be left as much as possible to cyclists.
_Fundamentally, no Cavalry soldier should be allowed to ride to the
rear without pressing circumstances._ This is an absolute necessity if
we are to spare our valuable and almost irreplaceable horses. Towards
these safe lines of communication all reports must be directed, in
order to be forwarded with the utmost rapidity by fresh horses or
cyclists.
If these main roads do not run as far as the reconnoitring squadrons,
in order to allow of the patrols making use of them without long
detours, then further collecting stations, protected by other troops,
must be interpolated. (F.D.O., 273.)
Occasionally the Cavalry Telegraph equipment may be of assistance, but
we must not expect too much from it in periods of rapid movement,
because since its application depends upon a number of favourable
circumstances, its value in such changing conditions is more or less
illusory.
Results obtained in manoeuvres, in my opinion, convey no correct
experience in this matter.
Another point, however, must be specially brought out--namely, the
necessity, not only of sending back information through the proper
channels, but also of forwarding all important news direct to the
principal Commander of the Cavalry or to the Army Headquarters. It is
of the utmost importance that the Headquarters in each theatre of the
War should receive information about the enemy simultaneously with
their subordinates, so that they always remain in the position to
dispose of their troops according to their own ideas, and do not find
themselves bound by instructions previously issued by their
subordinates. It is precisely this evil which made itself felt in
1870-1871. Very often the most important information never reached
Headquarters at all, and hence no action could be taken upon it.
The fault lay chiefly in the fact that the subordinates, not being
informed as to the connection of events, did not perceive the
importance of the information, and therefore did not forward it on,
and partly because the telegraph wires were overburdened by the
private messages of distinguished persons who had nothing whatever to
do with the conduct of operations.
The control of the wires for purely military purposes must, therefore,
be maintained with rigid severity, and information to Headquarters or
Army Commands must have precedence over all other business.
If collecting stations for information are not available, the
question arises, Which groups should be Authorized to report direct to
Headquarters? In my opinion this cannot be determined by the strength
of the troops concerned, but must always depend on the strategic
situation. Generally it may be laid down that the lie of the roads
must decide.
Those detachments entrusted with the reconnaissance of a single line
of road will report direct any important information gained within
their own sphere if no stronger body should be moving along the same
line, and this reporting body may, therefore, according to
circumstances, be a patrol, a regiment, or a brigade. It is desirable
from this point of view that all Cavalry officers down to patrol
leaders should be kept so thoroughly informed as to the general
situation that they may judge of the importance of the information
obtained, and hence know where to send the information they have
secured.
As the opposing Cavalries first, then the larger bodies of the Army,
approach one another the situation changes. The reconnoitring
squadrons clear the front and turn their attention to the enemy's
flanks. The advanced squadrons are withdrawn, and the larger Cavalry
bodies drawn off towards the wings of the Army, and seek shelter
behind the Infantry columns, if they have been defeated in the Cavalry
duel, or turn against flank and rear of the enemy's Army if they have
been victorious. In front of the Armies reconnaissance now falls to
the Divisional Cavalry. Here the strategical and tactical duties
coincide. What the conduct of the Independent Cavalry will be must
depend on whether it is still held in check by the enemy or not. If
the latter have been finally beaten out of the field so that one has a
free hand, then the strategic patrols will direct their attention to
the enemy's rearward communications, and will seek to determine the
approach of his reserves, but tactical reconnaissance will be directed
against his flanks.
The principles governing our conduct remain the same, only the
reconnoitring and advanced squadrons now act primarily as supports to
the strategic patrols. If, however, a decision between the two
Cavalries has not been finally arrived at, one will now endeavour to
bring it about, and for this purpose unite all available forces,
leaving meanwhile the reconnaissance to strong patrols, who in this
period of the combat must never avoid those of the enemy, for now our
object is to get information quickly, and the time for circumvention
and evasion is at an end.
When the first battle has been decided, there follows either pursuit
or retreat--operations in which the tactical reconnaissance cannot for
one moment be omitted. Then by degrees, as the defeated side succeeds
in disembarrassing itself of its pursuers, things revert to normal
conditions again. The two Armies are separated by a certain area in
depth, and a new series of operations commences, in which, as before,
reconnaissance is required.
Matters are somewhat different as regards security. Here also in
general a distinction must be drawn between safety obtained by bodies
detached in advance and that derived from piquets, etc., immediately
at hand. But too much importance cannot be laid upon the principle
that, as above pointed out, reconnaissance alone cannot suffice to
insure safety; the reconnoitring detachments must rather always be
followed by a line of security troops, so that as a general type
three lines of patrols result--viz., strategical patrols far in
advance, tactical patrols, and security patrols, which latter, when
the main body is halted, become the standing outposts.
Coming next to the measures of security necessary for Independent
Cavalry when in movement, the tactical reconnoitring patrols, by
sending in early information of the enemy, will make a far-spread line
of security patrols unnecessary. In general, the ordinary point of the
advance guard and flankers will suffice. For the latter the same holds
good which has been said in the previous section on the subject of
flanking detachments altogether--viz., that they must be worked by
sections, and arranged in a proper system of reliefs.
If the necessity arises to screen, as well as to secure--_i.e._, to
hide absolutely our movements from the enemy--then all roads leading
towards him and the section of the ground comprised between them must
be occupied in such manner that the enemy cannot find intervals at
which to break through, and this will be best attained by a system of
local patrols, tied to definite beats. These patrols must fight the
enemy wherever he appears, and must, therefore, be given sufficient
strength and be followed by small supports duly allotted to each
section of the whole front.
When the main body is stationary, the conditions are different,
because the troops require a certain time to turn out; therefore more
precautions are necessary, and the end can be best attained by placing
the patrols further to the front. Hence we arrive at a double system
of security--the first line formed by outpost squadrons, with
officers, non-commissioned officers, and small patrols, to which a
certain district to be ridden over will be assigned, and which must
maintain a systematic connection by patrols between its separate
parts, to insure absolutely the control of the ground around them; and
the second, formed of far advanced posts of observation at suitable
points--road crossings, defiles, etc.--from whence they can detect at
the earliest moment any approach of the enemy. These are indispensable
at night, when reconnaissance is always more or less liable to break
down, for darkness interferes with sight, and the horses require rest.
Their importance also increases naturally with the vicinity of the
enemy, and the consequent greater risk of surprise. In the case of the
larger bodies, whole squadrons (see F.D.O., No. 272) must be detached
for this purpose, and communication with them assured by strong relay
lines. These strong advanced detachments can, under favourable
circumstances, get shelter in villages, so that the horses at least
obtain better rest and care for a few hours, and the same applies
naturally to the reconnoitring squadrons. In all such instances the
guiding idea must be to evacuate the village the moment the enemy
appears, and evade collision with him. How this is to be managed has
been already explained (Book I., Chap. VI.). Accurate knowledge of
where all the roads lead to, the barricading of those running towards
the enemy's position, and extreme alertness on the part of the
patrols, are in such cases all-important.
Above all, the Commander must be confident in the steadiness and
coolness of his men.
As to the immediate security of the Army itself, this depends in the
first place on the Divisional Cavalry, but during the advance the
Independent Cavalry on the front and flanks guarantees this security
so thoroughly that the former can confine themselves to the most
elementary precautions, which must include primarily the maintenance
of connection with the latter for this purpose. Then they will not
only have to provide for security in the most thorough manner, but
will also have to reconnoitre, and for this purpose follow the same
rules which we have laid down for the Independent Cavalry. If the
enemy's horse prove overpowering, then they will use their power of
defence to the utmost, and seek to increase it by cyclists belonging
to the Infantry, Maxims, and Artillery, in order to beat off the enemy
with loss, and to clear the path for the reconnoitring patrols.
Speaking generally, the system I propose is in harmony with the
spirit, if not with the letter, of our Field Service Regulations, in
which the systematic distinction between reconnoitring and security,
as also between strategic and tactical patrols, is, in my opinion, not
sufficiently defined. The essential point which necessitates this
distinction has not been grasped with sufficient precision. If we are
to follow literally the wording of the Field Service Regulations, and
not the spirit which pervades it, which disregards all stereotyped
formations and keeps always the practical in view, then it would be
impossible to carry out screening operations on the scale which the
conditions of modern War will render indispensable. Sufficient stress
has not been laid on the necessary systematizing of the whole
procedure. Finally, too, much weight has been laid upon the employment
of the despatch rider (_Meldereiter_), although the experience of
1870-1871 has sufficiently shown that this system was unreliable. I
recall as an instance the pursuit of Vinoy's Corps (after Sedan), in
which case the most important report was entrusted to a despatch
rider, who only reached his destination twenty-four hours after he
was despatched, and by that time it was too late to take any action on
the information he conveyed.
The Field Service Regulations should also contain detailed
instructions as to the employment of cyclists with the Cavalry, for
the rapid development of this mode of locomotion has rendered this
absolutely indispensable. But the point must be brought out that the
use of a cyclist is always only conditional, as it depends on the
weather, the roads, and the country. On heavy, steep, and stony roads,
on which the tyres are only too apt to be punctured, the cyclists are
obliged to dismount; against a head wind they can only make progress
with difficulty. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that for the
transmission of reports from the advanced lines, as well as for
communication between separated bodies of troops within the district
controlled by our Cavalry, they are of inestimable service. Granted
that in particularly unfavourable weather and bad roads they must be
supplemented by Cavalry, they, nevertheless, on the whole, make it
possible to expedite materially the delivery of despatches. This is of
all the greater importance because in case of War the German Armies
will be relatively weak in Cavalry, and under certain circumstances
they will have to fight against a great numerical superiority.
Even though the principal use of the cyclists lies in the transmission
of information in which they can help the Divisional Cavalry most
materially, nevertheless one must not base too sanguine hopes on their
activity.
The reason is that because of their wheels they are tied to the roads,
and in consequence they can neither reconnoitre nor provide for
security independently. If for these purposes Cavalry patrols are
attached to them, the chief advantage of their greater mobility is
sacrificed, but without such supports in difficult country they are
tolerably helpless against surprise attacks. If one further takes into
account that a hill takes off from their speed to such a degree that a
horseman can easily catch them up, one must admit that they afford no
sufficient guarantee for the fulfilment of independent missions
outside of the country which our own Cavalry commands. In such
districts they can only be employed on relays, as already pointed out.
Here the duty of providing safety can best be fulfilled by the
Cavalry, because it is not a question of rapid advance, but only of
the protection of stationary posts and certain defined road stretches.
But for the defence of these posts, and for the transmission of
intelligence, the cyclists will do even better service than the
horsemen, because they can cover the ground faster, and when fighting
are not hampered by their horses. Their employment here is all the
more desirable because the relay service makes enormous demands upon
the Cavalry. That was proved up to the hilt in the War of 1870-1871;
the complaints under this head repeat themselves over and over again,
as the records of the Campaign abundantly testify.
Besides, on these relay duties the cyclists can be tactically employed
in the district which our Cavalry by its patrols commands, for the
rapid occupation of far-advanced posts which neither Cavalry nor
Infantry can reach with sufficient celerity and in adequate force; for
the defence of defiles lying to our rear, which must be kept open to
secure the retreat of the Cavalry; for the support of Independent
Cavalry on outpost duty, particularly at night; and for other similar
purposes. To satisfy all these conditions, these cyclist detachments
require a sufficient tactical training, but in times of peace one sees
in this respect feats performed whose impracticability in War are
glaringly apparent. For instance, men keep their cycles with them
right up in the firing line, and when they want to retreat or break
off the fight they try to mount under fire. As they are generally tied
to the roads, they then file off to the flanks. I have, indeed, often
seen Cyclist detachments lay down their cycles in the front of the
position, and then advance to mount them again in the teeth of the
enemy's fire. All these kind of things are absurd. The cycles must be
treated like the led horses of the Cavalry--that is to say, the men
must dismount under cover, then move up to the firing line, and then
move back to cover in order to mount again. The position must,
moreover, be so chosen as to enable them to move off without exposing
themselves. All these points, which in practice are rendered
difficult, diminish very materially the usefulness of cyclists, and
take away from them, above all, their power of offence; and in all
missions entrusted to them these limitations must be carefully kept in
mind.
II
ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING
CHAPTER I
NUMBERS
ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING
When we take into consideration the conditions of modern Warfare, as I
have endeavoured in the foregoing pages to develop them--the numerical
strength of modern Armies; the numerous formations of Artillery and
Infantry set on foot on the outbreak of hostilities; the area of
future theatres of operations--when, further, we consider how many
important tasks await the Cavalry from the moment when the first shot
is fired, and how the most important of these, as I have endeavoured
to establish, can only be dealt with satisfactorily by the employment
of Cavalry 'Masses,' the conviction must force itself home to every
mind that our German Cavalry is numerically inadequate to meet even
the principal demands the future must make upon it.
If, further, we reflect that, owing to causes which it would be out of
place to deal with in these pages at length, it is precisely upon our
Cavalry that the rôle of fighting against crushing numerical
superiority must devolve, this conviction must give rise to the
gravest anxiety, more especially when it is remembered that the
difficulty of securing a supply of reinforcements adequate for the
performance of our duties is greater with the Cavalry than with any
other Arm. A few days' training at a pinch will turn out an Infantry
soldier or gunner, whose presence need not necessarily be either
dangerous or even detrimental to the efficiency of his company or
battery. An unbroken horse or a bad rider may create confusion in the
ranks of the steadiest squadron.
The danger is still further aggravated by the fact that a rapid
reduction in their available numbers is certain to take place, owing
to the increased demands which the future must make upon the endurance
of our horsemen, and presumably also the heavier losses they will be
called upon to suffer in action, both of which must be intensified in
proportion as their numerical inadequacy for the tasks incurring on
them increases. Germany is certainly comparatively well supplied with
horses; but owing to the demands of the aforesaid new formations,
which must be set on foot immediately on the declaration of
hostilities, upon the complement of animals fit for War purposes
within our own frontiers, the country will be practically denuded, and
only those horses still too young or those too old for the field will
be left behind.
Even among those classified as 'fit for War' but few are fit for
Cavalry purposes. Riding horses good enough for the Infantry and
Train--even for the Artillery--may, no doubt, be found; but equal to
the requirements made on the Cavalry horse there are but few indeed,
and even this number is diminishing yearly. As regards the supply from
foreign sources, this must depend on the political situation--i.e., on
conditions which lie beyond our control. Even when these conditions
are favourable, horses cannot be usefully drafted into the ranks
without prolonged training and breaking to fit them for their new
duties. Hence the conclusion is inevitable that the numerical strength
of our Cavalry, already, as I have shown, so inadequate, must fall off
very rapidly at the commencement of a campaign, because its rapid
reinforcement with satisfactory material is, under the circumstances,
quite out of the question.
From this conclusion there is no escape; and in view of the increased
importance I have above assigned to the due performance of all Cavalry
duties, its recognition carries with it, as its corollary, the
absolute need for the numerical augmentation of this branch of the
service.
The enormous mechanism of our modern Armies can only work normally and
successfully when its constituent 'power factors'--_i.e._, the three
Arms--have been apportioned with due regard to the work to be
accomplished. If driving-power fails any one portion, the danger lies
near that at some critical moment the whole apparatus will suffer in
sympathy, and fail to respond to the strain it is called upon to
endure.
The question of this increase in the Cavalry has, indeed, often before
been raised, but never with the weight of concentrated conviction the
situation, in my opinion, deserves. For the most part, only expedients
to avoid the bitter necessity of a serious augmentation have been
suggested. Thus it has been proposed to form new regiments of four
squadrons each by taking away from the existing ones their fifth
squadron, and the suggestion has been supported by an appeal to the
fact that in War-time only four squadrons per regiment take the field.
No expert, however, can fail to agree with Lieutenant-General von
Pelet-Narbonne, who maintains in his 'Cavalry Regiments of Four
Squadrons' (_Kreuz Zeitung_, January 17, 1899) that such a measure
would entail the ruin of our Cavalry, and would destroy with one blow
all that the reorganizations of 1859 and 1860 have done for the War
efficiency of our regiments by entailing a depreciation of the value
of the squadrons at the very moment when called on to move out and
face the enemy.
Thus he writes: 405 squadrons are in Peace retained on the lower
establishment of 133, or the middle one of 137. Their numbers are 170
of the former, 235 of the latter, and the War strength averages 150
per squadron. To attain this figure those on the lower establishment
need 17 horses, those on the middle 13.
With no fifth squadron to draw upon for horses, as at present, these
vacancies would have to be filled by 'augmentation horses'--_i.e._,
animals straight from the country, thoroughly raw and unaccustomed to
work under the rider, often also of inferior quality. But these 13 to
17 horses per squadron by no means exhaust the situation. The field
squadrons must leave their youngest remounts--say 15 in number--still
too young and unbroken, behind them; for the experiences of the last
War proved abundantly that where this precaution was neglected the
greater part of them broke down under the hardships of the Campaign.
Taking even the most favourable time of year for mobilization--viz.,
in May--then out of the 15 young remounts of good material, and with
careful choice, not more than 8 will be found fit for the ranks; the
remainder will have to be left behind with the 'Depot' squadron, to
be sent on afterwards. Any other procedure would only lead to the
useless sacrifice of these valuable young animals. The places of the
horses thus left behind will, therefore, also have to be filled by
augmentation horses, thus bringing the number of these up to 24 and 20
respectively.
Then we still have to provide for the wants of the Depot squadron,
which has to train the recruits, and for these a further number of
trained horses, averaging 32, must be left behind, or another 8 from
each squadron; and, finally, another 2 per squadron will be required
for Staff orderlies and Staff guard duties.
According to this calculation, the Field squadron would have to move
out with from 34 to 30 augmentation horses (the sixty squadrons on the
higher establishment with 27).
The matter, however, presents a totally different appearance when in
peace five squadrons are in existence, of which one remains behind as
a depot. Taking away the 35 horses for recruits, and following our
previous calculation of 7 young remounts, there would remain on the
lower establishment 91 efficient horses to be divided amongst the
other four squadrons, or 23 each, so that these would take the field
with only 11, 7, or 4 'augmentation horses,' according to the
respective peace establishments of the regiments. With these numbers
the squadron suffers no reduction of its efficiency, for these few can
always be employed--in the squadron carts, etc.--at any rate, need not
be in the ranks.
These figures, worked out in the spring of 1899, are still
substantially correct, and it appears to me General von Pelet-Narbonne
deals too leniently with this proposal for forming the fifth squadrons
into new regiments, because many of the calls made on the squadrons
are even heavier than he assumes; besides, there are always in every
squadron some inefficient or sick horses, which will presently have to
be cast. Further, I consider it impracticable to take eight remounts
into the field, for these young animals are by no means equal to the
demands which modern conditions must make upon them from the very
first days of mobilization.
Hence the number of augmentation horses will be considerably increased
above General von Pelet's estimate, but he is unquestionably correct
in his opinion that a large number of these untrained animals will
exercise a more detrimental influence under existing conditions than
formerly, when, after completed mobilization, the squadrons often had
a considerable time in hand to weld into cohesion their constituent
elements. Nowadays the regiments will be rapidly forwarded to the
front by rail, and from the very commencement of hostilities the
fullest demands will be made on their efficiency. Unbroken horses, and
others not trained to the long gallops and trots of to-day, cannot
possibly carry weights of from 230 to 240 pounds for many hours a day
straight across country. After a very short spell most of the
augmentation horses would be useless, and their presence would only
have brought confusion and unsteadiness into the ranks of their
squadrons.
These disadvantages might indeed be partially mitigated if the
squadrons were raised in Peace to their full War establishment and
somewhat above it--say to 160 horses. But, on the one hand, this would
mean a not inconsiderable increase in the Cavalry; on the other, our
Peace conditions would be difficult to adapt to such an organization.
Without going closer into these details, it will be sufficient to
point out that all our barracks and riding-schools are designed for
five squadrons; and further, that we do not need numerically stronger
regiments, but a greater number, in order to satisfy all requirements.
Hence, if it is admitted that swamping our squadrons with thirty or
more augmentation horses must diminish most seriously the efficiency
of our Cavalry, then it follows that a still further increase in their
number will make matters still worse. Such proposals have no doubt
been made, and it certainly would be convenient if our Cavalry could
thus easily on mobilization be increased by one-third to one-half its
strength; but after what has been said, above all such suggestions
must be seen to be impracticable, for squadrons which consisted, for
instance, of one-half augmentation horses would be simply useless for
War purposes. A proceeding, therefore, which brought such results in
its train would imply no increase of the Arm, but rather the
destruction of the existing standard of Peace-time efficiency.
Even as Divisional Cavalry such squadrons would be useless, for these
require good individual horsemanship even more than those of the
Independent Division for the performance of their special duties, and
the necessary standard can never be attained with untrained horses.
All who put forward proposals of this nature are labouring under the
dominion of a fundamental fallacy. They overlook the fact I have
explained in the foregoing section, that Cavalry by its very nature
can never be other than a highly-specialized Arm, and hence that the
system adopted by the Infantry of raising the cadres to War strength
by the absorption of reserve men is for the Cavalry fundamentally
impossible. For in the Infantry the ranks are filled by the addition
of trained men; in the Cavalry they must be completed with untrained
horses, and the untrained horses break down under service conditions
much more rapidly than the men.
Our experience in 1870-1871 was conclusive on this point. Already
towards the end of August--_i.e._, in less than six weeks from the
outbreak of the War--the greater part of the augmentation horses were
quite useless for field purposes. If one looks up the reports in the
War Archives, everywhere this complaint about the untrained animals is
recurrent.
From all the above-mentioned circumstances it must be clear that a
numerical increase in the Cavalry is most urgently called for, and in
my opinion it would be best if this indispensable increase, the need
for which is becoming apparent even to public opinion, were grafted
upon the existing five-squadron system, which at least guarantees a
certain amount of preparation of the augmentation horses, without
entailing the reduction of the squadrons below the minimum standard
necessary for efficiency. I would, however, be willing to support any
other method which would give a sensible increase in the Cavalry
strength of our Peace establishment, and only protest against any
scheme which would seek to swell out the ranks or create new units on
mobilization; for all these are mere self-delusion, increasing, no
doubt, the numbers on paper, but in reality striking at the efficiency
of the Arm in the most vital manner.
If, then, at the moment there may be conditions outside my ken which
render a measure of the nature I have indicated impracticable, we
must, nevertheless, not close our eyes to the fact that, after the
recent reorganization of the Artillery, the creation of an adequate
number of Cavalry regiments in the nearest future is an absolute
necessity, and that in the meanwhile any such palliative as a recourse
to the cadre system must be absolutely rejected.
As an indispensable complement of the proposal to form new regiments,
so that we shall not be compelled to fall back on an inferior class of
horse to meet their requirements, and at the same time to insure as
far as possible a supply of suitable remounts to replace our losses in
War, further encouragement of horse-breeding operations in our own
territories is most urgently called for. This can only be attained by
a further reasonable increase in the price paid for remounts.[16]
[Footnote 16: In passing, I may note that some portions of
Lorraine are amongst the richest in horseflesh in all
Germany. Here, by the introduction of suitable stallions, an
excellent Artillery horse might be bred; but nothing is being
done in this direction.]
Such a measure must form a preliminary to the coming increase of the
Arm, and the sooner it is undertaken the better will be the result.
These points of view cannot be insisted upon too vehemently, since
even in Military circles they have not everywhere received the
consideration they deserve, and it is most necessary that public
opinion, which finds its ultimate expression within the walls of the
Reichstag, should receive adequate instruction as to the vital
interests involved.
In any case, the difficulties attending any adequate increase of our
Cavalry must not be underrated, and we must remain prepared to face
the strain of a European Campaign with a strength inadequate for the
difficult and most momentous problems we shall be called on to
face--problems which, according to the measure of success or the
reverse attending their solution, will exercise the most far-reaching
consequences on the whole course of the War.
Under all circumstances we shall have to endeavour to attain at least
that measure of success which the Army Headquarters unconditionally
require to render possible their own effective operations.
Superior energy and skill in the conduct of our operations,
concentration of our forces, increased care for the maintenance both
of the moral and material in our Commands, increased boldness in our
undertakings, together with wise moderation in the choice of our
objectives, must all help to compensate for our numerical weakness,
and while consciously leaving on one side everything not directly
conducive to our immediate purpose, we must seek to appear at the
psychological moment, and from the decisive direction, with forces in
hand, and by the energetic use of the relative and local superiority
such concentration confers, to gain and keep an advantage to the end
of the campaign. The higher, however, the demands which, with this
purpose in view, we are compelled to make on the moral, physical, and
material strength of the troops, the more we are justified in
demanding that, at least as regards organization and training, they
shall be equal to all demands modern conditions may impose upon them.
If in these points we have no sufficient security guaranteeing the
highest possible performances, it would be impossible to count even on
the most necessary results in time of War.
The question, then, arises whether from these points of view our
German Cavalry is equal to the maximum strain it may be called on to
endure.
As concerns our organization, there is a widespread demand that those
commands which form the basis of our War organization--_i.e._, the
Cavalry Divisions--should exist already in Peace as concrete units;
and in support of this it is urged that men and leaders must know each
other mutually if the full effect of their combined power is to be
realized in War. It is also held that if once these Divisions were
definitely formed, then as a consequence of their existence they would
more frequently be brought together for manoeuvres on a large scale,
to the benefit of the tactical training of all concerned.
It appears to me that the real centre of gravity in this question of
organization lies less in this permanent constitution of the Division
in Peace than people generally imagine.
The requirement that leaders and men should know one another I cannot
accept as an indispensable condition of War-time efficiency. However
desirable it may appear that such a relation should exist, it is one
which has never been, and never can be, guaranteed in War. The
practicable ideal rather consists in this, that the principles in
accordance with which the commands are handled should be so thoroughly
flesh and blood of both leaders and led, that under all circumstances
a sufficient result is secure. To reach this ideal is the true purpose
of our training.
In the permanent existence of Divisions it seems to me there is great
danger that such a guarantee for their successful employment would be
sacrificed.
We have seen that the demands likely to be made on the Cavalry require
widely different arrangement of the disposable forces; that this
requirement increases in importance as the Arm falls numerically
beneath the needs of the situation, and that only a most adaptable
organization can deal adequately with the emergencies this numerical
insufficiency may entail. Hence it is to be feared that a permanent
constitution in Divisions might lose this requisite adaptability, and,
however highly we may appreciate the advantages of a firmly welded War
organization, one should never allow the form to interfere with the
practical application of the means--_i.e._, never allow the troops to
become so rigid as to hamper their employment in the field. But this
is just what would happen if the Divisions were maintained on a
permanent War footing.
Every application of Cavalry Masses requires a certain measure of
drill control, because it depends always on the movement of closed
bodies of troops, and if the Cavalry Divisions are constantly drilled
together under the same Leader in Peace, there is at least a very
great risk that this certain degree of drill control, which we
recognise as indispensable, will degenerate into hard-and-fast
prescription, since the Leader has always the same number of units at
his disposal, and will thus by degrees habituate himself to consider
these as invariable quantities in the solution of every tactical
problem.
Our experiences with the Regulations for 1876 show that this danger is
by no means imaginary, for by the constant practice of the so-called
'Three-Line Tactics' we had already progressed far on the downward
path which leads to tactical destruction. If the 'Form' would not fit
the conditions, so much the worse for the conditions. Fortunately,
thanks to subsequent changes, we have shed the worst of these
tendencies, and are on the high-road towards freer and more adaptable
tactical formations, but to me it seems that any attempt to fetter
this progress by the adoption of a more or less rigid organization can
only result in evil for the whole Arm. Rather should we lay down as a
fixed principle that all Cavalry units must be able both to move and
fight according to the same tactical principles, no matter in what
order these units may be grouped together.
The question now arises whether our present formation of six regiments
to a Division is really equal to all demands which may be made upon
it; whether, in fact, in view of the strategical requirements it may
be called on to fulfil, and the degree of resistance to their
execution it is likely to encounter, six regiments will prove
numerically equal to their task.
Considered in relation to the enormous Armies of the present day, and
the still greater possibilities a general call to arms of a whole
nation may involve, six regiments represent a very small actual factor
of strength. If they should have to take the field for an independent
mission, it would not even be possible to keep them all together. The
protection of the flanks, and of the necessary baggage and supply
trains, the far-reaching reconnaissances, and the need for extended
requisitions, all unite to compel the creation of detachments, which
in the aggregate must make considerable inroads on the total strength.
Then there is the inevitable tale of losses on the march, the
necessity for subdivision of one's forces for the passage or the
turning of defiles; in fact, the demands are so many that the true
fighting body of the Division--_i.e._, the squadrons available for the
ultimate decisive shock--is represented by a very small fraction of
its original forces. If a complete Division can place only 3,600
sabres in the field, or, dismounted, from 1,680 to 3,000 rifles,
according to the number of horse-holders required--figures which even
without the above-mentioned detachments are quite inconsiderable in
relation to what even an inconsiderable Infantry opponent can bring
into action--what prospect of success is there for the weakened
Independent Division in the execution of quite minor operations, when
even in 1870-1871, not once, but frequently, the main body of our
Cavalry Divisions shrank often to six or seven weak squadrons.
It is chiefly the consequences of our, on the whole, satisfactory
experiences in the above Campaign which have led us to accept the
existing Division of six regiments as a satisfactory solution of this
problem of strength; but we forget that in those days we had no
Cavalry opponent to encounter, and that our sphere of action, owing to
the want on our side of an adequate equipment of firearms, was small
indeed in comparison with what we must expect in the future. We are
encouraged in our illusion by the fact that in our Peace manoeuvres
the strength of the opposing forces is generally nearly equal, and
also because the actual demands War will make upon the Arm are still
in these exercises very imperfectly realized, and from the nature of
the case cannot receive full recognition. Further, there is the fact
that our possible opponents have adopted the same organization, and
last, but not least, there remains the view that every tactical unit
of the Cavalry must not only be capable of being strategically
employed as a whole, but must also be in point of size within the
control of its Leader as a tactical unit.
Our unfortunate experiences with larger formations in 1866 are often
cited in favour of our present system, the point being ignored that it
was not the size of these bodies, but the faulty methods in which
they were employed, both strategically and tactically, that led to our
disappointment.
I think, therefore, that unprejudiced consideration must come to the
conclusion that our Divisions as they now exist are too weak for the
many and most decisive operations they will be called on to undertake.
The absolute necessity to secure the victory over the enemy's Cavalry
at the decisive point under all circumstances, and at the same time to
retain a sufficient force in hand to reap all the consequences of that
victory, will, I am convinced, lead to a materially greater
concentration of power in the single unit.
If from this point of view the permanent constitution of Cavalry
Divisions cannot be upheld, it follows that even less is to be said
for the formation of still stronger units in Peace-time, for this
measure would entail in even greater degree the very same strategical
and tactical limitations we have noted in the case of the Divisions,
and still further cramp the necessary adaptability of the organization
to meet the conditions of our Peace-time training. At the same time,
it is clear that it is of the utmost importance that the formation of
these stronger formations, Corps, or Divisions of greater numerical
strength, the necessity for which can be recognised in advance, should
be arranged for in the mobilization plans, and not built up afterwards
by the mere combination of existing Divisions.
For such bodies cannot be improvised altogether. In order to develop
their full efficiency they require a carefully selected and ample
staff of men who can be trusted to pull well together, and who have at
their disposal all the auxiliary services necessary for greater
independent operations. For these both trains and columns are needed,
which must be larger than those of two or even three single Divisions;
for, on the one hand, the greater size of the Corps entails closer
concentration of its units, thus making heavier demands on the
provision columns; and, on the other, the Corps must be capable of
carrying out longer and more obstinate engagements than a single
Division.
It is, therefore, most essential that the several Staffs required for
the Corps to be created in War-time should be thoroughly trained so as
to insure their working together, and the trains and columns necessary
to complete these units should be held ready for them in time of
Peace.[17]
[Footnote 17: In a report addressed to H.M. the King in 1868
by General von Moltke on the experiences deduced from the
events of 1866, it is proposed that there should be at Army
Headquarters the Staff of a Cavalry Corps Command, together
with its necessary Administrative services, always ready for
the field. As Field Marshal he returns to the idea in another
place, adding, 'particularly when we have found the right
"Murat" to lead it' (Moltke's 'Militarische Werke,' II.,
Second Part, First Group, B).]
To hand over the functions of Corps Commander to the senior of the two
or three Divisional Commanders would hardly be an adequate means of
securing satisfactory results even for a single day of battle; still
less could it suffice in the case of an independent strategic
operation. On the other hand, it is not at all essential that the
Corps thus formed at the outset of operations should be retained
intact throughout their whole period. One can make detachments from
them, or reinforce them according to circumstances, and thus attain
that very flexibility of organization which I have endeavoured to
prove to be an absolutely indispensable factor to meet the conditions
of our times.
It appears to me also that the same advantage which it is hoped to
realize by the creation of permanent Divisions can be reached by other
roads, and with still better results.
I would divide the whole territory of the German Empire into a number
of territorial districts, and call them Cavalry Inspections, or
Corps--the name is immaterial--each to comprise about twenty
regiments, and subdivide these again into sub-Inspections (_i.e._,
Divisions and Brigades), and thus obtain, not only the foundations and
the Staffs for a practical War formation, but for a systematic
preparation of the Arm in time of Peace. The Inspections would detail
annually the necessary squadrons on a War strength for manoeuvres of
the three Arms, according to a changing roster, and hold special
Cavalry manoeuvres in a manner I propose to develop hereafter.
We should thus, from the point of view of organization, gain the
advantage of having the cadres for both Corps and Divisions ready in
time of Peace, without being bound once for all to a hard-and-fast
strength for the Division.
It may be objected that it would be illogical to separate the Cavalry
from the Army Corps and Divisional Commands at the very moment that we
have assigned the whole of the Artillery to the Infantry Divisions,
but for the latter Arm the conditions are quite different. It always
fights in combination with the other Arms; by itself it cannot fight
at all.
The Cavalry, on the other hand, as regards its principal masses, is
quite independent, and only occasionally in moments of crisis
intervenes in the action of the other Arms, even then still as an
independent unit. The connection with the remainder of the Army would
be sufficiently secured by its participation in the annual manoeuvres
of the three Arms, and, as at present, Cavalry Brigade Commanders
would still have to be employed in the arrangement of the Brigade
manoeuvres. The participation of the Cavalry Regiments in the Garrison
Field Service exercises would remain matter of arrangement between the
respective Commands, but definite rules would have to be drawn up to
secure their effective co-operation.
The necessary trains for the Inspections and Divisions would be kept
ready in time of Peace, and, whether Horse Artillery--possibly also
Maxim guns--should be permanently allotted to them or otherwise, might
remain open for further discussion, though there is undoubtedly much
to be urged in favour of the suggestion.
In this manner I believe an organization could be created which would
meet all reasonable requirements. Certain new Staffs, fully equipped
with both General Staff Officers and those necessary for the
contemplated trains, etc., would be of course necessary, for in case
of War such creations cannot be improvised to work together without
most detrimental friction for any units, and least of all for those
which from the first moment of hostilities will be called on for
decisive action, and thus have less time and opportunity to shake down
into their new duties.
A practical Peace Organization, such as in fact we do not at present
possess, is a necessity of the first importance. But 'Mobility' in the
Arm itself remains the prime condition of efficiency in its
strategical activity, which, as we have seen above, must henceforward
be considered the most important sphere of its duties.
To secure this mobility is, therefore, our unconditional duty, and it
is in this direction in particular that, in my opinion, our Cavalry is
as yet hardly sufficiently prepared for the tasks that await it.
Strategical 'mobility' certainly depends in the first place on the
excellence of the horse supply and the suitable 'training' both of man
and horse; but the tactical independence of the troops themselves, and
the means of maintaining them in condition--_i.e._, conditions of
supply--are at least of equal importance. Owing to our experiences in
the French Campaign, where food and fodder were generally abundant,
sufficient attention has not been given universally to this factor.
Had we been compelled to undergo the same hardships as the Russians in
1877-1878, our views would doubtless have been very different.
The amount of forage that even under most favourable circumstances can
be carried on the horses is very small. To count on finding even that
amount always in the country through which we may have to operate
would be more than imprudent. Even in 1870-1871 we could not always
find what we needed in spite of the very favourable agricultural
conditions, and with the enormous Armies of the present day we shall
probably find the country even more exhausted of supplies than
formerly, particularly in the latter phases of the struggle, except
when one has the good-fortune to fall upon rich stretches of the
country which by chance may have escaped the devastation of previous
operations.
We may also be called on to work in sparsely settled districts with a
large export trade in corn, in which at times stocks may sink very
low. In short, unless we wish to be hampered at every step of our
movements by the necessity for wide-reaching foraging expeditions, we
shall have to rely upon our magazines and the supplies which can be
transmitted from them to the front through the agency of our supply
columns. The carrying capacity and mobility of the latter, therefore,
condition inexorably the degree of mobility in strategical operations
which, under all circumstances, the Cavalry can be counted on to
develop. Whoever relies on more will lay himself open to most bitter
disappointments exactly at the decisive moments.
The supply trains must, therefore, be able to march at least as fast
as the troops themselves, for only on this condition is there any
guarantee that even under difficult circumstances the necessary
supplies will be forthcoming; yet though experience most abundantly
demonstrates the difficulties of maintaining the supplies of the
Infantry in spite of the fact that, as a rule, their columns can cover
the ground faster than the men can march, there appears to be a tacit
assumption that with the Cavalry the trains will always arrive in
time, although they move far slower than the troops they follow and
supply.
There was, indeed, a certain amount of justification for this idea in
the days when Cavalry were more or less tied to the movements of the
rest of the Army; but nowadays, when Cavalry operates independently,
and must cover long distances in the shortest time, it has become
simply preposterous.
We have only to consider that we have now to reckon with average daily
marches of from twenty-five to thirty miles, and that a beaten or
evading force may have to retrace the same distance, perhaps even on
the very same day, at a much faster rate than that at which it
advanced, to perceive its absurdity. What chance would there be for
waggons which could not go out of a walk, and cannot reverse on the
road itself, which check at every hill, and sink to the axles in mud
or sand? How can strategically independent Cavalry provide for the
security of its baggage when it must often be left some days' marches
behind? And yet it is precisely when operating against an active
opposing Cavalry or an insurgent population that protection for the
baggage becomes most indispensable. Again, how are such trains to be
cleared away from the front when the main bodies of the two armies are
closing on one another for battle? or how, after it is decided, can
they be brought forward again to follow their Cavalry in pursuit, and
convey to it the supplies which in such moments it will most need, and
on whose prompt arrival its striking radius will depend? How, with
insufficient mobility, will they maintain the connection between the
combatants in front and the standing magazines, or even with the
movable supply depots following behind the marching Army?
Here we come upon one of the most difficult problems of the day, and
it cannot be insisted on too strongly that its solution during Peace
is an indispensable condition of the efficiency of the Arm in War. The
Cavalry trains must be organized in such a manner that they will be
able to march at least as fast as the Cavalry itself, and be adequate
in number to carry from five to six days' corn. Only when this demand
has been complied with will it be possible to count on the attainment
of the strategical independence at which we aim, and to attempt all
that this implies with less would only lead to the complete breakdown
of the Arm, which, as we have already seen, under existing conditions,
can never be efficiently replaced during the same Campaign.
It is not alone with the splendid chaussées of France that we must
reckon, but with the sand roads of East and West Prussia, the swamps
of Poland and Russia, and so forth, on all of which the same degree of
mobility must be developed, for the speed of the Cavalry itself is
practically independent of the nature of the roads. Without going
further into the detailed measures necessary to attain this ideal, the
importance of which must be evident to every practical soldier. I
would call attention to only one fundamental consideration: the desire
to curtail the length of supply columns by concentrating the loads,
with the object of lessening the congestion of the roads and
diminishing the time needed to bring their contents to the troops, is
sound as long as it attains its object, fatal everywhere else.[18]
[Footnote 18: Generally defeats its own object; the heavy
load destroys the roads, causes breakdowns and delays, etc.]
Now, the Cavalry Masses move under different conditions to the rest of
the Army. Either they are in the front of or on the flanks; in the
latter case, they have roads at their own disposal, in the former,
being generally some days' march in advance, they clear the front when
collision is imminent by moving to the flanks, and only quite
exceptionally retire through the advancing columns, and in all cases
they must be able to get off the roads quickly. The depth of these
columns is comparatively unimportant.
Hence, from the strategical relations of the Cavalry Masses to the
rest of the Army there arises no particular reason to endeavour to
shorten their trains. If the heavy baggage of a Cavalry Division is
two and a half or five kilometres in length it is tolerably
immaterial, but it is imperative, as we have seen, that they should be
able to move and get out of the way. Hence, it is not the number of
waggons which concerns us, but their individual lightness and
mobility, so that on all roads they can follow their units at a trot,
and only in the case of Divisional Cavalry can the other point of view
be admitted.
The possibility must also not be overlooked that it may not always be
practical for Cavalry masses to fill up their supply columns direct
from the Army reserves; and to meet this, second échelons of waggons
will be required, in every degree as mobile as the first, and so
organized as to require a minimum escort for their safety.
For such escorts Cavalry Reservists and men of the Landwehr exist in
adequate numbers, and armed with a useful carbine and mounted on
horses, only as a means of locomotion, they will answer their purpose
well enough.
No matter, however, how ample the supply of these columns may be, or
how mobile, circumstances will still arise during periods of great
concentration in which it will be impossible to bring up supply
waggons in sufficient numbers. In these cases we require an emergency
horse ration, which within a small compass contains great nourishment.
Too much cannot be expected from such a ration; for instance, it
cannot be bulky enough to fill the animal's stomach. All that is
necessary is that it should be willingly eaten by the horses, keep
well, and be easily carried. It should contain about three times the
nutritive qualities, weight for weight, of oats, and should suffice to
keep horses in condition for three or four days in succession. These
demands are fairly satisfied by a food manufactured by Marck at
Darmstadt. It should be always carried in the field and replenished as
consumed, and with it even the most advanced patrols might be made
independent of requisitions, a matter which appears to me of the
greatest importance.
The fundamental condition of mobility being thus satisfied, the next
step will be to insure the technical and tactical independence of the
units under all circumstances which can be reasonably foreseen.
In this direction much has been done, and materials for the
destruction of railways, folding pontoons, and a field telegraph, now
form part of our equipment. The opportunities for the use of the
latter in the course of rapid movements--_i.e._, just in the most
important sphere of our activities--seem to me highly problematical,
as I have already pointed out; and the waggons which transport the
bridging equipment are too heavy to be always at hand when most
needed. Essentially, it seems only fitted to facilitate the progress
of smaller bodies of troops, and would hardly suffice to secure rapid
and safe passage of Cavalry Masses with all their attendant trains
over the rivers for which we ought to be prepared. For such purposes
they would only suffice if all the boats of a whole Division were
united into one bridging train.
Nevertheless, the collapsible boats are a most useful concession, and
they would be still more so if the load was more suitably subdivided;
as it is, the weight of the whole waggon ties us too much to the made
roads. For the Divisional Cavalry, which always moves in close
connection with the Infantry, and in need can always fall back upon
the Divisional Bridge Train, it has no particular value, and it would
therefore be better if, in War-time, all the collapsible boat
equipment were handed over to the independent Cavalry Divisions, and
their bridging equipment thus augmented.
More important, however, than this collapsible boat question is the
matter of the pioneer detachments to be assigned to the Cavalry
Divisions which require further equipment. A waggon of bridging
material just sufficient to cross smaller ditches and watercourses,
which can neither be jumped nor scrambled over, but which require only
one, or at most two, bays, would be invaluable, for it is just these
little hindrances, whose importance cannot be measured or deduced from
the map, which may bring most important Cavalry undertakings
unexpectedly to a check, particularly when in an enemy's country all
the culverts, etc., have been destroyed. In the days of Frederick the
Great such bridging equipment was often assigned to the Cavalry
marching at the head of the Columns, in order to help them over
similar obstacles.
Given, however, that all has been done to attain the degree of
collective mobility we require, a point of equal importance is that
the troops should be adequately provided with all they require for
their tactical action. In this respect, it cannot be too much insisted
upon that carbine ammunition should be placed in the very first line;
our present allowance is altogether insufficient.
The importance of dismounted action, as we have already seen, has
enormously increased. Almost daily, under certain conditions, we shall
have to have recourse to our firearms, and often be obliged to expend
very considerable quantities of ammunition to attain the object we
fight for. The replenishment of this consumption is far more difficult
in our case than with the Infantry, particularly in operations
partaking of the nature of raids, in which our communications are
likely to be interrupted. These conditions require first of all a
considerable increase in the number of rounds carried on the man's
person, and also in the number of Small Arm Ammunition waggons
attached to the units, and the regulations for the replenishment of
these require also corresponding development.
Further, it must be pointed out with all possible insistence that the
present equipment of the trooper is thoroughly impracticable. That the
carbine should be carried on the horse and the sword on the man is
opposed to common sense, for the latter is only of use when mounted,
the former only on foot. The sword should, therefore, be attached to
the saddle, the carbine to the man, as is, in fact, the practice of
all races of born horsemen. A practicable method of attachment is
certainly capable of being devised; it is probably only the question
of expense that stands in the way of its solution. The consequences,
however, of the existing attachment to the saddle are that the weapon
must be shorter than that of the Infantry soldier, and hence has a
lesser range; but it is precisely the Cavalry that requires to be able
to obtain good results at long ranges. Even against Infantry it must
always be in a position to obtain decisive results in the shortest
time. To obtain these ends it needs a weapon at least equal, if
possible superior, to that of the Infantry; and instead it has only
the carbine, a weapon of most restricted range, and most inadequately
sighted. It is required of Cavalry that it should break off an
engagement when the enemy approaches within 700 metres (Drill
Regulations, No. 562), and all the training the man gets in Peace is
at 600 metres at target practice, and only quite occasionally, if at
all, at greater distances at field practice.
I consider it most important that the Cavalry should be supplied with
a weapon which admits of accurate practice at long ranges, and for
which the greatest number of rounds can be carried. This would entail,
on the one hand, an increase in the length of the weapon carried; on
the other, a reduction in calibre, which should be made as small as
possible. We might thus safely go down to a 6-millimetre bore, and
increase the ammunition accordingly. The desire to retain the same
cartridge as the Infantry, to facilitate mutual assistance in
ammunition supply on occasions, seems to me of quite secondary
importance. As long as the Cavalry were still tied to the Infantry on
the line of march this consideration had indeed some weight; but now
that it moves far in front of, or on the flanks of, the Infantry
columns, and has its own arrangements for ammunition supply, the case
is quite different. The point nowadays is to make sure of that degree
of effect which is unconditionally necessary to our purpose, and for
this we require a weapon specially adapted to our particular need.
Our method of carrying our cartridges in the pouch attached to the
cross-belt is also impracticable. The bandoliers of the Boers would be
undoubtedly preferable, and could at the same time be made use of to
secure the carbine on the back.
It is also a matter for serious consideration whether cycle
detachments should not be attached to the Cavalry,[19] and I think I
am not going too far in estimating fifteen to twenty cyclists per
regiment as a suitable number to perform the many duties which may
fall to their lot. On the advantages they confer I have already dwelt
(Book I., Chap. VIII.), and further, I would advocate the addition of
portable or wheelable Maxims to the Cavalry to add to their fire
power. The latest patterns of this weapon are capable of easy
transportation, and can come into action very rapidly. Naturally such
heavy batteries as we now possess should be avoided. As regards this
latter weapon, one should not think of it primarily as destined to
take part in the real Cavalry duel; one should do nothing in this
direction to rob the horsemen of their confidence in themselves by
teaching them to lean on the firearm for support. Even the effect of
the Artillery in this respect is not always and everywhere
advantageous. One is too much inclined to make the action of the
Cavalry depend on the effect of the guns, and thus to sacrifice the
initiative when opposed to an enemy's horse. Nor would there be many
opportunities in practice for the Maxims to render support to the
charge. In the introductory phases of an engagement--_i.e._, when the
enemy is still at a considerable distance--they promise little
results, and in the moments when the 'Masses' are sent forward to the
attack, they would get in the way and hinder their freedom of
movement. On the other hand, they would be of great use in cases where
it is necessary to overcome or parry an Infantry opponent, and in the
battle, or in pursuit, when the Cavalry succeed in getting in on the
flanks or rear of the enemy's chief masses, they might prove
invaluable. Here, where reserves, columns, and trains all form
suitable targets, they would not only add materially to the striking
power of the Cavalry, but increase its radius of action very
materially.
[Footnote 19: The wheel should be so low that the man could
use his rifle without dismounting, and, if possible, it
should be 'transportable' (?'folding').]
By their side the Artillery will always maintain its high importance
for the fight against localities, woods, and defiles, and with this
Arm the German Cavalry is, in my opinion, sufficiently supplied;
only--and this is of the greatest importance--more adequate steps to
insure ammunition supply are essential in the case of the Independent
Cavalry Masses. Here, too, we shall have to reckon with far higher
consumption than in 1870-1871, and the greater distances will make it
impossible to replenish from the general Reserves of the Army. The
Cavalry, therefore, require sufficient ammunition columns of its very
own.
The nature of Cavalry operations indicate yet another
requirement--namely, batteries so organized that to every brigade of
two regiments one battery of four pieces should be assigned. Many will
be the occasions in our strategical operations on which guns will be
required, and in most of these it is more a question of having _some_
Artillery at hand rather than of the development of superior fire
power--_i.e._, a few shells into a village at the right time may be
all that is needed for our purpose. Further, in operating on several
roads it can seldom be foretold with exactness on which road the need
may first arise.
Under these conditions it is of the greatest importance to be able, if
necessary, to assign a battery to each brigade, and at the same time
not to allow the half of the whole available Artillery to escape from
control.[20]
[Footnote 20: With stronger Divisions, a corresponding
increase in Artillery must, of course, be made.]
Further, these small batteries are both handier and more mobile in
themselves; they are, therefore, better suited to Cavalry
requirements, and at the same time the power of concentration when
such is required is fully retained.
The advantage of this proposed division seems, therefore, to me
sufficiently clear to need no further recommendation.[21]
[Footnote 21: King William I. had already suggested the
formation of batteries of four guns for the Cavalry in
1869--in a marginal note on the report of Moltke's of
1868--already referred to in the note on p. 166 above.]
This organization of the Artillery requires, however, to be
supplemented by the introduction of a true quick-firing gun, even if
it is necessary to reduce the calibre somewhat to keep down the
weight. For it is particularly with the Cavalry, and especially in the
Cavalry duel, when the opportunities for Artillery action are often
compressed into a very few moments, and yet a great effect must be
attained, that a gun without recoil and a great rapidity of loading is
most urgently required. If the Cavalry is thus equipped with all that
the conditions of War demand and modern technical skill can supply,
then it will find in these--at least in part--compensation for its
numerical weakness on condition that at the same time it also succeeds
in raising its training to a corresponding height.
It cannot be denied that in this direction all ranks have worked with
most devoted and admirable industry, and that new points of view, new
methods, and new aims towards which to strive have been opened up.
But, on the whole, this question of the training of our Cavalry is
still based upon the ideas of a period which lies behind us. There has
been no conscious breach with the past, even in those very fields
wherein the developments and demands of modern times have brought
about a complete disturbance of all military relations.
That a method of training which does not take into account the
phenomena of modern Warfare, and follow them even to their furthermost
consequences, can never give satisfactory results, needs no
demonstration. But a method free from these objections we have to
find. In its training our Cavalry _must_ excel all others if it would
maintain its position on the field of battle, and it can do so, for it
possesses by far the best material both in men and horses of any
country in the Continent of Europe. There are only two essentials
which we must bear in mind. First, we must be absolutely clear as to
those points in which our system is behind the requirements of the
time, and what objectives we must now pursue. Secondly, being
satisfied as to the above, that we should take the straightest way
which leads towards them, not hesitating to break with tradition
wherever it hinders our advance.
If we now consider in the spirit of this first requirement the
separate branches of Cavalry work which our training must embrace, the
very first point which attracts attention is the vastly increased
demands on the endurance of our horseflesh that will now be made, far
exceeding what was required in our last Wars. Increase of endurance is
thus an unconditional necessity.
Further, it is perfectly clear that in the combat of Cavalry against
Cavalry, the decision will depend on the action of the great tactical
units, and that with regard to dismounted fighting, a complete
revolution in the conditions has occurred. In future this will tend
evermore to come to the front, and both points of view must be kept in
mind in our training.
Finally, it is evident that the centre of gravity of these two factors
is no longer in the same position. As long as decisive results in the
combat itself were expected from the Cavalry, it was quite right and
expedient to train them to meet this special requirement. But now,
when it is clear that the combat is only a means to an end--that end
being the possibility opened up by successful fighting to reconnoitre,
screen, or break the enemy's communications--this change in the
conditions must be taken into account in the process of our education.
Of course this is not to be understood in the sense that we can afford
to neglect the training for the actual combat: the defeat of the
enemy's Cavalry remains now, as always, the necessary condition of all
subsequent activity; but the Arm must be taught to understand that
victory in combat is only the first link in the chain of operations,
and to extend its outlook beyond the point of actual collision, and to
appreciate the tasks which are the consequence of success.
To this end we must undergo a preparation of a quite different
character, for nowadays, freed from the chains which formerly bound us
to conform to the action of the other Arms, we appear within the
framework of the Great Armies indeed, but operating in independent
'Masses,' and this change in conditions extends its influence even to
the smallest reconnoitring patrol.
In this new field our training must seek to follow the demands of War.
It must accustom the troops to the greatness of their mission both
with regard to time and space, attain higher results with the
individual, raise the education of its officers above the sphere of
the technicalities special to the Arm, and give them a wider horizon
of general military conditions.
In what way we can reach these new ideals, in the best and most
practical manner, I propose to investigate in the following chapters,
and need only point out here that it is not my object to discuss every
detail of military education, but rather to bring out the essentials,
and lay stress on those questions which, in my opinion, compel us to
strike out new ways to find our objective.
CHAPTER II
RIDING, FEEDING, AND TRAINING
When we discuss the training of the Cavalry, the first point which
naturally occurs to us is the question of 'horsemanship'--_i.e._, the
breaking-in of the horses and the teaching of equitation to the men.
Horsemanship is so absolutely the bed-rock of all Cavalry
performances, that the advantages of improved methods of breaking and
of equitation must bear fruit in every branch of their activity. Above
all, they exercise the most enduring influence both on the
conservation and endurance of the horses themselves.
Anglomaniacs and faddists, who, in spite of many a healthy impulse
they have imparted, have nevertheless exercised, and still seek to
exercise, an influence the reverse of favourable upon our Cavalry,
maintain that for certain purposes one can obtain better results with
horses broken by one of their short-cuts to the object, and then
'trained' in the sense that racehorses and hunters are prepared for
their work, than with those who have been gradually brought forward by
the methods in use in our Cavalry schools, and at the same time secure
the advantage of 'unconditional obedience' in the horse, a result
which they allege cannot be always counted on with our existing
methods.
On the other hand, the fact remains that our recruits, in the short
time available for their education, can only be well and quickly
taught on well-trained pliable horses. That such horses, with
sufficient exercise, go better and more safely across country than
those brought forward by more hasty methods, is sufficiently proved by
the fact that all our steeplechase riders in the Army take the
greatest pains to prepare their horses thoroughly (by school methods
understood), because experience shows that this preparation alone
gives them a chance against the more highly-priced animals with which
they are called on to compete. Only this thorough training guarantees
good individual riding, and insures the 'pliability' which alone makes
it possible to correct disobedience rapidly should it arise. And,
further, there can be no question that this prolonged preparation
improves the endurance of the horse--on that point at least experience
leaves no room for doubt. The thoroughly broken horse, which moves in
easy balance, with all its muscle thoroughly well and equally
developed, not only saves its forelegs and joints, and supports the
spinal arch better, but trots easier, and hence for longer periods
with less fatigue, than the unpliable animal, who stiffens itself
against the rider's load, and thus expends its power uselessly, and
the rider himself is far less shaken about under the former, a point
by no means to be neglected.
The recognition of these facts has at length led us to break with the
Anglomania of former years, and the tendency towards improved
preparation has become more evident, whilst the centrifugal strivings
of individuals no longer find acceptance. On the other hand, it seems
to me beyond a doubt that the objects which we wish to obtain from
our Military school of horsemanship could in many respects be reached
more directly and better than is at present the case.
In conformity with the whole essence of modern War, the individual
training of both man and horse must form the foundation of our whole
education--that is to say, steadiness in the movement of closed bodies
must be the consequence of individual horsemanship. Only in this way
can the bodily, intellectual, and moral qualities of both man and
horse be brought into useful activity, and in this way only can we
conquer the gregarious instincts of the horses and develop in their
riders the individuality which modern conditions absolutely demand.
More stress requires to be laid on riding with one hand only and with
arms (_i.e._, drawn swords), for the bit, with or without a feeling on
the bridoon, is in War the only practical method of direction; and the
use of his weapons when mounted must have become second nature to the
man if they are not to be a constant impediment to him in the control
of his horse. Finally, independent riding across country must be
encouraged by every conceivable means.
To attain all this will only be possible if we succeed in overcoming
the preliminary steps of the man's education--_i.e._, the elementary
training of man and horse--more rapidly than has hitherto been the
case, and thus gain time for the true practical preparation for the
field. If from this standpoint we look at our present system, it will
soon be clear where to apply the lever.
First, it should be possible, with the better bred and stauncher
material we now receive, to make more rapid progress in the first year
than has hitherto been generally the case. By the increased demands
and the greater freedom in the choice of means allowed us by the new
Regulations as compared with the conditions formerly prevalent,
considerable changes have been made; the point now is, in what manner
to derive the fullest advantage from this greater freedom for the
practical curtailment of the periods previously allotted for each
stage in the training.
But prudence is necessary in this direction. That the English
thoroughbred, for instance, develops better under work in its early
years, admits of no doubt whatever; but there is room to question
whether this experience can be transferred without modification to our
present Remounts, although many of them have a strong strain of
English blood. Our Prussian horses, for instance, only reach their
full development between the seventh and eighth years; it would,
therefore, be a mistake to attempt to force them up to the full
demands made on a Cavalry horse before that age. This slowness of
growth must always be considered, and the animals be saved as much as
possible; but there is still room to unite with this necessary
concession increased demands on the degree of training.
Without any detriment to their efficiency, the young remounts can be
taken in hand immediately on joining their regiments, instead of
waiting till the conclusion of the manoeuvres, as is still a common
practice. It seems feasible, also, to begin with the gallop earlier
than was formerly the custom; and, finally, it is by no means
absolutely necessary to go back to the bridoon again at the
commencement of their second year's training.[22] One can well go on
with riding on the bit at the point where the course was interrupted
by the manoeuvres.
[Footnote 22: Under the new Regulations this is now left to
the discretion of the Regimental Commander.]
All these measures together produce quite a remarkable saving of time,
and there cannot well be any doubt that in this way, as far as
concerns the riding education of the horse alone--_i.e._, without
arms--the same standard of progress can be reached by Christmas of the
second year as was formerly often only reached at the end of the
second winter.
If from this foundation we go on to specific training of the
charger--still working, of course, concurrently at the gymnastic side
of his training also--to accustoming him to the curb, then by the end
of February the remount ought easily to be ready to be placed in the
ranks.
Side by side with this increase of rapidity in his training, we both
can and must make the individual training the foundation of his whole
education, so that from the very first the horse learns to go alone
and with safety in all kinds of ground.
The very first lessons to accustom him to both saddle and rider are
better given on the lunging rein than when led by an older horse, for
nothing teaches the bad habit of 'sticking' more than this last
practice. And since now the first months of training fall in the
summer, we can avail ourselves of the fine weather to send out the
young horses in charge of trustworthy riders, some of whom must be
left behind even during the manoeuvres, to go singly or in small
groups under suitable supervision, which can easily be arranged, out
into the country, if possible into woods and fairly difficult ground,
to habituate them to minor obstacles and the objects one meets with,
instead of, as formerly, keeping them in the school or manège, and
making them into 'stickers' first, only to have the trouble of
breaking them of the habit, often after many a hard tussle,
afterwards.
All through their subsequent training they must constantly be sent out
singly into the country, and even in the school itself they should be
exercised as little as possible in squads one behind the other.
It goes without saying that only the best horsemen should be trusted
with the young horses, for bad habits developed at the beginning of
their instruction are of all the most difficult to correct hereafter,
and may ruin the result of all one's trouble.
That in this way we can meet the requirements of the service much more
rapidly than by existing methods cannot be open to question and may be
taken as practically settled, and similar considerations apply to the
recruits.
The system laid down in the regulations does not go directly enough to
the purpose, a consequence, no doubt, of the fact that we have now
better horses on which to instruct them than at the time these
instructions were evolved.
If one begins as soon as possible with the gallop and individual
riding--if necessary on the lunge--and allows the recruit as soon as
he has acquired anything approaching a firm seat to practise the aids
for the leg and the side paces--passage and shoulder-in--one will
attain quite different results than from riding only on straight lines
and practising closing in the ranks. The practice in the use of the
legs makes the men more independent and individual, compels them to
trust to their seat, and not to hang on by the reins.
The individual riding makes the man drive his horse forward by the
pressure of his legs, which he is not compelled to do in the squad,
where the horses follow one another almost automatically. The horses,
too, are saved from becoming dull and heavy, as they are only too apt
to do under the recruits of the old system.
By Christmas the recruits can thus be brought forward as far and
farther than they now are by the time of the inspection on the
bridoon, and can then go on to riding on the curb, so that by February
they should be able to ride the side paces, gallop and change, and all
other school paces, without arms, and generally be so firm in the
saddle that they may be advanced to drilling with arms, and can begin
their real instruction as troopers. Of course, it is not to be
expected that these school paces should be ridden as yet in perfect
form, but the men must understand what these lessons are intended for,
and the effort to get the correct bend should be recognisable. And we
may add that to teach them to rely on their seat and not on their
hands suitable exercises with the lance may be introduced even at an
earlier period.
As regards the remainder of the squadron, the so-called 'Dressur'[23]
detachment, it is hardly necessary to point out that one can ask of it
at least all that can be attained by the remounts and the
recruits--that is to say, that by the beginning of February the men
and horses should reach the highest point of their purely riding
training. Of course, to achieve this they must not be put back every
autumn to the very ABC of their work--riding on the bridoon. They must
go on with the curb, to which by this time they are accustomed, and in
the place of the bridoon work, individual riding must be encouraged
as much as possible.
[Footnote 23: 'Dressur' literally means 'preparation.' We use
the term 'breaking-in.' Note the difference.--TRANSLATOR.]
Only those squads will require somewhat different treatment in which
the best men of the second year are being trained on the best horses
for the riding of the remounts in the following year. These men will
certainly require more bridoon work in the autumn, but even these
should be sufficiently forward by Christmas-time to pass on to the
bit, so that, in spite of the very high degree of perfection required
from their horses, they can be dismissed the school by the middle of
February.
From the increased demands made on the individual training of man and
horse, it follows as a necessary consequence that a different kind of
inspection in equitation will be required to that hitherto in vogue.
The presentation of closed detachments must be restricted as much as
possible, and all previous rehearsals of a special inspection
programme absolutely prohibited. Horse and rider, since they have been
trained individually, must be inspected and judged on their individual
merits, not otherwise. In this manner not only is it easier to
appreciate difficulties, but good work also has a fairer chance of
securing recognition. It needs an expert to bring together the sum of
all the performances, and express a fair judgment on the total result.
In any case, however, such a judgment will be nearer the truth because
it is uninfluenced by 'eye-wash' and mere externals.
Hence we arrive at the conclusion that in the manner we have above
indicated the whole squadron can have completed its training in
equitation by the middle of February.
That many objections will have to be met and many difficulties
overcome before this end is attained goes without saying; but where in
human affairs can it be said that this is not the case?
It may be urged that both for horses and men there is a distinct
advantage in beginning again every year with bridoon riding.
The action of the rider is easier to control than on the bit, and if
once the men take to holding on by the curb, the consequences are much
worse than with the former. On the other hand, also, it is easier for
the horses on the curb to assume a false bend or poise, or to refuse
to go up to their bits, and thus deceive the instructor. Wrong
application of the aids with the bit entail worse consequences on the
horses than with the bridoon; hence almost exclusive work on the bit
requires better teachers and lighter hands, and if one has few of
these at one's disposal, undoubtedly a disadvantage will accrue.
It may further be objected that for such a thorough extension of the
course of individual riding as I have demanded there is neither time,
school accommodation, nor teachers available, and it must be granted
that the regulation allowance of three schools per regiment is, in
fact, insufficient for the attainment of the required standard by the
methods I have in view. Nor will it suffice to allow each training
detachment only three-quarters of an hour in the school at a time.
Detachments of average strength require daily one hour and a quarter,
if the necessary skill in individual riding is to be acquired, and
recruit squads even longer. Further, it will not do to exclude
recruits who begin early with the side paces and the gallop altogether
from the school; on the contrary, they require to attend it at least
once or twice a week.
But with only three schools per regiment, particularly in our northern
provinces, these requirements cannot be fulfilled. Four I consider as
the least number, and it would be still better if each squadron had
its own school, so that difficult animals and backward men could be
taken individually, and work on the lunge and circle thoroughly
carried out.
Still, all these obstacles can be overcome. With increased practice,
comprehension of the management of the bit in military riding would
gradually increase both with teacher and pupils, and work with the
reins in both hands be usefully employed to facilitate the transition
from the bridoon to the bit and counteract the possible evils of
riding on the bit alone.
The better training of the Remounts, which will be obtained by the
means I have indicated, will in course of time give us better, more
obedient, and more pliable horses, and better-trained recruits again
will give us a better choice of riders for the young remounts.
Our instructional staff for equitation is thoroughly satisfactory. In
this respect the Riding-School in Hanover has done excellent work. We
have also amongst our senior non-commissioned officers some excellent
instructors.
The necessary time for all my demands can very well be saved if we
make up our minds to leave out all superfluities in the daily routine
of duty; and as regards the question of school accommodation, it is
well within the bounds of possibility for most regiments to provide
themselves with a fourth school--eventually even with a fifth--out of
their own financial resources. No investment could be more
remunerative. Certainly under circumstances red tape may stand in the
way; but when his superiors will support the Regimental Commander, and
sometimes without, one will generally find appreciative backing, even
from the War Office (_Intendantur_).
If the drawbacks and difficulties in the way of the proposed changes
are, as I have endeavoured to show, to be surmounted, on the other
hand, the advantages accruing therefrom are so enormous that the
former need not be taken into consideration at all. In the first
place, as we have seen, better individual horsemanship and more
practice in riding on the bit are in themselves advantages which react
directly on the War efficiency of the whole squadron. Secondly, the
earlier completion of the remount training is a direct gain, for, in
case of mobilization, we shall be better able to place remounts in the
mobilized squadrons, leaving in exchange older horses behind, which is
again an advantage for the training of the recruits destined hereafter
to join us at the front. I cannot too earnestly warn against the
taking of _all_ the old horses into the field. No man can foretell how
great the losses will be, but that they will be great admits of no
doubt whatever. Nor is it at all certain that future Wars will be of
short duration; on the contrary, they may drag on for a very long
time. Hence it is absolutely indispensable that suitable horses for
recruit training should be left behind, even if the marching out
strength per squadron should be reduced by a file or two--it cannot be
many in any case. For the rest, the quicker and better training of the
recruits will be all to the good in case of War breaking out, as one
will be able to detail men for the field squadrons towards the close
of the winter season--_i.e._, some weeks sooner than under the old
system; and finally the proposed procedure brings with it an enormous
gain of time in the training of the whole arm.
To begin with, we gain in winter the months from the middle of
February to the beginning of the Drill Season (April). This time can
be devoted to direct training for the demands War must make upon us.
We can practise again, and confirm the men in the fundamental
principle of dressing in motion, the exact squareness of the horses to
the alignment and rallying, with which one had already commenced in
the early months of winter, before being driven into the schools by
frost and snow; and, further, take advantage of fine days and similar
circumstances to practise men in taking jumps, scrambling, etc., the
development of the regulation drill gallop (fifteen miles an hour),
whilst still maintaining the control and standard of equitation for
which the school training is specially adapted. The winter exercises
in field service duties, which, as long as they are allowed constantly
to interrupt the formal lessons in equitation, do more harm than good,
can be postponed to this period, when the recruits will now be able to
take part in them--a point of essential importance in case War breaks
out. Above all, the time thus saved must be devoted to individual
riding and single combat.
Our Regulations (Sections 129 and 324) lay special stress on this
latter point, and in most regiments it is constantly practised. The
results, however, are sometimes questionable, and many Squadron
Commanders are of opinion that such training can be overdone. Nor is
this view without foundation. If single combats are carried out in the
regulation way on imperfectly broken horses, the horse is not only
spoilt, but the rider also, and a clumsy rider will very soon make a
good horse hard in the mouth and refractory.
Now, since we have neither ideal horses nor riders at our disposal,
there is much danger in overdoing these exercises, because the method
of their execution is often thoroughly unpractical. The combatants
ride round one another in unnatural circles, one retreats, the other
pursues, and both tear at their horses' mouths to turn them sharply
about, all things which, except the latter, they never do in action.
Nor should we overlook the really imminent danger which lies in
teaching the men to run away before an opponent. Few of them are
'Horatios,' and if, in fact, they once turn about, it is, to say the
least, highly problematical whether, in a real fight, they will ever
stop again. In the field matters are very different. If one has but
one adversary, one tries to ride him down, and, if unsuccessful, then
after one turn about both get locked together, turning only on the
fore hand; and the man who turns a second time can only trust to the
speed of his horse--he has given up the fight.
Such duels are rare indeed; in most engagements the man fights between
crowds of his own comrades and the other side, in wild confusion,
under clouds of dust. He must attack at one moment to the right, at
the next to the left, and guard himself. The essential here is not so
much the skilful use of the lance, as complete command over the horse,
and the determination to _kill_, which must rise to the height of
_fanaticism_. He who can twist and turn his horse by his weight alone,
without dragging at its mouth, whose arm does not tire, and who can
make sure of striking what he aims at, even at speed, and with the
energy born of hatred, thinking only of destroying his enemy, never on
retreating--he alone can hope to remain the conqueror; but such a one
very soon learns all that is practical in the use of sword or lance.
The exercises in single combats, therefore, must be based mainly on
preparatory practice, intended to strengthen the arm, give command of
the weapon, heighten the man's energy, and, above all, aim at securing
the most perfect harmony between man and horse by constant exercise in
those forms of individual riding which are really needed in the fight:
the rapid turning about of the horse; serpentining between, and
cutting and thrusting at, different objects in varying directions, as
far as possible without reins, and never according to a prescribed
formula.
The actual combats between squads should follow only when considerable
excellence in these preliminary exercises has been attained--_i.e._,
for recruits--about the end of the summer, before the manoeuvres; and
they should always be kept down to the lowest limits, and then only
carried out in thoroughly practical form--_i.e._, between squads, and
not larger detachments. I believe that in this way a far higher
standard will be reached, and with less damage to the horses than is
possible under existing conditions, in which one generally begins with
single combats, man against man, at the very commencement of the drill
season. In any case, we shall at least obtain this advantage--that the
work to be done in the latter will be materially reduced if the
exercises I have suggested are begun already in the winter months.
The more the men have learnt to ride with a light hand on the bit, the
greater command they possess over their lances--thanks to more
constant practice--and the more thoroughly they have been grounded in
the principles of direction, pace, alignment, and rallying. Further,
the more quietly the horses move--and even at rapid paces have learnt
to carry their heads not too high, with a firm bearing on the
reins--the easier it will be for the Commander to drill his squadron,
and to eliminate all the plunging and surging in movement which is
fatal to all excellence in manoeuvring.
The drill season can thus be cut down, and the time thus saved devoted
to field service practices and riding across country, because the
whole system, thanks to this considerable saving of time it effects,
enables one to extend the education of man and horse over the whole
year instead of confining it to the winter months.
Though every efficient squadron possesses a considerable number of
horses that do not require six months' practice in 'shouldering in,'
and in 'collected paces,' on the other hand, everyone has some horses
that do urgently need 're-making,' but which one has to entrust to
inferior riders, because the better ones are all needed for the
remounts and young horses.
This is a consequence of the whole system in which the training of the
horses and of the men eventually react on one another. There will be
remounts which need correction, and horses ridden by recruits to be
cured of acquired bad habits; and on my system there will now be time
and opportunity to hand these over, say from the beginning of
February, to non-commissioned officers and the better riders, either
by forming them in a special squad or entrusting them to individuals,
and the process of re-making the horses can be continued throughout
the whole summer, for now there will be ample time.