STRATEGICAL EMPLOYMENT OF CAVALRY
The attempt has often been made to advance formal principles and rules
for the strategical, as well as tactical employment of the Arm, which
will give a more or less safe foundation on which to base the grouping
and employment of the available forces.
Some regard a Cavalry Division as normally deployed when two brigades
march on separate roads in first line, with the third following behind
the centre in Reserve. Others want to see all brigades on one front,
side by side; whilst yet others wish to see two brigades on one road,
whilst the third pursues the same objective on a country lane.
Even our Cavalry Regulations--which on this subject actually ventures
to trespass on strategical ground--lays down (see Section 318) that
'in Reconnaissance the mass of the Division must be kept together
until the enemy's Cavalry has been beaten out of the field.'
I hold all these attempts which only hamper the free strategic
employment of the Arm as not only mistaken, but contrary to the very
essence of our being, and for the same reason I hold them even to be
detrimental, because they are calculated to produce thoroughly false
views as to the conditions and demands with which in practical
warfare we are confronted. All these regulations fall to the ground
the moment they have to be applied to strategical units of variable
dimensions. Further, as I have developed above, the tasks which may
fall to us are of such different natures that they cannot possibly be
all solved by the same formulae.
The strength of the enemy must naturally exercise decisive importance
on the whole character of our action and the distribution of our
forces. The lie of the roads and the nature of the country also
exercise their influence on our decision.
To this must be added the fact that, in view of the many strategical
necessities of a great Army, the Headquarters cannot always be in a
position to allot to the Cavalry a clearly-defined task either of
reconnaissance or security, attack or defence; thus higher
considerations may prevent the massing of the Cavalry on a single road
or any other similar simple distribution. More often than not one will
have to suggest the simultaneous attainment of the most varied
objectives, and the Cavalry Leader will be lucky if he is not called
upon to solve problems of the most heterogeneous nature, things which
in their execution mutually exclude one another.
Hence one can only lay down the most general principles to govern the
strategical employment of the Arm, and to meet this difficulty it
becomes all the more important to develop the capacity for endurance
of the troops to the utmost, so that they can successfully deal with
these many variable demands.
As to how far the independent Cavalry should be thrust out in front of
the following columns of the Army, all that can be laid down is, that
the wider the fronts and the deeper the Army--hence the longer time
the Army will take to deploy, concentrate, change its position, or
execute any similar operation depending on the reports of the
Cavalry--the further that Cavalry must gain ground to the front.
As to the principles governing the formal arrangement of the troops in
contradiction to all attempts to lay down stereotyped formations, all
that can be said is that every strategical operation, if for no other
reason than to allow of reconnaissance and secure safety, requires a
certain extension in breadth; but the combat itself demands
concentration.
It follows from the above that the Cavalry Commander must in every
initial case weigh in his own mind how much the existing circumstances
may allow him to extend, and, on the other hand, how closely they
compel him to keep concentrated, and he will only be able to reconcile
the dilemma when he is actually clear in his own mind as to the
tactical and strategical results his conduct in either case will
involve.
If the essence of his duty is to secure and to screen, then, as stated
above, extension and subdivision of his command naturally follows. But
one must keep clearly before one's own eyes that any concentration for
a combat jeopardizes the performances of these tasks, for the
concentration for combat necessitates the uncovering of the front,
which it is the very object of the enemy to bring about and take
advantage of. Further, the wider the front, the less becomes the
possibility of timely tactical concentration; hence, under such
conditions, one would generally have to renounce the temptation to
engage in combat with a positive object, and content one's self with
keeping the enemy at a distance, for this purpose availing one's self
to the utmost of the advantages the ground may confer, and such
support as the reinforced Horse Artillery and mobile Infantry (in
vehicles) can afford.
When the width of extension becomes very great it will be an absolute
mistake to keep back reserves, since by doing so the actual front is
weakened, whilst there is no guarantee that the reserve can arrive in
time at the threatened point.
Further, the wider the front becomes, the greater the difficulty of
strategical change of direction.
A similar extension of front as that above indicated in this resume of
'Security' duties may also become advisable when engaged on
'Reconnaissance'--for instance, when lengthy obstacles, such as
watercourses, mountains, etc., only traversable at bridges, dams, or
defiles, have to be surmounted.
In such cases, especially when resistance is to be anticipated, it
will rarely be possible to count on being able to surmount the
obstacle in one single column, since even unimportant forces under
such circumstances can oppose a very protracted defence, and
neutralize a large numerical superiority. When these difficulties are
met with, it will be necessary even in reconnaissance to divide one's
force into several columns, as then there is always the chance of
successfully piercing the enemy's front at some one point, and thence
rolling up his resistance all along the line.
Even in open country conditions may be encountered that render the
subdivision of one's forces over a considerable extent of front
desirable--_i.e._, when it is necessary to find the enemy, and fix the
fact of his presence in certain specific districts. As an example,
the conduct of the Cavalry after the Battle of Gravelotte (August 18,
1870), when it became imperative to ascertain whether MacMahon's Army
was marching to the north-eastward or not.
Here it was indispensable to sweep out a wide area. To attempt such
tasks with patrols alone is unadvisable, for these always require a
certain tactical support behind them, by which they can be either
reinforced or relieved.
Still, the point must never be lost sight of, that, since the enemy
will also seek to screen his operations, a decisive collision may
become necessary at any moment to tear his screen asunder. Hence it
will be better, in opposition to the principles laid down for
'security' only, to keep one's principal force in groups or masses,
possessing considerable striking force, and to march in such manner
that a certain degree of concentration is always attainable while
meeting the necessity for extension in breadth by smaller
reconnoitring patrols.
Against an opponent whose general whereabouts has been ascertained,
whom one is determined at any price to beat, in order then to
reconnoitre, one's troops must be kept in hand, so that their complete
concentration is assured in all cases, and only to divide them to the
degree rendered indispensable by the general direction of the roads
and the nature of the ground to be traversed. The same conditions also
hold good where surprise is the essence of the undertaking. In this
case it may even be advisable to suppress one's own dispositions for
security, and accept the risk of being taken at a disadvantage rather
than run the risk of having one's intentions prematurely disclosed.
Tactically the greater concentration guarantees tactical success, and
strategically it allows greater freedom of movement and changes of
direction to meet altered conditions; but one must never lose sight of
the technical drawbacks such closer concentration entails.
The zone of reconnaissance is naturally always of less breadth than
with divided columns; hence the possibility of screening the march of
troops in the rear is diminished, the risk of being turned is
increased, and the possibility of delivering a stroke in the air is
not inconsiderable.
If the enemy wishes to evade us, we have scarcely any means of holding
him until our main force can arrive; and finally, this condition of
close concentration by no means guarantees always and everywhere
either superior readiness for action or a more favourable deployment.
Cases can arise in which strategic dispersion will prepare the way for
tactical encounter even better than the concentrated advance; and this
is particularly so when, to attain the object of our mission, a wide
turning movement is necessary, for this will generally be best brought
about by previous strategic dispositions; whilst the deployment of a
mass from a defile or its retreat may be entirely prevented if
attempted in a single column.
Hence every principle has its limitations, and circumstances will
always arise which defy all stereotyped formations. Thus, even for
'screening' and 'security' cases can arise under which concentration
is justified, even where the nature of the ground does not
imperatively dictate it, as when, for instance, the insufficiency of
one's own force excludes any distribution in breadth, and compels one
to combine all efforts for the defence of decisive points. And it is
precisely on the defensive that it may be of advantage to deal a blow
with the concentrated strength. Equally on the strategic offensive,
dispersion may be necessary, as when the enemy retreats eccentrically;
or if it is necessary to occupy districts of considerable size to
break down the resistance of the hostile population, or to interrupt
railway communication over a considerable area.
Finally, all principles fall to the ground where the enemy's Cavalry
is finally beaten out of the field, or by a succession of mistakes he
gives openings which we can seize with advantage. Thus our conduct
always remains dependent on the topographical nature of the country,
on our own purpose and the opposition of the enemy, and only one law
governs all cases--namely, expediency. The greater art of leading will
naturally be required when the necessity arises to operate with more
or less widely-separated columns. In all such cases everything depends
on the endurance of one's troops. The principal difficulty in the way
of execution lies in harmonizing and maintaining the movements of the
separate detachments.
If one has to deal with Infantry only, then, since their rate of march
is almost always the same, it is easy to calculate approximately where
the several columns may be found; but it is quite different when one
comes to deal with Cavalry, where the different Leaders may adopt very
different rates of movement, or may have such variations forced upon
them by other circumstances, and hence one has always to deal with
quite indeterminable factors. This difficulty can never be altogether
eliminated; one can only counteract it by laying down from the very
first instructions for the advance of the several columns, according
to time and space, from which no deviation is to be permitted without
sufficient reasons, and organizing the circulation of orders and
intelligence in such a manner that it will work with certainty. These
two precautions supplement one another. If one can calculate
approximately where the several detachments are to be found at a given
time, then reports can be sent by the shortest way, and will reach
their destination without delay.
It will be decidedly advisable that all detachments should report to
Headquarters, and if possible to all adjacent columns, without
distinct instructions, and at certain time intervals, both as to their
advance, their bearing in relation to adjacent columns, as also any
news they may have obtained about the enemy.
Nothing is more important to the Cavalry Leader than to be constantly
informed as to the general situation of the units he controls; but it
is equally important that the several groups should know what is
happening to one another, for only then can they act in the spirit and
in combination with the whole.
This is all the more essential because, owing to the rapidity of all
movements, and to the great extension which has often to be given to
the front, it is impossible for the higher Command to interfere in
good time, or to obtain information from its subordinates in any
emergency that may suddenly arise. The results, then, depend entirely
on the independent judgment of the man on the spot, and suitable
action can only be obtained when the latter is kept fully informed as
to the nature of the general situation.
We should, therefore, avoid as far as possible the despatch of orders
to individual Commanders without at the same time informing their
comrades of the bearing of such instructions.
Wherever possible in strategical operations, the orders should be
comprehensive, and should be circulated simultaneously to all
subordinates. Where it is impossible to convey an order simultaneously
to all, those not immediately concerned in their execution should be
informed of its issue as soon as possible. Certainly, this method
requires a large number of gallopers, orderlies, and so forth; but
this apparent waste of energy will in the end prove the best economy,
because the troops will thereby be spared many unnecessary movements.
However great the endeavour may be to diminish the difficulties of the
united action of separated bodies in the combat itself, the issue of
the Cavalry fight is decided so rapidly that its consequences must
have begun to show themselves before either the adjacent columns or
Headquarters have learnt of its commencement. We must, therefore, be
clear in our own minds that successful combination of separated bodies
in action can generally only be effected when the opponent is either
stationary, in which case one can time one's movements against him, or
when, by a protracted defence at other points, the more distant bodies
have time and opportunity to reach the field.
Even when the approach of the opponent's forces has been discovered in
time, it will be difficult to calculate with any degree of precision
the exact point at which collision will occur, as the marching rate of
the enemy's Cavalry must always remain an uncertain factor. Hence it
will not suffice to evade the enemy's advance until the adjacent
columns can unite, as one cannot assign to them any definite point of
concentration where the distance between the columns is at all
considerable. Any attempt to concentrate strategically against an
enemy in movement without at some point fighting to gain time must be
dismissed as illusory. In all these cases one must not hesitate to
take to the rifle, and to utilize all available means of defence.
Similarly, when advancing in separated columns, it will be well to
advance from one defensive section to another in rushes, and not to go
beyond any one of these until fairly assured that one can reach the
next without encountering the enemy's Cavalry.
If one should have the misfortune of being surprised in a district
which affords no points of support, then one must retire to the next
best one in order to give the adjacent columns time to swing in
against the enemy's flanks. The sound of the guns will be indication
enough to these to hasten their pace.
The more important it is, therefore, to march to the sound of the guns
in order to save time, the more careful must one be in opening fire
without sufficient cause. On the one hand, the side which wishes to
attract support will not be satisfied with a few rounds, but will
endeavour by continuous and heavy firing to make the danger of his
situation evident; on the other, the adjacent columns will only then
be justified in approaching if they are convinced that it is not a
mere matter of local and transitory advantage. The Cavalry Commander
must keep, therefore, a firm hand over his guns, and never allow these
to come into action without express sanction, except in extreme
necessity. Generally, the batteries should always march with the
advance or the rear guard in order to break down rapidly any minor
resistance, and to make the fullest use of such short opportunities as
may arise for the utilization of their full power.
The application of these principles is, of course, much simpler when
it is possible to keep the several columns close together on a
convenient group of roads, all running fairly near to one another. The
disadvantages which then arise make less demand on the skill of the
Leader, but more on the necessarily cramped form of the disposition
which, as we have above pointed out, he is compelled to adopt.
For every operation, in fact, except the direct attack, there is a
certain degree of extension, which favours the immediate purpose the
most, and this depends on the shape and nature of the ground; but one
has always to resist the temptation to dispersion which arises,
particularly when it is necessary to keep in mind the solution of
several possible problems. Only very occasionally will it be expedient
to divide one's troops to meet every emergency.
The General must use his judgment to decide where the chief weight of
his mission lies, the principal characteristics he must impress upon
his operations, and how the subsidiary purposes can be best served
without applying half-purposes to the primary object. It is these
considerations--the reduction of the complicated to the simple--which
create the chief difficulties which weigh upon the mind of the Leader.
The capacity of coming to a correct decision in every special case is
a mark of the intellectually capable Commander, and of itself gives a
certain guarantee of its success by rendering possible the
concentration of the force upon the decisive point; but it will not
alone suffice to insure success. Boldness and energy of character is
the final determining cause of successful results.
Above all, every Cavalry leader must be inspired by the determination
to keep the initiative under all circumstances, and never to
relinquish it to his opponent. The initiative alone guarantees
successes, often in a degree which one was hardly entitled to expect,
for it forces the enemy to accept the law from our hands, disturbs his
strategical combination, compels him to fight before his troops are
united, and often gives to the numerically weaker the opportunity of
establishing a relative local superiority. One must, therefore,
endeavour to introduce as much of the initiative and offensive element
as circumstances will permit even in the execution of defensive
missions.
A Leader must never allow himself to be hindered in an advance, or be
driven into an attitude of expectation by the passive opposition of
the enemy's Cavalry, as so often happens in peace.
In all such cases, when a direct frontal attack holds out no prospect
of success, he must immediately initiate a wide turning movement
outside the effective range of the enemy's Artillery, and sacrifice
without hesitation his own line of retreat. Victory restores at once
the original line of advance, and the outflanking movement threatens
also the enemy's retreat.
It is never permissible to wait until driven into action by superior
commands, but one must always endeavour to reap, on one's own
initiative, the utmost possibilities the situation holds out.
In this way we shall save the troops excessive exertions and
purposeless riding about, for since the Headquarters can never grasp
the situation as rapidly or as thoroughly as the General actually on
the spot, it follows that their orders will generally arrive too
late. Hence they often lag behind events, and call for excessive
exertions, night and forced marches if the purpose is to be attained.
The records of the Campaign of 1870-1871 give innumerable instances of
these facts, based on experience. Finally, resolutions should never be
made dependent on circumstances which may happen in the future, but
must always be based on something positive, which must be followed up
with all conceivable energy and circumspection. This most necessary
circumspection on the part of the Leader demands a clearness of
expression in the issue of orders which must never leave the
subordinate officers and troops in doubt, and should always reflect a
clear and determined purpose.
It is, however, equally necessary that the superior Leader must
himself be clear as to how he means to carry out his purpose, has also
considered all other possibilities, and has made his arrangements in
such a manner that, if necessary, he can give his operations a
different direction. This must be particularly the case where success
depends on cunning surprise. As concerns the first point, this will
require the more thorough consideration, because it is most
particularly difficult to change the strategic direction of a large
body of Cavalry when once it has been launched forward on a broad
front. In such a case the whole carefully-elaborated network of
patrols would be left, so to speak, hanging in the air. To divert it
sideways into a new direction is generally impracticable; it would, in
fact, in most cases be impossible to transmit to all the advanced
detachments the news of the change in the dispositions.
A new system of patrols will, therefore, be absolutely necessary to
save both energy and time, and the necessity for instituting this new
service will be particularly detrimental to our whole operations,
because the information from the new direction will generally arrive
too late to be of service.
It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that the Cavalry Leader
should not only reconnoitre in the direction prescribed by the higher
Command for its particular purpose, but should also scout
independently in every direction, and inform himself of all the
circumstances in the whole district over which he is operating; if
necessary, organize for himself an intelligence system.[14]
[Footnote 14: I here call attention to the instructions of
Frederick the Great on this subject, as well as to the
circumspection with which General J. E. B. Stuart prepared
for his own undertakings.]
In short, he must exercise such prevision that he can never be overtaken
by circumstances; and in every case in which action is called for in a
new, and, perhaps, unexpected direction, he should be prepared to meet
the emergency. In this way he will save himself much time and energy,
but it will facilitate his very difficult task essentially if he is
always kept informed in sufficient time of the views and possible
intention of the Chief Command; for unless this condition is complied
with, it will be impossible to insure that the whole energy of the Arm
will be directed to the carrying out of its reconnoitring functions in
conformity with the views entertained at Headquarters. It must be
characterized as one of the most suicidal errors when the superior
Command conceals its purposes from its executive organs. Diffused
activity, waste of energy, misunderstandings, and confusion would be the
inevitable consequences, and military history--not the least that of
1870-1871--gives a long rôle of illustrative examples.
As regards all those operations which depend on surprise, the
circumspection of the Leader becomes the decisive factor. Everything
must be thought out beforehand, and carefully considered. The very
soul and being of the Leader must be grasped by the men under his
Command, and the utmost energy in the execution of his design be
demanded from every individual. As a general rule, smaller bodies,
which can conceal themselves behind features of the ground, and hardly
require a service of security, can act quite differently to larger
ones, which cannot conceal their presence and always require a certain
degree of precaution for reconnaissance and security. Above all,
mobility is the essence of the whole situation, and darkness will
serve as a most important contributor to success.
On main roads, where it is impossible to lose one's way, darkness can
be used for forced marches to advantage if beforehand we are clear
about the conditions on the side of the enemy, and hence can act with
a certain degree of confidence.
One factor must never be left out of consideration--viz., that under
modern conditions the difficulties of action by surprise have been
enormously increased, and the enemy is under certain circumstances
enabled to paralyze the tactical results of surprise. This factor
arises from the existence of railways and telegraphs, and it will act
most detrimentally against us when moving in the enemy's country,
where both arrangements favour our opponents. Telegraphs carry the
news of the appearance of Cavalry far and wide beyond the points where
they have been seen by the enemy's troops, and the railways forward
supports to the threatened districts.
It is, therefore, of particular importance to destroy by means of
advanced patrols both telegraphs and railways all over the district on
which one hopes to act by surprise, and to repeat such active
destruction again and again. In such enterprises there is a wide field
for slimness and craftiness--qualities which might very well be
combined in greater undertakings.
Sudden changes in the line of advance behind the screen of advanced
troops, unexpected concentration of separate columns at decisive
points, separation and surprise reunions of one's forces,
dissemination of false news, feints on points of subsidiary importance
to distract the attention of the enemy--all these things can lead to
the deception of the enemy, and in one's own country they will be
materially supported by a friendly population; but timely and accurate
information of all the circumstances of the enemy remains always a
most necessary condition.
If the importance of these measures is particularly striking in these
cases where we are dealing with surprises, ambushes, and so forth,
they form also in every other type of Cavalry action one of the
principal foundations of success, for they alone insure timely
resolutions and the consequent initiation of the movements necessary
to bring about concentration and separation.
The Cavalry Commander must, therefore, always choose his position when
on the march, with the troops in immediate contact with the enemy; or
if his troops are quartered in the neighbouring villages, then
immediately behind the advanced line of cantonments, so that whenever
possible he can see with his own eyes and base his decisions on
first-hand evidence, where he can receive all reports as soon as
possible, and make his dispositions in good time. Otherwise it will
only too frequently happen that his orders and dispositions will drag
behind events, and disorder and defeat will be the consequence.
This personal supervision of matters in his front is also necessary to
enable him to come to a correct decision as to his line of action,
whereas a Commander of all Arms can better decide by the map, because
his troops are less dependent on the ground than Independent Cavalry,
move more slowly, and hence are more accessible to subsequent orders.
But even the utmost energy in the Leader will not alone suffice to
lead things into their proper lines without the most successful and
rapid reconnaissance. Hence the practical organization of the system
of reconnaissance remains the essential task of all strategical
Cavalry leadership; but it requires to be supplemented by an equally
practical system of security.
On the two subjects so much has already been written that it is
impossible to find anything new to say about them. Only one point has
not been brought out sufficiently--namely, that both security and
reconnaissance, in so far as both depend on patrols, will only then
work successfully when they are based on a thoroughly systematized
method of procedure. The subject is of such importance that I have
considered it necessary to devote a short chapter to it (Book I.,
Chap. VIII.).
If reconnaissance--apart from the fact that the roads must be cleared
for it in the first instance by the defeat of the enemy's
Cavalry--lies exclusively in the hands of the patrols, nevertheless
security depends on the arrangement and activity of the other
branches, such as advance guards, rear guards, flanking detachments,
and outposts, and the conduct of these depends, again, on thorough
systematization.
When on the move, safety lies in the distance that separates the main
body from the advanced detachments, and it is scarcely necessary to
point out that only systematic arrangements can guarantee the
necessary time for the exploration of the ground and the enemy which
is requisite for safety.
Threatened flanks require special detachments, moving on the same
level and at sufficient distance, and their co-operation will be
insured by a careful regulation of the mutual rate of march.
A uniform rate of advance in the whole mechanism is an essential
condition of complete security. Hence every means must be exhausted
down to the smallest detail. It will not be necessary to assign minor
flanking detachments for the duration of a whole march. During such a
period it is practically impossible to retain their relation to the
main body without keeping them within sight, which in most cases is
quite impracticable, for circumstances may suddenly check the main
body, or necessitate a change of direction. To advise the flanking
detachments of such occurrences will generally be impossible, or at
any rate very difficult, if one has permanently detached them, and
therefore has no certainty of finding them at any particular point.
Hence it is advisable to work them always in sections--that is to say,
when they have reached certain points to withdraw them to the main
body, and send out reliefs for the next section.
But in order that the security should never for one instant be
relaxed, these fresh reliefs should always be sent out at some little
distance before the point at which the former detachment is to be
drawn in.
Almost more important than security at night is security during
prolonged periods of rest. In that case the arrangements must be made
not only in accordance with tactical requirements, but the fact must
be taken into account that horses, in order to remain permanently
useful, require quite a different nature of rest than is needed by
men.
It is most desirable that as many horses as possible should every day
be brought under shelter and unsaddled, and all bivouacking should be
avoided as far as practicable.
The readiness for action from a purely tactical point of view
certainly suffers, but as rest at night is an absolute necessity for
the horses, one has to make the best of the matter and minimize this
disadvantage as much as possible by suitable arrangements.
Against this view it is often urged that Cavalry used to bivouac much
more frequently in former wars, and nevertheless remained fit for
service, hence they ought to be able to do the same to-day. I consider
this an entirely wrong deduction. In the first place, the demands upon
the troops in former days were generally much less than at present.
The periods of crisis in which great exertions had to be made by them
were on the whole less frequent, and the subsequent intervals for rest
and recuperation were usually longer.
Considering the average marches of the Napoleonic Cavalry as a whole,
they cannot be considered particularly great, and still less was this
the case under Frederick the Great, although under both Generals we
find instances of great individual exertion.
Moreover, the horses in those days were much less well bred, and the
commoner cold-blooded strain can stand bivouacs, cold and wet, much
better than our present high-bred material, although the latter stand
heat and exertion very much better. The leadership must adapt itself
to these conditions. Where circumstances allow the bulk of the horses
to take shelter behind the Infantry outposts, the most must be made of
the opportunity, and only the more distant patrolling service be left
to the Cavalry. Outpost service makes far less demands on the Infantry
soldier than on the Cavalry horse, for the former is allowed to sleep
when on piquet, the Cavalry horse cannot.
The Cavalry soldier certainly gains an advantage here over the
much-harassed Infantry man, for naturally the man derives advantage
from the care bestowed on the horse; but I hold this point is of far
too trifling a nature to take into consideration when the matter
affects such a necessary and important factor of strength of the whole
Army. Further, this advantage is more apparent than real, and is only
intended to give us the means, while sparing the material in one
direction, to make greater demands on it in another. When in critical
moments bold and wide-sweeping movements on the enemy's flanks and
rear become necessary, where our object is to keep the enemy's
movements under constant observation while screening our own; where,
finally, on the close of a battle we must pursue the enemy
relentlessly, or sacrifice ourselves to cover and protect the weary
and retreating Infantry, then the Cavalry which has been properly
nursed will be capable of exertions far beyond what could be expected
of troops less thoughtfully managed. These exertions can then be
unconditionally demanded, and will repay a hundredfold, both
tactically and strategically, the care bestowed in easier days.
Only rarely, however, will cases arise in which Cavalry can avail
themselves of the shelter of the Infantry, for the essence of all
Cavalry activity lies in the future in its independent undertakings.
If we were to apply to them the same principles as to the
Infantry--that is to say, make a principle of bivouacking the outposts
and exposing them daily to the effects of the weather--this would
result in a steady drain upon the horses, which would lead to serious
deterioration in their endurance. Hence the question of bringing them
under cover does not apply merely to the mass of the forces, but must
be extended to the whole system of outposts, and wherever practicable
the greatest possible number of horses must be placed under shelter in
full and complete security. This security must be sought for by the
increased depth assigned to the outpost system. Even after a
victorious advance one must not hesitate, under certain circumstances,
to withdraw the troops in order to obtain the necessary distances
between the enemy and the advance guard, as also between the advance
guard and the main body. Slightly increased distance to be covered
next day is nothing as compared to the advantage of greater security.
It will be particularly desirable to make the most of all positions
the ground may afford, which, being traversable at only certain
points, hinders the approach of the enemy--such as rivers, which can
only be crossed at the bridges, woods in which movement is confined to
the roads, marshes, and so forth. Behind these one can generally go
into cantonments without anxiety, and they offer the further advantage
that they can generally be held by small forces of dismounted men.
Hence the horses can generally be sent back and brought under shelter
at a distance, and in case of alarm can be saddled up and be made
ready by men detailed for that purpose.
Where such positions are not available, one must either go back
further, or, if not altogether too near to the enemy, make the most
advanced cantonments serve the purpose of the line of security.
Every evening these localities must be hastily prepared for defence,
with the determination, in case of attack, of defending them carbine
in hand, and without bringing out the horses until the support can
come up from the rearward cantonments.
The details of such defence I have already discussed elsewhere.
This method of defence, however, must be supplemented by a suitable
system of observation sent out towards the enemy. Even detachments far
advanced towards the enemy may, under favourable circumstances, find
temporary cover in villages, and every such period of rest is of
advantage for the horse.
The Cavalry, however, which, in full confidence of its firearms and
the alertness of its patrols, can venture to go into cantonments, and
thus save its horses from bivouacking, will very soon assert its
superiority over an enemy which seeks for safety by remaining
constantly under arms, and thus dissipates its inherent energy.
This tendency towards cantonments must not be allowed to become
stereotyped. Occasions will constantly arise when the Cavalry must
remain in immediate touch with the enemy; then it will be compelled
not only to bivouac, but will have to stand to its horses, ready to
mount at a moment's notice. Such occasions will only arise in
critical situations necessarily of short duration, and the conditions
both of the weather and the ground must be taken into careful
consideration in making the arrangements for the outposts.
Thus it is evident that it is not possible to lay down fixed rules of
conduct either for operations or for the outposts, but all must be
left to the capacity of the Leader and the adaptability of his men. On
this capacity depends in the last resort the greater or less strategic
value of the Arm. Its foundation can only be laid in peace, and will
depend on thorough and successful training, together with suitable
preparation of the whole organization for War. To both points I will
recur in the second part of this work. Here I would only insist that
naturally the collective strategic employment of the Arm must take a
thoroughly different form in proportion as the troops are rendered
more or less independent by their equipment, the leaders of all ranks
are qualified to act on their own responsibility, and mobility is not
hampered by difficulties in the provisioning of man and horse, and in
the supply of ammunition. In the one case the Leader can act with
courage and daring in the true Cavalry spirit; in the other he will
feel himself hampered at every step, will not be able to act with the
necessary degree of self-confidence, and will have to renounce the
most promising undertakings because the inefficiency of his troops
leaves him no alternative. However great his genius, no Leader can
compensate for want of efficiency in his command; but it is the duty
of such leader to maintain and increase the endurance inherent in his
material to the utmost limits of its capacity.
In this connection a well-thought-out system of saving and caring for
one's horses occupies the first position, for this is the bed-rock
foundation of all subsequent developments. We have seen of what immense
importance in this respect the sheltering and arrangements for the
outposts may be. But there are other factors to be considered--above
all, a rational arrangement of the marches. In the first instance, it is
a mistake to believe that Cavalry in the long-run can out-stay and
out-march the Infantry--that, in other words, the Cavalry horse can
endure greater hardships than well-trained Infantry. For a few days that
may well be so, but for continuous exertion it is by no means proved.
The German Cavalry horse is much more dependent on a sufficiency of
food than the man; the nature of his load, together with the rapidity
of movement, and hence the greater intensity of the exertions demanded
of him, attack the animal in a far greater degree than the more
uniform march performance of the men, who, moreover, are susceptible
to moral influences, capable of greatly increasing their powers;
finally, sore backs and lameness in long-continued exertions decimate
the ranks of the horses to a much greater degree than a well-trained
and equipped Infantry suffers from similar causes.
In normal conditions demands should not be made upon the Cavalry which
would be justified only in moments of a crisis. We must endeavour to
reduce the daily performance to the lowest limit that our purpose
allows. Only in exceptional instances should one move off at such an
early hour as to interfere materially with the night rest of the
horses. Unfortunately, there are still officers who will not be
convinced that it is the horse which most requires rest, and who are
never satisfied unless they keep the Cavalry night after night on
their legs, although in darkness they are useless either for
reconnaissance or for fighting.
Further, in War games and Staff rides it is a custom to make demands
which in practice are absolutely impossible, mostly by superior
officers who have never ridden 100 kilometres (66 miles) in a single
day.
An average of twenty to twenty-five miles a day is in practice a very
considerable performance. To demand much more of them, day in and day
out, is impracticable. On the march itself a suitable change of pace
is very necessary.
To trot hour after hour is the most fruitful source of ruin to our
horseflesh. Where it becomes necessary it is usually due to the want
of care on the part of the Leader. Much may be done to spare the
horses if we never march with considerable numbers on a single road
without absolute necessity; and when this is not to be avoided, then
we must seek to maintain an even pace throughout the column by the
intercalation of suitable distances between the several bodies;
otherwise there is a continuous hurrying up or checking of the
rearward detachments, which strains the horses to the very utmost.
One must always arrange for the halts necessary for the horses, water
them whenever opportunity offers, and never continue a movement to the
complete exhaustion of the animals. Well-timed periods of rest
increase the collective power of endurance of the horses most
materially, and as the training improves, the demands made upon them
can gradually be raised.
To bring this greater improvement into harmony with the military
requirements of the situation, next in importance to an intelligent
execution of a rational marching system comes a wise economy of forces
with regard to the performance of detached duties and patrolling. It
is particularly with the Divisional Cavalry that the lavish assignment
of orderlies and messengers to the leaders of the other Arms and to
the Infantry outposts has to be kept in check, and it must be insisted
upon that the men thus allotted should be returned punctually to their
commands, and not be employed in duties for which they are not
intended.
Thus one finds Generals who use their messengers as patrols even when
special patrols have been entrusted with this duty; others who keep
the detachments assigned to the outposts long after the outposts
themselves have been relieved. In all these things there is a
tremendous waste of energy, which must be all the more injurious the
smaller the proportion of Cavalry which can be detailed to the
Infantry Divisions.
It is a special duty of every Cavalry Commander to resist this
tendency to the utmost of his power.
Apart from the regulation of the marching column and the economy of
forces above referred to, a rational treatment of the rearward
communications, particularly with the Independent Cavalry, will go far
to maintain the troops in efficiency, and is also from the strategic
point of view an important part of the Leader's duty. The daily
despatch of numerous requisitioning detachments to great distances
weakens and diminishes the troops to an inadmissible degree, unless it
is managed with a wise foresight and on a rational system; often on
great marches it will be altogether impossible. Then the horses must
manage with what they find at their halting-places for the night. In
the case of great concentration this will be altogether insufficient.
Short rations reduce the horses very rapidly and only too thoroughly.
It is, therefore, necessary in all independent operations of great
Cavalry 'Masses' to take with one an organized and mobile supply
train, and, where circumstances require, to arrange for its defence.
The timely arrival of the supply waggons, the rational utilization of
the resources of the district, the contiguous replenishment of the
moving supply reserves, are matters which cannot be left entirely to
the Army Service Corps, but the Cavalry General must himself overlook
the whole matter, and keep the general control in his own hands. For
these arrangements must be regulated from the strategic point of view
since the power of operating at all depends essentially upon them. Of
course, the Supreme Command must lend assistance also.
In general, it will be advisable to carry with one a five to six days'
ration of corn if one is to be prepared for all emergencies. That, at
least, was the practical teaching of the War of 1870-1871. But one
must add, the further the Cavalry is separated from the masses of the
Army, and the more it renounces its communications with the latter,
the greater must be the bulk of supply it takes with it; and the
closer these supplies have to be kept to the troops, the more thorough
must be the arrangements for their protection. The latter will be of
particular importance when operating on a narrow front which favours
an enemy's outflanking endeavours, whereas wider fronts of themselves
give a certain degree of security to the rearward communications.
If we are entirely cut off from our home resources, then we must
select some point to be occupied on the flank or in the rear of the
enemy's Army, and there arrange a supply centre of our own, and make
it the point of departure for separate operations.
All means are, then, proper to accumulate in such places a sufficient
forage reserve, for the subsistence of the horses is the most
important task which falls upon the Commander. A delay in this
direction can wreck the most brilliant undertakings--jeopardize the
result even of the best executed ones. Theory does not attach
sufficient importance to the point here involved.
Thus we see that the tasks of the independent Cavalry Leader are both
many-sided and responsible. He can only then prove equal to them when
all subordinates on whom he has to count support him with the utmost
goodwill and reliability.
With this necessity a new demand is made upon him--namely, to raise
the spirit of the men he commands in such a manner that they will be
equal to the highest requirements. Only a bold, self-confident, and
active man, who everywhere sets the best example, will be able in this
manner to inspire and stimulate his command. The sum of the stimulated
individual performances brings with it also increased opportunities of
success.
Hence the last and greatest demand for the successful conduct of a
Cavalry Mass remains always the man who will inspire and stimulate the
troops under him, and thus lead them to victory.