2. The Ignition System.
3. The Starting Motor.
4. The Generator.
5. The Lighting System.
The normal course of operation of this system is as follows:
Starting. The ignition switch is closed, and connects the ignition
system to the battery. The starting switch is then closed, connecting
the starting motor to the battery. The battery sends a heavy current
through the starting motor, causing the motor to turn over, or "crank"
the engine. The motion of the engine pistons draws a mixture of air
and gasoline vapor into the cylinders. At the proper instant sparks
are made to jump between the points of the spark plugs, igniting the
air and gasoline vapor mixture, forming a large amount of gas. This
gas expands, and in doing so puts the engine into motion. The engine
begins to run under its own power and the starting switch is opened,
since the starting motor has performed the work required of it, and
has nothing further to do as long as the engine runs.
The engine now operates the generator. The generator begins to build
up a voltage as the engine speed increases. When the voltage of the
generator has risen to about 7-7.5, the generator is automatically
connected to the battery by the cutout (also known as reverse-current
relay, cut-out relay, or relay). The voltage of the generator being
higher than that of the battery, the generator sends a current through
the battery, which "charges" the battery. As long As the engine
continues to run above the speed at which the generator develops a
voltage higher than that of the battery, a charging current will
normally flow through the battery. When the ignition switch is opened
the engine can no longer develop any power and consequently stops
running. When the decreasing engine speed causes the generator speed
to drop to a point at which the generator voltage is less than that of
battery, the battery sends a reverse, or discharge current through the
cutout and generator, thereby causing the cutout to open and
disconnect the generator from the battery.
Lights. When the engine is not running, the battery furnishes current
to the lights. This is a discharge current. When the engine runs at a
speed which is greater than that at which the the cutout closes, the
generator furnishes current for the lights, and also for the ignition
system, in addition to sending a charging current through the battery.
From the foregoing description, we see that the battery is at rest, is
discharging, or charging under the following conditions:
Engine Not Running, Lamps Off, Ignition Off. Under these conditions
all switches are open, and hence no current should be passing through
the battery. If a current is found to be passing through the battery
under these conditions, it is a discharge current which is not doing
any work and is caused by a defective cutout, defective switches, or
grounds and short-circuits in the wires, cables, or apparatus
connected to the battery.
Starting the Engine. A heavy discharge current is drawn from the
battery. This current should not flow more than 10 seconds. If the
starting motor does not crank the engine or cranks it too slowly, the
motor or the cables and switch connecting the motor to the battery are
defective, assuming that the battery is large enough and is in a good
condition. If the starting motor cranks the engine, but the engine
does not begin to run under its own power within ten seconds, the
starting system is not at fault, and the starting switch should be
opened.
Engine Not Running, All Lamps On. A discharge current flows from the
battery which is equal to the sum of the currents drawn by lamps when
connected to the battery separately. If the current is greater than
this sum, trouble is present.
Engine Running, Lamps Off. The generator sends a charging current into
the battery and also supplies current to the ignition system (except
when a magneto is used). If the generator does not send a charging
current through the battery there is trouble in the generator, or in
the parts connecting the generator to the battery (assuming the
battery to be in a good condition). If the generator sends a current
through the battery, it may be of the correct value, it may be
insufficient, or it may be excessive. A normal current is one which
keeps the battery fully charged, but does not overheat it or cause
excessive gassing. An insufficient current is one which fails to keep
the battery charged. An excessive charging current is one which keeps
the battery charged, but which at the same time overheats the battery
and causes excessive gassing. The excessive current may also overheat
the generator, while a normal or insufficient charging current will
not injure the generator.
It is possible, but not probable, that the generator may be sending
current through the battery in the wrong direction, so as to discharge
it instead of charging it. This will happen if a very badly discharged
battery is installed with the connections reversed. If a fully or even
partly charged battery is installed with its connections reversed, the
battery will generally reverse the polarity of the generator
automatically, and the battery will be charged in the proper
direction, although the current flow in the charging circuit is
actually reversed.
Engine Running, Lamps On. Under these conditions, the generator should
supply the current for the lights, and still send a charging current
of 3 to 5 amperes through the battery. This means that the current
drawn from the battery when the engine is not running and the lights
are all turned on should be at least several amperes less than the
charging current which the generator sends into the battery when the
engine is running and the lamps are turned off.
Tests to Be Made by the Repairman
The battery repairman can, and always should, make a few simple tests
which will tell him whether the various conditions of operation are
normal. This should be done as follows:
1. Install the battery carefully (see page 236), and connect the
negative battery cable to the negative battery terminal. Now tap the
positive battery cable on the positive battery terminal. If a snappy
spark is obtained when this is done, some of the switches are open or
are defective, the cutout is stuck in the closed position, or there
are grounds or short-circuits in the parts which are permanently
connected to the battery.
Even though no spark is obtained when you tap the positive battery
cable on the positive battery terminal, there may be some trouble
which draws enough current from the battery to cause it to run down in
a short time. To detect such trouble, connect a voltmeter (which has
sufficient range to indicate the battery voltage) between the positive
battery cable and the positive battery terminal. (Cable is
disconnected from the terminal.) If the voltmeter now gives a reading
equal to the voltage of the battery, there is some condition causing a
current leakage from the battery, such as a cutout stuck in the closed
position, defective switches which do not break the circuits when in
the open position, or grounds or short-circuits in the cables and
wires connected to the battery.
If the voltmeter pointer does not move from the "0" line on the scale,
complete the battery connections by fastening the positive battery
cable to the positive battery terminal, and make the test described in
Section 2. If the voltmeter pointer moves from the "0" line, and gives
a reading equal to the battery voltage, connect the voltmeter
permanently between the positive battery cable and the positive
battery terminal and make a general inspection of the wiring, looking
for cut or torn insulation which allows a wire or cable to come in
contact with the frame of the car, or with some other wire or cable,
thereby causing a ground or short-circuit. Old, oil-soaked insulation
on wires and cables will often cause such trouble. If a general
inspection does not reveal the cause of the current leakage, proceed
as follows:
Closed Cutout, or Defective Cutout Windings. (a) If the cutout is
mounted outside the generator, remove the cover from it and see if the
points are stuck together. If they are, separate them and see if the
voltmeter pointer returns to the "0" line. If it does, you have found
the trouble. The points should be made smooth with 00 sandpaper. See
that the moving arm of the cutout moves freely and that the spring
which tends to hold the arm in the open position is not weak or broken.
If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line when the
cutout points are separated, or if the points were not found to be
stuck together, disconnect from the cutout the wire which goes to the
ammeter or battery. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to
the "0" line, the cutout is defective and a new one should be
installed, unless the trouble can be found by inspection and repaired.
If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line when the
battery or ammeter wire is disconnected from the cutout, see paragraph
(d).
(b) If the cutout is mounted inside the generator, disconnect from the
generator the wire which goes to the ammeter or indicator. If this
causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the cutout
points are stuck together or the cutout is defective, and the
generator should be taken apart for inspection. If this does not cause
the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, replace the wire and
see paragraph (d).
(c) If no cutout is used and connections between the generator (or
motor-generator) and the battery are made by closing the ignition or
starting switch, such as is the case on Delco and Dyneto
motor-generators, and some Delco generators, disconnect from the
generator or motorgenerator the wire that goes to the ammeter or
indicator. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0"
line, the switch which connects the generator or motor-generator to
the ammeter or indicator is defective. If the voltmeter pointer does
not return to the "0" line, replace the wire and consult paragraph (d).
(d) Defective Starting Switch. Disconnect from the starting switch the
cable that goes to the battery. If one or more smaller wires are
connected to the same terminal as the heavy cable, disconnect them
also and hold their bare ends on the bare end of the heavy cable. If
this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the
starting switch is defective. If the voltmeter pointer does not return
to the "0" line, replace the cable and wires on the starting switch
terminal and proceed as follows:
Defective Switches. See that the ignition and lighting switches are in
their "OFF" positions. If they are not, open them and see if the
voltmeter pointer returns to the "0" line. If it does, you have found
the trouble. If it does not, disconnect from the switch (or switches,
if there are separate lighting and ignition switches), the feed wire
which supplies current to the switch from the battery. If this causes
the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the switches are
defective. If the pointer does not return to the "0" line, replace the
wires on the switch and consult the next paragraph.
If there are other switches which control a spot light, or special
circuits, such as tonneau lamps, or accessories, such as gasoline
vaporizers, electric primers, etc., make the same tests on these
switches. If no trouble has been found, see paragraph (e).
(e) Grounds or Short-Circuits in Wiring. Disconnect from each terminal
point in the wiring system the wires which are connected together at
that point. Also remove fuses from the fuse blocks. If the voltmeter
pointer returns to the "0" line when a certain wire or fuse is
removed, there is a ground or short-circuit in the wire or in the
circuit to which the fuse is connected.
(f) Turn on the Lights. Remove the voltmeter and complete the battery
connection. Note how much current is indicated on the ammeter mounted
on the instrument panel of the car as the different lamps are turned
on. In each case the ammeter should indicate "discharge." Should the
ammeter indicate "charge" the battery connections have been reversed,
or the ammeter connections are reversed. The driver will tell you
whether the ammeter has been reading "charge" or "discharge" when the
lamps were turned on. This is a good way to check your battery
connections.
If the car has no ammeter, or has an indicator which is marked "ON" or
"OFF," or "Charge" or "Discharge," an ammeter may be connected in
series with the battery by disconnecting the cable from the positive
battery terminal and connecting the ammeter to the cable and to the
terminal, and the readings obtained from this meter.
The amperes indicated on the ammeter should be the greatest when the
main headlamps are burning bright. By comparing the readings obtained
when the different lighting combinations are turned on, it is
sometimes possible to detect trouble in some of the lighting lines.
3. Start the Engine. Before you do this, be sure that the cables are
connected directly to the battery terminals, and that no ammeter or
voltmeter is connected in series with the battery, as the heavy
current drawn by the starting motor would ruin the instruments very
quickly. An ammeter may be left connected in series with the battery,
providing that a switch is used to short-circuit the meter while
starting the engine. A meter having a 500 ampere scale may be left
connected in series with the battery while the engine is being
started, but for the tests which are to be made a 25 ampere scale
should be used.
The engine should start within ten seconds after the starting switch
is closed. If more time than this is required, carburetor adjustments,
position of the choke lever, etc., should be looked after. Continued
cranking of the engine will run the battery down very quickly, and the
chances are that the car will not be run long enough to allow the
generator to recharge the battery. Make whatever adjustments are
necessary to reduce the cranking time to ten seconds, or advise the
owner to have them made, warning him that otherwise you will not be
responsible if the battery runs down very quickly.
4. When the engine has started, set the throttle lever so that the
engine runs As slowly as possible. The ammeter (either that on the
instrument panel, or a special test ammeter connected in series with
the battery) will indicate several amperes discharge, this being the
current taken by the ignition system.
Now speed up the engine gradually. At an engine speed corresponding to
a car speed of 7 to 10 miles per hour in high (if there is any
difficulty in estimating this speed, drive the car around the block
while making this and the following tests) the ammeter pointer should
move back to, or slightly past, the "0" line, showing that the cutout
has closed. If the ammeter needle jumps back and forth and the cutout
opens and closes rapidly, the polarity of the battery and that of the
generator are not the same. This condition may be remedied by holding
the cutout points closed for several seconds, or by short-circuiting
the "Battery" terminal on the cutout with the "Generator" terminal on
the cutout.
After a slight movement of the ammeter pointer indicates that the
cutout has closed, speed up the engine gradually. When the engine
speed corresponds to a car speed of 18-25 miles per hour in "high,"
the current indicated on the ammeter should reach its maximum value
and the pointer should then stop moving, or should begin to drop back
toward the "0" line as the speed is increased.
For average driving conditions, the maximum charging current should
not exceed 12 to 14 amperes for a 6 volt, 11 to 13 plate battery, and
6 to 7 amperes for a 12 volt battery. (These currents should be
obtained if "constant-current" generators, such as the "third brush,"
"reversed-series," or vibrating current regulators are used. The
"third brush" type of generator is used on more than 99 per cent of
the modern cars. Some cars use a "constant-voltage" regulated
generator, such as the Bijur generator, having a voltage regulator
carried in a box mounted on the generator. On all cars using a
"constant-voltage" generator, the charging rate when the battery is
fully charged should not exceed five amperes for a six volt
generator). If the generator has a thermostat, such as is used on the
Remy generators, the charging rate will be as high as 20 amperes until
the generator warms up, and then the charging rate will drop to 10-12
amperes, due to the opening of the thermostat points, which inserts a
resistance coil in series with the shunt field.
If the charging current reaches its maximum value at 18-25 miles per
hour, and shows no increase at higher speeds, decrease the engine
speed. When the engine is running at a speed corresponding to a car
speed of about 7 miles per hour, or less, the cutout should open,
indicated by the ammeter indicating several amperes discharge, in
addition to the ignition current, for an instant, and then dropping
back to the amount taken by the ignition system.
Now turn on the headlights (and whatever lamps are turned on at the
same time) and speed the engine up again. The ammeter should indicate
some charging current at engine speeds corresponding to the usual
speed at which the car is driven. If it does not, the charging current
should be increased or smaller lamps must be installed.
Troubles
The operation of the electrical system when the engine is running may
not be as described in the foregoing paragraphs. Troubles may be found
as follows:
1. Cutout does not close until engine reaches a speed in excess of 10
miles per hour. This trouble may be due to the cutout or to the
generator. If the ammeter shows a charging current of three amperes or
more as soon as it closes, the cutout is at fault. The thing to do in
such a case is to adjust the cutout. First see that the movable
armature of the cutout moves freely and does not bind at the pivot. If
no trouble is found here, the thing to do is to decrease the air gap
which exists between the stationary and movable cutout points when the
cutout is open., or to decrease the tension of the spring which tends
to keep the points open. On most cutouts there is a stop which the
cutout armature strikes when the cutout opens. By bending this stop
the air-gap between the points may be decreased. This is the
adjustment which should be made to have the cutout close earlier,
rather than to decrease the spring tension. Some cutouts have a spiral
spring attached to the cutout armature. Others have a flat spring. On
still others, the spring forms the connection between the armature and
the cutout frame. In the first two types, the spring tension may be
decreased, but wherever possible the air-gap adjustment should be made
as described.
If the cutout closes late, and only about an ampere of charging
current is indicated on the ammeter, and the cutout points are fairly
clean and smooth, the trouble is generally in the generator.
The generator troubles which are most likely to exist are:
a. Dirty commutator.
b. Dirty brush contact surface.
c. Loose brushes.
d. Brushes bearing on wrong point of commutator (to set brushes
properly, remove all outside connections from generator, open the
shunt field circuit, and apply a battery across the main brushes.
Shift the brushes until the armature does not tend to rotate in either
direction. This is, of course, a test which must be made with the
generator on the test bench).
e. Loose connections in the shunt field circuit.
The foregoing conditions are the ones which will generally be found.
More serious troubles will generally prevent the generator from
building up at all.
2. Cutout does hot open when engine stops. This condition is shown by
a discharge current of about 5 amperes when the engine has stopped.
(In Delco systems which have no cutout, an even greater discharge will
be noted as long as the ignition switch remains closed.) This trouble
is generally due to cutout points stuck together, a broken cutout
spring, or a bent or binding cutout armature.
3. Cutout does not open until ammeter indicates a discharge of three
or more amperes (in addition to the ignition discharge). This may be
remedied by increasing the spring tension of the cutout, or removing
any trouble which causes the cutout armature to bind. On many cutouts
the armature does not actually touch the core of the cutout winding
when the points are closed, there being a small piece of copper or
other non-magnetic metal on the armature which touches the end of the
cutout and maintains a small air gap between the core and armature,
even when the points are closed. The opening action of the cutout may
be changed by filing this piece of non-magnetic material so as to
decrease the air gap, or pinching it with heavy pliers so as to make
it stand farther out from the cutout armature and thus increase the
air gap between the armature and core when the points are closed.
Decreasing this air gap will cause the cutout to open late, and
increasing it will cause the cutout to open early.
4. Cutout will not close at any engine speed. If cutout does not close
the first time the engine speed is increased, stop the engine. This
condition may be due to a defective cutout, an open-circuit in the
charging line, a ground or short-circuit between the cutout and the
generator, or a defective generator. To determine whether the cutout
is defective, remove the wires from it and hold together the ends of
the wires coming from the generator, and the one going to the ammeter.
Start the engine. If no other trouble exists, the ammeter will
indicate a charging current at speeds above 8-10 miles per hour. If no
current is obtained, stop the engine. If the cutout trouble consisted
of an open circuit in one of its windings, or in the points not
closing, due to dirt or a binding armature, or if there is an
open-circuit in the charging line, the generator will, of course, have
been running on open-circuit. This will cause the fuse in the shunt
field circuit to blow if there is such a fuse, and if there is no such
fuse, the shunt field coils may be burned open, or the insulation on
the field coil wires may have become overheated to a point at which it
burns and carbonizes, and causes a short-circuit between wires. Such
troubles will, of course, prevent a generator from building up when
the cutout wires are disconnected and their ends held together.
If there is a ground in the cutout, or between the cutout and the
generator, the generator will very likely be unable to generate (if a
"one-wire" system is used on the car). If there is some defect in the
generator-such as dirty commutator, high mica, brushes not touching,
commutator dirty, or loose brushes, brushes too far from neutral,
grounded brushes, brushes not well ground in, wrong type of brushes,
grounded commutator or armature windings, short-circuited commutator
or armature windings, open-circuited armature windings, grounded field
windings, short-circuited field windings, open-circuit or poor
connections in field circuit, one or more field coil connections
reversed, wrong type of armature or field coils used in repairing
generator, generator drive mechanism broken-then the generator will
not build up.
If no charging current is, therefore, obtained when the generator and
ammeter wires are disconnected from the cutout and their ends held
together, there may be a ground or short-circuit in the cutout
windings or in the circuit between the generator and the cutout, or
the generator may be defective, due to having been operated on
open-circuit, or due to troubles as described in the foregoing
paragraph. The presence of a ground or short in the circuit between
the generator and cutout or in the cutout may be determined by
disconnected the wire from the generator, disconnecting the battery
(or ammeter) wire from the cutout, and running a separate extra wire
from the generator to the wire removed from the cutout. Then start the
engine again. If a charging current is obtained, there is a ground or
short either in the cutout or in the circuit between the cutout and
the generator. (It is also possible that the failure of the generator
to build up was due to poor brush contact in the generator. The use of
the extra wire connected the generator directly to the battery, thus
magnetizing the generator fields and causing generator to build up. If
poor brush contact prevented the generator from building up, closing
the cutout by hand will often cause the generator to start charging.
If you can therefore cause the generator to build up by holding the
cutout points closed by hand, or by shorting across from the generator
terminal to the battery terminal of the cutout, it is probable that
the generator brushes are not making good contact). The cutout may be
tested by stopping the engine, replacing the battery (or ammeter) wire
on the cutout, and holding the end of the extra wire on the generator
terminal of the cutout. If a charging current is then obtained, the
cutout is 0. K. and the trouble is between the cutout and the
generator.
5. An excessive current is obtained. If a third brush generator is
used, look for loose or dirty connections in the charging line, dirty
cutout points, dirty commutator, dirty brushes (especially the brush,
or brushes, which is Dot connected to one end of the field winding),
brushes loose, brushes not well ground in, and any other conditions
which will cause a high resistance in the charging line. It is
characteristic of third brush generators that their current output
increases if there is an increase in resistance in the charging
circuit. If no troubles such as those enumerated above are found, the
third brush may need adjusting.
Generators using vibrating current or voltage regulators will give an
excessive output if the points need adjusting or if the regulating
resistance is short-circuited.
Generators using reversed series regulation will give an excessive
output if there is a short-circuit in the series field coils.
6. Low charging current is obtained. This may be due to adjustment of
the regulating device, to high resistance in the shunt field circuit
in case of a third brush generator. In case of generators using other
kinds of regulation, loose connections, dirty commutator and brushes,
etc., will cause low charging current.
7. Generator charges up to a certain speed and then stops charging.
The trouble is caused by some condition which causes the brushes to
break contact with the commutator, especially in the case of a "third"
brush. High mica, loose brush spring, or a commutator which has been
turned down off-center may cause the trouble. This trouble most
frequently occurs on cars using third brush motor-generators having a
3 to 1 or more speed ratio between them and the engine. These
motor-generators operate at such high speeds that high mica and a
commutator which is even slightly off center have a much greater
effect than the same conditions would cause in separate generators
which operate at much lower speeds. The remedy for this trouble is to
keep the mica under-cut, and to be very careful to center the armature
in the lathe when taking a cut from the armature. In turning down the
commutators of high speed motor-generators, special fittings should be
made by means of which the armature may be mounted in its own
ball-bearings while the commutator is turned down.
ADJUSTING GENERATOR OUTPUTS
The repairman should be very slow in adjusting generator outputs. Most
cases of insufficient or excessive charging current are due to the
troubles enumerated in the foregoing paragraphs, and not due to
incorrect adjustment of the regulating device. Before changing the
adjustment of any generator, therefore, be sure that everything is in
good condition. The third brush generator, for instance, will have an
excessive output if the brushes are dirty, loose, or not well seated
on the commutator. The use of a third brush which is too wide, for
instance, will change the output considerably. A high resistance third
brush will decrease the output, while a low resistance brush will
increase the output. On the other hand, an increase in the resistance
of the charging circuit will cause an increase in the output of a
third brush generator, which is just the opposite to what is
ordinarily expected. Such an increase in resistance may be due to
loose or dirty connections, dirty cutout contact points, corroded
battery terminals and so on. Remember also that the third brush
generator sends a higher current into a fully charged battery than it
sends into a discharged battery. It is, therefore, essential that a
fully charged battery be on the car when the output of a third brush
generator is adjusted.
There are two things which determine whether any change should be made
in the charging rate on the car, viz: Driving, Conditions and the
Season of the Year.
Driving Conditions. A car which makes short runs, with numerous stops,
requires that the starting motor be used frequently. This tends to run
the battery down very quickly. Moreover, such a car usually does not
have its engine running long enough to give the generator an
opportunity to keep the battery charged, and to accomplish this, the
charging rate should be increased.
A car which is used mostly at night may need a higher charging rate,
especially if short runs are made, and if the car stands at the curb
with its lights burning. Long night runs will generally call for only
a normal charging rate, since the long charging periods are offset by
the continuous use of the lamps.
A car used on long daylight runs should generally have the charging
rate reduced, because the battery is charged throughout such runs with
no discharge into lamps or starting of motor to offset the continued
charge. If the lamps are kept lighted during such runs, the normal
charge rate will be satisfactory, because the lamp current will
automatically reduce the current sent into the battery.
In the winter time, engines must be cranked for a longer time before
they will start, the battery is less efficient than in warm weather,
and lights are burning for a greater length of time than in summer.
Such conditions require an increase in the charging rate, especially
if the car is used on short runs. Oil long runs in the winter time,
the normal charging rate will generally be satisfactory because the
long charging period will offset the longer cranking period.
In the summer time, engines start more easily than in winter, and
hence require less cranking. The lamps are used for only short periods
and the battery is more efficient than in winter. A lower charging
rate will, therefore, keep the battery charged. Long tours in the
summer time are especially likely to result in overcharged, overheated
batteries, and a reduced charging rate is called for.
How and When to Adjust Charging Rates
A correct charging rate is one which keeps a battery fully charged,
but does not overcharge it, and which does not cause either the
generator or the battery to become overheated. The only way to
determine whether a certain charging rate is correct on any particular
car is to make an arrangement with the car owner to bring in his car
every two weeks. On such occasions hydrometer readings should be taken
and water added, if necessary, to bring the surface of the electrolyte
up to the proper level. The hydrometer readings will show whether the
generator is keeping the battery charged, and if a change in the
charging rate is necessary, the necessary adjustments may be made. If
a customer does not bring in his car every two weeks, call him up on
the phone or write to him. The interest which you show in his battery
by doing this will generally result in the customer giving you all his
repair business, and he will also tell his acquaintances about your
good service. This will give you considerable "word of mouth"
advertising, which is by far the best form of advertising and which
cannot be bought. It must be earned by good battery service.
Adjusting a third brush generator. The best rule to remember for
changing the output of a third brush machine is that to increase the
output, move the third brush in the direction in which the commutator
rotates, and to decrease the output, move the third brush in the
opposite direction. Move the third brush only 1/16 inch and then
sandpaper the brush seat with 00 sandpaper. Allow the generator to run
for about twenty minutes to "run-in" the brush. Then vary the speed to
see what the maximum charging rate is. If the change in the charging
rate is not sufficient, move the third brush another 1/16 inch and
proceed as before until the desired charging rate is obtained.
Adjusting Vibrating Regulators. The output of generators which use a
vibrating regulator is adjusted by changing the tension of the spring
fastened to the regulator arm. In many cases this adjustment is made
by means of a screw which is turned up or down to change the spring
tension. In other cases a hook or prong is bent to change the spring
tension. Where a coil spring is used, lengthening the spring will
decrease the tension and lower the output, while shortening the spring
will increase the tension and raise the output.
Vibrating regulators are of the "constant" current or the
"constant-voltage" types. The constant current regulator has a winding
of heavy wire which carries the charging current. When the charging
current reaches the value for which the regulator is set, the
electromagnet formed by the coil and the core on which it is wound
draws the regulator armature toward it and thereby separates the
regulator points, which are in series with the shunt field. A
resistance coil, which is connected across the regulator points and
which is short-circuited when the points are closed, is put in series
with the shunt field when the points separate. This reduces the shunt
field current, causing a decrease in generator voltage and hence
current output. As the current decreases, the pull of the
electromagnet on the regulator armature weakens and the spring
overcomes the pull of the electromagnet and closes the regulator
points. This short-circuits the resistance coil connected across the
regulator points and allows the shunt field current to increase again,
thereby increasing the generator output. This cycle is repeated at a
high rate of speed, causing the regulator points to vibrate rapidly.
The action of a vibrating "constant-voltage" regulator is exactly the
same as that of the "constant current" regulator, except that the coil
is connected across the generator brushes. The action of this coil
therefore depends on the generator voltage, the regulator points
vibrating when the generator voltage rises to the value for which the
regulator is set.
Adjusting Reverse-Series Generators. The regulation of the output of
this type of generator is accomplished by means of a field winding
which is in series with the armature, and which therefore carries the
charging current. These series field coils are magnetically opposed to
the shunt field coils, and an increase in charging current results in
a weakening of the field flux. A balanced condition is reached at
which no increase of flux takes place as the generator speed
increases, the tendency of the increased shunt field current to
increase the total flux being counterbalanced by the weakening action
of the flux produced by the series field current.
To increase the output of a reverse series generator, it is necessary
to weaken the opposing series field flux. The only way of doing this
is to short-circuit the series field coils, or connect a resistance
across them. To decrease the output of a reverse series generator, a
resistance coil may be connected in series with the shunt field
winding. Neither of these schemes is practicable, and hence the
reverse series generator may be considered as a "non-adjustable"
machine. Under-charging may be prevented by using the starting motor
and lights as little as possible, or by giving the battery a bench
charge occasionally. Over-charging may be prevented by burning the
lights whenever the engine is running, or leaving the lights turned on
over night.
Other forms of regulation have been used on the older cars, but the
majority of the cars now in use use one of the four forms of
regulation described in the foregoing paragraphs. If adjustments need
to be made on some car having a system of-regulation with which the
battery man is not familiar, the work should be done in a service
station doing generator work.
If generator outputs are changed because of some special operating
condition, such as summer tours, the rate should be changed to normal
as soon as the usual driving conditions are resumed.
TESTING AND FILLING SERVICE
Every man expects to be paid for his work, since his purpose in
working is to get money. Yet there are numerous instances in every
line of work requiring work to be done for which no money is received.
The term "Free Service" is familiar to every repairman, and it has
been the cause of considerable discussion and dispute, since it is
often very difficult to know where to draw the Tine between Free
Service and Paid Service.
The term "Free Service" might be abolished with benefit to all
concerned. In the battery business "Free Inspection" service is a
familiar term. It is intended to apply to the regular addition of
distilled water by the repairman and to tests made at the time the
water is added. Since the term "Inspection" might be Misinterpreted
and taken to apply to the opening of batteries for examination, the
term "Testing and Filling Service" should be used instead of "Free
Inspection Service."
Battery makers furnish cards for distribution to car owners. These
cards entitle the holder to bring in his battery every two weeks to
have distilled water added if necessary, and to have his battery
tested without paying for it. This service requires very little time,
and should be given cheerfully by every service man.
"Testing and Filling Service" is an excellent means of becoming
acquainted with car owners. Be as pleasant and courteous to the
"Testing and Filling" customer as you are to the man who brings in a
battery that needs repairs. For this customer will certainly give you
his repair business if you have been pleasant in giving the Testing
and Filling Service.
A thoroughly competent battery man should be put in charge of the
Testing and Filling Service, since this man must meet the car owners,
upon whom the service station depends for its income. Customers are
impressed, not by an imposing array of repair shop equipment, but by
the manner of the men who meet them. These men will increase the
number of your customers, or will drive trade to competitors,
depending on the impression they leave in the minds of the car owners.
Every service station owner should persuade all the car owners in the
vicinity of the station to come in regularly for the free testing and
filling service, and when they do come in they should be given
cheerful, courteous service. Each "testing" and "filling" customer is
a prospective paying customer, for it is entirely natural that a car
owner will give his repair work to the battery man who has been taking
care of the testing and filling work Oil his battery. When a new
battery is needed, the "testing" and "filling" customer will certainly
buy it from the man who has been relieving him of the work of keeping
his batteries in good shape.
Car owners who depend on your competitor for their "testing and
filling" service will not come to you when their battery needs
repairing, or when they need a new battery. You may be convinced that
you handle a better make of battery than your competitor does, but
your competitor's word will carry far more weight than yours with the
man who has been coming to him for testing and filling. Good testing
and filling service is, therefore, the best method of advertising and
building up your business. The cost of this service to you is more
than offset by the paying business it certainly brings, and by the
saving in money spent for advertising. Remember that a boost by a
satisfied customer is of considerably greater value to your business
than newspaper advertising.
A careful record should be kept of every battery which is brought in
regularly for testing and filling service. If a test shows that one or
more cells are low in gravity, say about 1.220, this fact should be
recorded. If the gravity is still low when the battery comes in again
for test, remove the battery and give it a bench charge. The customer
should, of course, pay for the bench charge and for the rental battery
which is put on the car in the meantime.
Battery manufacturers generally furnish cards to be used in connection
with the testing and filling service, such cards being issued to the
customers. A punch mark is made every time the battery is brought in,
If the owner neglects to come in, this is indicated by the absence of
a punch mark, and puts the blame for any trouble caused by this
neglect on the owner if any cell shows low gravity, a notation of
that fact may be made opposite the punch mark for the date on which
the low gravity was observed. If the low gravity is again found the
next time the battery is brought in, the battery should be removed and
given a bench charge. If the bench charge puts the battery in good
shape, and the subsequent gravity readings are high, no trouble is
present. If, however, the low gravity readings begin to drop off
again, it is probable that new separators are required, especially if
the battery is about a year old.
The logical course of events in the testing and filling service is to
keep the battery properly filled (at no cost to the customer), give
the battery an occasional bench charge (for which the customer pays),
reinsulate the battery when it is about a year old (for which the
customer pays), and sell the customer a new battery when the old one
is worn out. If some trouble develops during the lifetime of the
battery which is not due to lack of proper attention, the customer
should pay to have the repairs made. From this the battery man will
see how the Testing and Filling Service pays. The way to get business
is to have people come to your shop. Become acquainted with them,
treat them right, and you need not wonder where the money is to come
from.
SERVICE RECORDS
In order to run a repair shop in an orderly, business-like manner, it
is necessary to have an efficient system of Service Records. Such a
system will protect both the repairman and the customer, and simplify
the repairman's bookkeeping. For a small service station a very simple
system should be adopted. As the business grows, the service record
system must necessarily become more complicated, since each battery
will pass through several persons' hands. Battery manufacturers
generally furnish service record sheets and cards to their service
stations, and the repairman who has a contract with a manufacturer
generally adopts them. The manufacturers' service record systems are
often somewhat complicated, and require considerable bookkeeping.
For the smaller service station a single sheet or card is most
suitable, there being only one for each job, and carbon sheets and
copies being unnecessary. Such a service record has three essential
parts: (a) The customer's claim check. (b) The battery tag. (c) The
record card. Fig. 183 shows a service record card which is suitable
for the average repair shop. Part No. I is the customer's claim check,
Part No. 2 the battery tag, and part No. 3 the record card, and is 5
inches by 8 inches in size. The overall size of the entire card is 5
inches by 12 inches. Parts I and 2 are torn off along the perforated
lines marked (A).
When a battery comes in the three parts are given the same number to
identify them when they have been torn apart. The number may be
written in the "No." space shown on each part, or the numbers may be
stamped on the card. The record should not be made out as soon as a
customer comes in, but after the battery has been examined and tested
and the necessary work determined. Put the customer's name on parts 2
and 3. Record the address, telephone, etc., in the proper spaces on
part 3. Having determined by test and inspection what is to be done,
fill out the "WORKCOSTS" table on part 3, putting a check mark in the
first column to indicate the work to be done and the material needed.
Figure up the cost while the customer waits, if this is possible.
Explain the costs to the customer, and have him sign Contract No. 1.
If you do this there can never be any argument about the bill you hand
the customer later If the customer cannot wait, or if he is well known
to you and you know lie will not question your bill, have him sign
Contract No. 2. In either case, the terms printed on the back of the
card authorize the repairman to make whatever repairs he finds to be
necessary, and bind the customer to pay for them. Find out whether the
customer will call, whether you are to deliver the battery, or whether
you are to ship it, and put a check mark in the proper space at the
right of the "WORK-COSTS" table. Mark the battery with the chalk whose
color is indicated, and you will know how to dispose of the battery
when the repairs are completed.
Fill out the claim check and give it to the customer, tearing it off
along the perforated lines. Fill out the battery tag, indicating after
"Instructions" just what is to be done.
[Fig. 183 Front & Back of the Battery Service Card]
Make a sketch of the top of the battery in the space provided, dip the
tag in the paraffine dip pot (see page 182) and tack the card on the
battery. File part 3 in a standard 5 by 8 card index file. To the
right of the "WORK-COSTS" table are spaces for entering the date on
which the work is completed, the date the customer is notified and the
date the battery goes out. These dates are useful in keeping a record
of the job. When the job is finished and the rental comes in, enter
the costs in the "COSTS" table, and note the date the bill was paid,
in the space marked "PAID."
[Fig. 184 Rental battery card to be tied on car of customer]
File all the 5 by 8 cards (Part 3) in alphabetical order in a "dead"
ticket file, in either alphabetical or numerical order. With this file
you can build up an excellent mailing list of your customers. You can
note how many new customers you are securing and how many customers
are not coming back. The latter information is very valuable, as it
enables you to find out what customers have quit, and you can go after
them to get their repair business again.
When a rental is put on a card, the card shown in Fig. 184 may be tied
to the car where it is easily seen. This will serve as a reminder to
the customer and will help advertise your shop to those who ride in
the car.
Each rental battery should have a number painted on it in large white
letters, or should have attached to it at all times a lead tag on
which is stamped a number to identify the battery. To keep a record of
the rental batteries, a card or sheet similar to that shown in Fig.
185 may be used. Each time the rental is put on a car, a record is
made of this fact on the card. Each rental battery has its own card,
and reference to this card will show at once where the battery is.
Each card thus gives a record of the battery. The number of the rental
is also written on the Stock Card shown in Fig. 183, but the purpose
of putting the number on these cards is merely to make sure that the
battery is returned when the customer's battery is replaced on the car
and to be able to figure out the rental cost quickly and add it to the
time and material costs in repairing the customer's battery.
The Record Card shown in Fig. 183 does not help you locate any
particular rental battery. For instance, suppose that rental battery
No. 896 is out and you wish to know who is using it. You may, of
course, look over the "Battery Tags" which are tied to the batteries
which are being repaired in the shop, or you may examine the file
containing the record cards, but this would take too much time. But if
you refer to the rental file you can determine immediately where
rental battery No. 896 is, since the cards in this file should be
arranged numerically.
The rack on which rental batteries are placed should have a tag
bearing the same number as the rental battery tacked to the shelf
below the place provided for the battery. Each rental battery should
always be placed in the same place on the shelf. You can then tell at
a glance which batteries are out.
A good plan, and one which will save space, is to write the number of
the rental battery on the customer's claim check, and when repairs on
his own battery are completed, to set his battery in the place
provided on the rental rack for the rental which he is using. When he
comes in for his battery, you can tell at a glance whether his battery
is ready by looking at the place where the rental he is using is
normally placed on the rental rack. If a battery is there you will
know that it is his battery, and that it is ready for him.
[Fig. 185 Rental Battery Stock Card]
You could, of course, look through the batteries on the "Ready Rack,"
but this would take more time, since the numbers of the batteries on
this rack will always be different, and you would have to look through
all the batteries on the "Ready Rack" before you would be able to tell
whether any particular battery were ready. By putting a customer's
battery in place of the rental he is using, you will have only one
place to look at in order to know whether his battery is ready.
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CHAPTER 13.
BUSINESS METHODS.
-----------------
Success in this day and age cannot be attained without a well
thought-out plan of action. There is no business which does not demand
some sort of system of management. The smallest business must have it,
and will go to ruin without it. Hence every battery service station
proprietor should see to it that his affairs are systematized --
arranged according to a carefully studied method. Most men look upon
"red-tape" with contempt and in the sense of a mere monotonous and
meaningless routine, it merits all the contempt poured upon it. Hard,
fast and iron-clad rules, which cease to be a means, and become an
end, prove a hindrance rather than a help. But an intelligent method,
which adapts itself to the needs of the business, is one of the most
powerful instruments of business. The battery man who despises it will
never do anything well. It does not matter how clever he is, how good
a workman he is, how complete his knowledge of batteries, if he
attempts to run his business without a plan, he will eventually come
to grief.
Purchasing Methods.
Every battery service station proprietor is eager to build up his
business, and improve the character of his trade, because this in turn
means that he will be assured of larger sales to a good class of
customers. And it is at once evident that there are a number of
requirements that affect this question of building up a business, one
of the first in importance being that of purchasing.
One of the first things with which the battery man is faced is the
question of what, where, and in what quantities to purchase. The
philosophy of correct purchasing consists in getting the right
materials, in proper quantities, at a low price, and with as little
cost for the doing of it as possible. The purchasing problem should be
a most interesting and important subject to the proprietor of every
service station, because the policy pursued with regard to purchasing
will not only largely govern the economy of all his expenditures,
except rent and payroll, but it will also control his selling
policies. Goods are sold, and services rendered only because some one
wants to buy. The customer's purchasing problems govern the
proprietor's selling problems. To sell properly, it is necessary to
meet the requirements of those who buy.
Correct purchasing is not merely a matter of "buying." The buying
itself has but little to do, after all, with the question of real
economy in this part of the business. The proprietor's purchasing
policy should not cease when the purchase order is
[Fig. 186 Stock Record]
made out, but should continue after the goods have been delivered,
received and inspected. He should see that they are properly stored,
that they are put to the use intended, and that they are used
efficiently. This can be accomplished to good advantage by the use of
the Stock Record illustrated in Fig. 186.
When goods are received, each item should be entered on these Stock
Record cards, keeping in mind always that the requirements of a
"perpetual" or "going" inventory of this kind are that a separate
account be kept with each kind or class of stock, and not alone with
each class, but with each grade of each class.
For example, if a quantity of batteries were received, it would not
suffice to have one card only for the entire quantity, unless they
should happen to be all of the same type and make. It should be
understood that these cards are a record of all articles coming into
stock, and all articles going out of stock in the way of sales or
otherwise, with an individual card for each kind, grade, style or size
of stock carried on hand.
From the purchase invoices covering stock received, an entry is made
in the column headed "Received", to the proper account, showing date,
order number, quantity and price.
Each sales tag is used to make the entries in the columns headed
"Disbursed", in which the date, tag number, quantity, price, and the
balance quantity on hand are shown.
If this is done daily, for all the sales tags of the particular day,
and the cards on which the "disbursed" entries were made are kept
separate from the balance of the cards, it is an easy matter to arrive
at the cost of all sales for each day, The advantage of having this
daily information will be explained and illustrated in following
paragraphs.
The Use and Abuse of Credit.
The question of the proper use of credit is closely allied with the
purchasing of goods. A great many business failures can be traced
directly to overexpanded credit. Any battery service station
proprietor who does not place a voluntary limit on the amount of
credit for which he asks is, to say the least, running a very great
business risk. The moment he expands his credit to the limit, he
leaves himself with no margin of safety, and a sudden change in
business conditions may place him in a serious situation.
Commercial agencies usually call this condition a lack of capital. The
real cause, however, is not so much lack of capital as it is too much
business on credit. This does not mean that credit should not be
sought; or that all business should be done on the capital actually
invested in the concern. Credit is necessary to commercial life. Very
few business concerns are so strong financially as to be able to do
without credit.
Credit should be sought and used intelligently, and it is not a hard
matter for any battery service station proprietor to keep his credit
good. All that is necessary is to take a few precautions, and observe
in general the principles of good business. The first requisite, of
course, is to accept no more credit than the business will stand.
Sometimes it is possible to secure enough credit to ruin a business.
Its present condition and future prospects may appear so good as to
warrant securing all the credit possible under the circumstances.
It requires courage to limit the growth and the temporary prosperity
of a business by keeping down the credit accepted. It is very hard to
refuse business. It is difficult not to make extensions when there is
enough business in sight to pay for the extensions. But the acid test
of whether or not you should extend and borrow is not the amount of
business that can be done, but the amount of money that can be spared.
The mere fact that you have the money or can get it does not in the
least mean that it should be spent.
And the reason for this is that, in order to keep your credit good,
you must meet all obligations promptly. Nothing has a more chilling
effect on any business than failure to meet all indebtedness when due.
As soon as additional time is requested in which to meet obligations,
your credit rating begins to contract; and if, at the same time, your
credit has been overexpanded the business is placed in a most
difficult position. More than one concern has gone to the wall when
faced with this combination.
Proper Bookkeeping Records.
The principal difficulty in this matter of the proper use of credit
will lie in poor bookkeeping records, making it impossible for the
proprietor to know very much about his financial position or operating
condition day by day and week by week and month by month.
Many service station proprietors figure what they owe once a year
only, when they inventory, and many do not keep a permanent record
even then; and usually those who are neglectful in this regard are the
ones who owe the most, proportionately, who do not take their
discounts, and who do not progress.
The following table covers the average discounts allowed in various
lines. If you study it, and find out how much it costs you to lose
discounts, you will at once realize the necessity for the proper sort
of bookkeeping records.
1. 1% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12% per year
2. 2% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24% per year
3. 3% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36% per year
4. 5% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60% per year
5. 8% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96% per year
6. 1% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18% per year
7. 2% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36% per year
8. 3% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54% per year
9. 5% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90% per year
10. 8% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144% per year
11. 1% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4% per year
12. 2% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.8% per year
13. 3% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.2% per year
14. 5% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72% per year
15. 8% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115.2% per year
Then there is the matter of expenses; rent, wages, insurances, taxes,
depreciation, freight and express, and all the other miscellaneous
items that go to make up the total of your cost of doing business.
Expenses eat up a business unless controlled. They ought to be so
analyzed that you are able to place your finger on items which appear
too large, or uncalled for, or which need explanation.
A Daily Exhibit of Your Business.
In order to accomplish this, you ought to keep a record similar to
that shown by Fig. 187--a Daily Exhibit of your business.
The advantage of this record is that it will give any battery man
daily information as to the following facts of his business:
1. The amount of stock on hand.
2. The amount of gross profit.
3. The percentage of gross profit.
It will give monthly information as to:
1. The expense and percentage of expense.
2. The actual net profit.
3. The percentage of net profit.
Such information will help you to locate exactly when and where your
losses come; during what months and from what causes. It will enable
you to turn losing months this year into profitable months next year;
to tell whether your losses were due to a too great expense account,
or to too low gross profits.
The percentage columns on the sheet are the most important, because
only by percentages can you make proper comparisons, and know just how
your business is headed. You cannot guess percentages; you must have a
way of knowing continually what they are, in order to be certain of
getting the right return on your investment.
[Fig. 187a "Daily Exhibit" form]
[Fig. 187b "Daily Exhibit" form, continued]
In analyzing this Daily Exhibit, you will note that it is ruled for
five weeks and two extra days, in order to provide for any one and all
months of the year. The various columns are provided so that the
entries in them will give a clear-cut story of the actual state of
your affairs, daily, weekly, and monthly. Each column will be
considered in the order in which it appears on the form.
First Column--"Merchandise on Hand."
In starting this record the first day, the figures entered in this
column must be an actual physical inventory of your stock on hand,
priced and extended at cost. Do not total this column.
Second Column--"New Goods Added to Stock."
The figures entered in this column should be the total value of all
new goods received from manufacturers or jobbers on the particular
day. If you return any articles to the seller immediately upon
receipt, and before putting them into your stock, deduct such goods
from the invoices and enter only the net amount in this column. This
column should be totaled every week and every month.
Third Column--"Goods Returned by Customers;--Deduct from Sales."
The total value of all goods returned by customers extended at the
prices charged customers should be entered in this column daily. Every
week and every month this column is totaled.
Fourth Column--"Cost of Goods Returned;--Deduct from Cost of Goods
Sold."
The cost of all goods returned by customers should be entered in this
column. The cost prices can always be secured from the Stock Record
cards, as previously explained. Total this column every week and every
month.
Fifth Column--"Goods Returned to Manufacturers."
Sometimes there is occasion to return merchandise after it has been
put into stock. In such cases, the money value of the articles sent
back to manufacturers or jobbers should be entered in this column.
This does not mean such goods as were returned on the day received,
and were deducted from the seller's invoice, and at no time have
appeared in the second column, "New Goods Added to Stock," but only to
such merchandise as was originally entered in the second column, and
later returned to the manufacturer. This column should be totaled
every week and every month.
Sixth Column--"Goods Sold, Less Goods Returned."
Enter here total of selling prices on sales tags for each day, after
deducting amount in the third column. Total this column every week and
every month.
Seventh Oolumn--"Cost of Goods Sold, Less Cost of Goods Returned."
The total of the sales extended at cost prices for each day, minus the
amount showing in the fourth column, should be entered in this column.
It should be totaled every week and every month.
Eighth Column--"Gross Profits."
To arrive at the figures to be entered in this column deduct the
amount in the seventh column from the amount in the sixth column.
Total this column every week and every month.
Ninth Column--"Per Cent to Sales."
This percentage should be figured every day, and every week and every
month, and is arrived at by dividing the figures in the eighth column
by the figures in the sixth column. It will pay you to watch this
column closely. You will be astonished at the way it varies from day
to day, week to week, and month to month. If you watch it closely
enough, you will soon learn a great deal more about your business than
you ever knew before. You do not need to total this column.
Tenth Column--"Accounts Receivable."
On the day the Daily Exhibit is first started, the figures for this
column must be taken from whatever records you have kept in the past.
Do not total this column.
Eleventh Column--"Collections."
Every day you collect any money from those customers who run charge
accounts with you, enter the amount collected in this column. Total it
every week and every month.
Twelfth Column--"Cash Sales."
Every day enter the amount of cash sales in this column, and total it
every week and every month.
Thirteenth Column--"Charge Sales."
The amount of daily sales made to those customers who do not pay cash
but run a charge account should be entered in this column. Every week
and every month this column should be totaled.
General Calculations.
To arrive at the amount of "Merchandise on Hand" after the first day,
which is, as has been previously explained, an actual physical
inventory, add the amounts showing in the first and second columns,
and deduct from this total the sum of the fifth and seventh columns.
Enter this result in the first column for the next succeeding day.
Continue as above throughout the entire month.
After the first day the figures in "Accounts Receivable" column are
obtained by adding together the amounts showing in the tenth and
thirteenth column and deducting from this total the amount in the
eleventh column. This balance will be entered in the tenth column for
the next day, the same procedure being followed for each day
thereafter.
"Merchandise on Hand" after the close of business on the last day of
the month should be entered in the first column on the line marked
"Month Total." This same amount will be carried forward to the first
column of next month's sheet and entered on the line of the particular
day of the week on which the first of the month falls.
Following the "Month Total" are the "Year to Date" and "Last Year to
Date." These figures are important for purposes of comparison. Arrive
at total for "Year to Date" by adding the total for the present month
to the total for "Year to Date" found on the previous month's sheet.
The figures for "Last Year to Date" are taken directly from the sheet
kept for the same month last year. It is, of course, evident that this
cannot be done until one year's records have been completed.
Expenses and Profits.
Under the heading "Summary" at the bottom of the sheet, provision has
been made for finding out how much net profit YOU have made for the
month.
On the line marked "Gross Profits" enter the "Month Total" figures in
the eighth column. Below this enter all the various items of expense
as follows:
(1) Advertising: By advertising is meant such copy, signs, etc., which
may be prepared and used for the purpose of keeping the public
informed as to your ability to serve them--in other words, any space
which is used for general publicity purposes, such as for instance,
your card in the classified telephone directory, or blotters, folders,
dodgers which you may have printed up and distributed.
Do not load this account with church programs, contributions to the
ball team, tickets to the fireman's ball and the like. These are
donations, and not advertising.
(2) Electricity: All bills for electrical current will be charged to
this account.
(3) Freight: Charges for all freight and express will be made to this
account.
(4) Insurance: The total yearly insurance should be divined by twelve,
to obtain the amount to be charged to this account monthly.
(5) Proprietor's salary: Many battery service station proprietors do
not charge their own living as an expense. That's a serious mistake,
of course. If those same men should hire a manager to run their
service station, the manager's salary would naturally be charged to
expense. The amount of money withdrawn from the business by the
proprietor should therefore be charged to expense.
(6) Rent: The amount of money you pay monthly for rent should be
charged to this account. If, on the other hand, you own your own
building, charge the business with rent, the same as if you were
paying it to someone else. Every business should stand rent; besides,
the building itself should show itself a profitable investment. Charge
yourself just as much as you would anyone else; don't favor your
business by undercharging, nor handicap it by overcharging.
(7) Supplies: The cost of all supplies, small tools and miscellaneous
articles which are bought for use in the business and not for sale
should be charged to this account.
(8) Taxes: The yearly amount of taxes paid should be divided by
twelve, in order to arrive at the monthly proportion to be charged to
this account.
(9) Wages: The amount of wages paid to employees should be charged to
this account. Care should be taken to determine the actual amount for
the month, if wages are paid on a daily or weekly wage rate.
(10) Miscellaneous: Any expenses of the business not listed above will
be charged to this account. This may include such items as donations,
loss on bad accounts, and such like items of expense. You may itemize
these into as many headings as you desire, but for the purposes of the
Daily Exhibit combine all of them under "Miscellaneous Expense."
All these expense items are then added together, and this total is
entered on the line marked "Total Expenses."
Deduct "Total Expenses" from "Gross Profit" to arrive at "Net Profit."
To arrive at the totals for "This Year to Date," carry the figures
forward from the previous month's sheet and add figures for present
month.
The figures for "Last Year to Date" will be found on the sheet for the
corresponding month of last year, and are copied in this column.
All percentages should be figured on sales. The figures shown on each
line in the "Amount" columns under the headings "This Month," "This
Year to Date" and "Last Year to Date" should be divided by the "Month
Total" of the sixth column, shown above, i. e., "Goods Sold, Less
Goods Returned."
When you take inventory, the amount of stock should equal "Merchandise
on Hand," as shown by the Daily Exhibit. But there will generally be a
discrepancy, varying with the size of your stock, and that discrepancy
will represent the amount of goods gone out of your station without
being paid for; sold for cash and not accounted for; sold on credit
and not charged, and the like. It's worth something to know exactly
what this amounts to. The place for this information is under
"Inventory Variations" on the sheet.
The space headed "Accounts Payable" is provided for recording, on the
last day of every month, just what you owe for accounts and for notes,
and also the same information for the corresponding date of last year.
Invaluable Monthly Comparative Information.
You see now that by the use of the Daily Exhibit you have a running
history of your business by days, weeks and months. But this is hardly
sufficient for a clear view of your business, since you will want some
record which will tell you what the year's business has been, and how
it varied from month to month.
[Fig. 188. Statistical and Comparative Record]
This is provided for in the Statistical and Comparative Record,
illustrated by Fig. 188, on which the amount of sales, cost of sales,
gross profit, expenses and net profit are entered for each month of
the year. All the figures for entry in this record are taken directly
from the Daily Exhibit at the end of the month, which makes the work
of compiling it a very easy task.
The advantages of a record of this kind can hardly be overstated. The
figures in the upper part of this statement will show which months
have been profit payers and which have not, while from the figures in
the lower part of the report you are able to determine the percentage
any group of expenses bears to sales, and are thus in position to
subsequently control such items.
Do not let the fear of doing a little bookkeeping work prevent you
from keeping these records. They should go a long way toward solving
the problems which the average proprietor faces today:
1. Selling his goods and services without a profit.
2. Failure to show sufficient net profit at the end of the year.
3. Constantly increasing cost of doing business.
You may think at first glance that it will require a great deal of
extra work to keep these records, but in this you are mistaken. They
are very simple and easy to operate. The American Bureau of
Engineering, Inc., will advise you where to obtain these forms.
=======================================================================
CHAPTER 14.
WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE BATTERY?
------------------------------
When a man does not feel well, he visits a doctor. When he has trouble
on his car, he takes the car to a service station. What connection is
there between these two cases? None whatever, you may say. And yet in
each instance the man is seeking service. The term "Service Station"
generally suggests a place where automobile troubles are taken care
of. That does not mean, however, that the term may not be used in
other lines of business. The doctor's office is just as much a
"Service Station" as the automobile repair shop. The one is a "Health
Service Station" and the other is an "Automobile Service Station." The
business of each is to eliminate trouble.
The battery repairman may think that he cannot learn anything from a
doctor which will be of any use to his battery business, but, as a
matter of fact, the battery man can learn much that is valuable from
the doctor's methods of handling trouble. The doctor greets a patient
courteously and always waits for him to tell what his symptoms are. He
then examines the patient, asking questions based on what the patient
tells him, to bring out certain points which will help in making an
accurate diagnosis. Very often such questioning will enable the doctor
to determine just what the nature of the illness is. But he does not
then proceed to write out a prescription without making an
examination. If he did, the whole case might just as well have been
handled over the telephone. No competent physician will treat patients
from a distance. Neither will he write out a prescription without
making a physical examination of the patient. The questioning of the
patient and the physical examination always go together, some
questions being asked before an examination is made to give an
approximate idea of what is wrong and some during the examination to
aid the doctor in making an accurate diagnosis.
The patient expects a doctor to listen to his description of the
symptoms and to be guided by them in the subsequent examination, but
not to arrive at a conclusion entirely by the description of the
symptoms. A patient very often misinterprets his pains and aches, and
tells the doctor that he has a certain ailment. Yet the doctor makes
his examination and determines what the trouble is, and frequently
find a condition which is entirely different from what the patient
suspected. He then prescribes a treatment based on his own conclusions
and not on what the patient believes to be wrong.
Calling for Batteries. A doctor treats many patients in his office,
but also makes his daily calls on others. Similarly, the battery
repairman should have a service truck for use in calling for
customers' batteries, especially where competition is keen. Some car
owners cannot bring their cars to the repair shop during working
hours, and yet if they knew that they could have their battery called
for and have a rental battery installed, they would undoubtedly have
their battery tested and repaired more frequently. In some instances a
battery will be so badly run down that the car cannot be started, and
the car is allowed to stand idle because the owner does not care to
remove his battery, carry it to a service station and carry a rental
battery with him. Batteries are heavy and generally dirty and wet with
acid, and few people wish to run the risk of ruining their clothes by
carrying the battery to a shop. The wise battery mail will not
overlook the business possibilities offered by the call for and
deliver service, especially when business is slow. A Ford roadster
with a short express body will furnish this service, or any old
chassis may be fitted up for it at a moderate cost. Of course, you
must advertise this service. Do not wait for car owners to ask whether
you will call for their batteries. Many of them may not think of
telephoning for such service, and even if they do, they might call up
some other service station.
When Batteries Come In
What does a man expect when he brings his battery to the battery
service-station? Obviously lie expects to be greeted courteously and
to be permitted to tell the symptoms of trouble which he has observed.
He furthermore expects the repairman to examine and test the battery
carefully before deciding what repairs are necessary and not to tell
him that he needs new positives, new separators, or an entirely new
battery without even looking at the battery.
When a car is brought to your shop, you are the doctor. Sonic part of
the mechanism is in trouble, and it is your duty to put yourself in
charge of the situation. Listen to what the customer hp to say. He has
certainly noticed that something is wrong, or he would not have come
to you. Ask him what he has observed.
He has been driving the car, starting the engine, and turning on the
lights, and certainly has noticed whether everything has been
operating as it should. The things he has noticed were caused by the
trouble which exists. He may not know what sort of trouble they
indicate, but you, as the battery doctor can generally make a fairly
accurate estimate of what the trouble is. You should, of course, do
more than merely listen to what the customer says. You can question
him as to how the car has been used, just as the doctor, after
listening to what a patient has to say, asks questions to give him a
clue to what has caused such symptoms.
The purpose of the preliminary questioning and examination is not
merely to make an accurate diagnosis of the troubles, but to establish
a feeling of confidence on the part of the customer. A man who owns a
car generally possesses an average amount of intelligence and likes to
have it recognized and respected. Your questioning and examination
will either show the customer that you know your business and know
what should be done, or it will convince him that you are merely
putting up a bluff to hide your ignorance.
What the customer wants to know is how much the repairs will cost,
and how soon lie may have his battery again. Estimate carefully what
the work, will cost, and tell him. If a considerable amount of work is
required and you cannot estimate how much time and material will be
needed, tell the customer that you will let him know the approximate
cost later, when you have gone far enough with the work to be able to
make an estimate. If you find that the battery should be taken off,
take it off without any loss of time and put on a rental battery. If
there is something wrong outside of the battery, however, it will be
necessary to eliminate the trouble before the car leaves the
shop, otherwise the same battery trouble will occur again. If there is
no actual trouble outside the battery, and if the driving conditions
have been such that the battery is not charged sufficiently while on
the car, no actual repairs are necessary on the electrical system. The
customer should be advised to drive in about every two weeks to have
his battery tested, and occasionally taken off and given a bench
charge. It is better to do this than to increase the charging rate to
a value which might damage the generator or battery.
Adopt a standard method of procedure in meeting, a customer and in
determining what is wrong and what should be done. If the customer is
one who brings his car in regularly to have the battery filled and
tested, you will: be able to detect any trouble as soon as it occurs,
and will be able to eliminate it before the battery is seriously
damaged. A change in the charging rate, cleaning of the generator
commutator or cutout contact points, if done in time, will often keep
everything in good shape.
With a new customer who has had his battery for sometime, you must,
however, ask questions and make tests to determine what is wrong.
Before sending the customer away with a new, rental, or repaired
battery, test the electrical system as described on page 276.
The most important transaction and one which will save you
considerable argument and trouble is to get everything down in black
and white. Always try to have the customer wait while you test the
battery. If you find it necessary to open the battery do this in his
presence. When he leaves there should be no question as to what he
shall have to pay for. If more time is required to determine the
necessary work, do not actually do the work without getting in touch
with the owner and making a written agreement as to what is to be done
and how much the cost will be. The Service Record shown in Fig. 183
may be used for this purpose.
The following method of procedure is suggested as a standard. Follow
it closely if possible, though in some cases, where the nature of the
trouble is plainly evident, this will not be necessary any more than a
doctor who sees blood streaming from a severe cut needs to question
the patient to find out what is wrong.
It may not always be necessary to ask all the questions which follow,
or to ask them in the order given, but they cover points which the
repairman should know in order to work intelligently. Some of the
information called for in the questions may often be obtained without
questioning the customer. Do not, however, hesitate to ask any and all
questions covering points which you wish to know.
1. Greet the customer with a smile.
Your manner and appearance are of great importance. Be polite and
pleasant. Do not lose your temper, no matter how much cause the
customer gives you to do so. A calm, courteous manner will generally
cool the anger of an irate customer and make it possible to gain his
confidence and good will. Do not argue with your customers, Your
business is to get the job and do it in an agreeable manner. If you
make mistakes admit it and your customer will come again. Keep your
clothes neat and clean and have your face and hands clean. Remember
that the first glimpse the customer has of the man who approaches him
will influence him to a very considerable extent in giving you his
business or going elsewhere. Do not have a customer wait around a long
time before he receives any attention. If he grows impatient because
nobody notices him when he comes in, it will be hard to gain his
confidence, no matter how well you may afterwards do the work.
2. What's the Trouble?
Let the customer tell you his story. While listening, try to get an
idea of what may be wrong. When he has given you all the information
he can, question him so that you will be able to get a better idea of
what is wrong.
(a) How long have you had the battery? See page 242.
(b) Was it a new battery when you bought it?
(c) How often has water been added?
(d) Has distilled water been used exclusively, or has faucet, well, or
river water ever been used? Impure water may introduce substances
which will damage or even ruin a battery.
(e) Has too much water been added? If this is done, the electrolyte
will flood the tops of the jars and may rot the upper parts of the
wooden case.
(f) How fast is car generally driven? The speed should average 15 M.
P. H. or more to keep battery charged.
(g) How long must engine be cranked before it starts? This should not
require more than about 10 seconds. If customer is in doubt, start the
engine to find out. If starting motor cranks engine at a fair speed,
engine should start within 10 seconds. If starting motor cranks engine
at a low speed, a longer cranking time may be required. The low
cranking speed may be due to a run-down or defective battery, to
trouble in the starting motor or starting circuit, or to a stiff
engine. To determine if battery is at fault, see "Battery Tests,"
below.
(h) Has the car been used regularly, or has it been standing idle for
any length of time? An idle battery discharges itself and often
becomes damaged. If car has been standing idle in cold weather, the
battery has probably been frozen.
(i) Has it been necessary to remove the battery occasionally for a
bench charge?
(j) Has battery ever been repaired? See page 322.
Battery Tests
1. Remove the vent plugs and inspect electrolyte. If the electrolyte
covers the plates and separators to a sufficient depth, measure the
specific gravity of the electrolyte. If the electrolyte is below the
tops of the plates and separators, see following section No. 2.
If all cells read 1.150 or less, remove the battery and give it a
bench charge.
If the specific gravity readings of all cells are between 1.150 and
1.200, and if no serious troubles have been found up to this point,
advise the owner to use his lights and starting motor as little as
possible until the gravity rises to 1.280-1.300. If this is not
satisfactory to him, remove the battery and give it a bench charge.
If the specific gravity readings are all above 1.200, or if the
gravity reading of one cell is 50 points (such as the difference
between 1.200 and 1.250, which is 50 "points") lower or higher than
the others (no matter what the actual gravity readings may be), make
the 15 seconds high rate discharge test on the battery. See page 266.
If this test indicates that the internal condition of the battery is
bad, the battery should be removed from the car and opened for
inspection. If the test indicates that the internal condition of the
battery is good, the specific gravity of the electrolyte needs
adjusting. The difference in specific gravity readings in the cells is
due to one of the following, causes:
(a) Water added to the cell or cells which have low gravity to replace
electrolyte which had been spilled or lost in some other manner.
(b) Electrolyte added to the cell or cells which have high gravity to
replace the water which naturally evaporates from the electrolyte.
(c) Trouble inside the cell or cells which have low gravity. The high
rate discharge test will show whether there is any internal trouble.
If any cell shows a gravity above 1.300, remove the battery, dump out
all the electrolyte, fill battery with distilled water and put the
battery on charge.
If the gravity of one or more cells is 50 points less than the others,
water has been used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled or
lost in some other manner, or else one or more jars are cracked. A
battery with one or more cracked jars usually has the bottom parts of
its wooden case rotted by the electrolyte which leaks from the jar. If
you are not certain whether the battery has one or more cracked jars,
see that the electrolyte covers the plates in all the cells one-half
inch or so, and then let the battery stand. If the electrolyte sinks
below the tops of the plates in one or more cells within twenty-four
hours, those cells have leaky jars and the battery must be opened, and
new jars put in.
If the low gravity is not caused by leaky jars, give the battery a
bench charge and adjust the level of the electrolyte.
2. If you found electrolyte to be below tops of plates in all the
cells, the battery has been neglected, or there mail be leaky jars.
Add distilled water until the electrolyte covers the plates to a
depth of about one-half inch.
(a) If it requires only a small amount of water to bring up the level
of the electrolyte, remove the battery and give it a bench charge. See
page 198. Only a brief charge may be necessary. Ask the driver when
water was added last. If more than 1 month has passed since the last
filling, the upper parts of the plates may be sulphated, and the
battery should be charged at a low rate.
(b) If it requires a considerable amount of water to bring up the
level of the electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden battery case
shows no signs of being rotted, the battery has been neglected and has
been dry for a long time, and the plates are mostly likely badly
damaged. Open the battery for inspection.
(c) If only one cell requires a considerable amount of water to bring
up the level of its electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden battery
ease shows no sign of being rotted, that cell is probably "dead," due
to in internal short-circuit. To test for "dead" cells, turn on the
lamps and measure the voltage of each cell. A dead cell will not give
any voltage on test, may give a reversed voltage reading, or at the
most will give a very low voltage. A battery with a dead cell should
be opened for inspection.
(d) If the bottom part of the wooden battery case is rotted, and a
considerable amount of water had to be added to any or all cells to
bring up the level of the electrolyte, the battery has leaky jars and
must be opened to have the leaky jars replaced by good ones.
If there is any doubt in your mind as to whether any or all jars are
leaking, fill the cells with distilled water and let the battery stand
for twelve to twenty-four hours. If at or before the end of that time
the electrolyte has, fallen below the tops of the plates in any or all
cells, these cells have leaky Jars and the battery must be opened and
the leaky jars replaced with good ones. The electrolyte which leaks
out will wet the bench or on which the battery is placed and this is
another indication of a leaky jar.
General Inspection
In addition to the tests which have been described, a general
inspection as outlined below will often be a great help in deciding
what must be done.
1. Is battery loose? A battery which is not held down firmly may have
broken jars, cracked sealing compound around posts or between posts
and separators, and active material shaken out of the grids. There may
also be corrosion at the terminals.
2. Are cables loose? This will cause battery to be in a run down
condition and cause failure to crank engine.
3. Is there corrosion at the terminals? This will cause battery to be
in a run-down condition and cause failure to start engine. Corrosion
is caused by electrolyte attacking terminals. A coating of vaseline on
the terminals prevents corrosion.
4. Is top of battery wet? This may be due to addition of too much
water, overheating of battery, cracks around posts and between posts
and cover, electrolyte thrown out of vents because of battery being
loose, or electrolyte or water spilled on battery. Such a condition
causes battery to run down.
5. Is top of case acid soaked? This is caused by leaks around posts or
between covers and jars, flooding of electrolyte due to overheating or
due to addition of too much water, or by electrolyte spilled on covers.
6. Is lower part of case acid soaked? This is caused by leaky jars.
7. Are ends of case bulged out? This may be due to battery having been
frozen.
This general inspection of the battery can be made in a few seconds,
and often shows what the condition of the battery is.
Operation Tests
Two simple tests may be made which will help considerably in the
diagnosis.
Turn on the lights. If they burn dim, battery is run down (and may be
defective) and battery needs bench charge or repairs. If they burn
bright battery is probably in a good condition.
With the lights burning, have the customer or a helper step on the
starting switch. If the lights now become very dim, the battery is run
down (and may also be defective), or else the starting motor is
drawing too much current from the battery.
Trouble Charts
For the convenience of the repairman, the battery troubles which may
be found when a car is brought in, are summarized in the following
tables:
All Cells Show Low Gravity or Low Voltage
A. Look for the following conditions:
1. Loose or dirty terminals or cell connectors. This may reduce
charging rate, or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Tighten and
clean connections.
2. Corrosion on terminals or cell connectors caused by acid on top of
battery due to over-filling, flooding, defective sealing, lead scraped
from lead-coated terminals, and copper wires attached directly to
battery. A badly corroded battery terminal may cause the generator,
ignition coil, and lamps to burn out because of the high resistance
which the corroded terminal causes in the charging line. It may reduce
charging rate, or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Remove cause
of corrosion. Clean corroded parts and give coating of vaseline.
3. Broken terminals or cell connectors. These may reduce charging rate
or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Install new parts.
4. Generator not charging. Remedy: Find and remove cause of generator
not charging (see page 284).
5. Charging rate too low. Remedy: If due to generator trouble, repair
generator. If due to incorrect generator setting change setting. If
due to driving conditions increase charging rate.
6. Acid or moisture on top of battery due to defective sealing,
flooding, spilling electrolyte in taking gravity readings, loose vent
plugs. This causes corrosion and current leakage. Remedy: Find and
remove cause.
7. Tools or wires on battery causing short-circuits. Remedy: Tell
customer to keep such things off the battery.
8. Short-circuits or grounds in wiring. Remedy: Repair wiring.
9. Cutout relay closing late, resulting in battery not being charged
at ordinary driving speeds. Remedy: Check action of cutout. See page
282.
10. Excessive lighting current, due to too many or too large lamps.
Remedy: Check by turning on all lamps while engine is running. Ammeter
should show three to five amperes charge with lamps burning. In winter
the charging rate may have to be increased.
B. Question Driver as to following causes of low gravity and low
voltage:
1. Has water been added regularly?
2. Has impure water, such as faucet, well, or river water ever been
added to battery?
3. Has too much water been added?
4. Has electrolyte been spilled and replaced by water?
5. Has battery been idle, or stored without regular charging?
6. Is car used more at night than in daytime? Considerable night
driving may prevent battery from being fully charged.
7. Is starter used frequently?
8. What is average driving speed? Should be over 15 M. P. 11.
9. How long is engine usually cranked before starting-? Cranking
period should not exceed 10 seconds.
C. If battery has been repaired. The trouble may be due to:
1. Improperly treated separators used.
2. Grooved side of separators put against negatives instead of
positives.
3. Separator left out.
4. Cracked separator.
5. Positives used which should have been discarded.
6. Bulged, swollen negatives used.
7. Poor joints due to improper lead-burning.
D. Battery Troubles which may exist:
1. Sulfated plates.
2. Buckled Plates.
3. Internal Short-circuits.
4. Cracked Jars.
5. Clogged Separators.
Gravity Readings Unequal
1. Acid or moisture on top of battery, due to defective sealing,
flooding, spilling electrolyte, loose vent plugs. This causes current
leakage. Remedy: Find and remove cause.
2. Tools or wires on battery, causing short-circuits. Remedy: Tell
driver to keep such things off the battery.
3. Electrolyte or acid added to cells giving the high gravity readings.
4. Electrolyte spilled and replaced by water in cells giving low
readings.
5. Grooved side of separators placed against negatives in cells giving
the low readings.
6. Separator left out, cracked separator used, hole worn through
separator by buckled plate or swollen negatives, or separators in
some cells and new ones in others.
7. Old plates used in some cells and new ones in others.
8. Impurities in cells showing low gravity.
9. Shorted cell, due to plates cutting through separators.
10. Cracked jar.
11. Oil some of the older cars a three wire lighting system was used.
If the lights are arranged so that more are connected between one of
the outside wires and the center, than between the other outside wire
and the center, the cells carrying the heavier lighting load will show
low gravity.
12. On some of the older cars, the battery is made of two or more
sections which are connected in series for starting and in parallel
for charging. Oil such cars the cells in one of the sections may show
lower gravity than other cells due to longer connecting cables, poor
connections, corroded terminals, and so on. Such a condition AN-ill
often be found in the old two section Maxwell batteries used previous
to 1918.
High Gravity
This is a condition in which the hydrometer readings would indicate
that a battery is almost or fully-charged, but the battery may fail to
operate the starting motor. If the lights are burning while the
starting switch is closed, they will become very dim. The gravity
readings may be found to be above 1.300.
The probable causes of this condition are:
1. Electrolyte or concentrated acid added instead of water.
2. One of the numerous "dope" solutions which have been advertised
extensively within the past two years. Never use them. If customer
admits having used such a "dope" warn him not to do so again.
Low Electrolyte
Probable Causes:
1. Water not added.
2. Electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after taking gravity readings.
3. Cracked jars.
4. Battery overcharged, causing loss of water by overheating and
excessive gassing.
Probable Results:
1. Sulfated Plates.
2. Carbonized, dry, cracked separators.
3. Considerable shedding.
Battery Overheats
Probable Causes:
1. Water not added regularly.
2. Impure water used.
3. Impure acid used.
4. Battery on hot place on car.
5. Alcohol or other anti-freeze preparation added.
6. Excessive charging rate.
7. Improperly treated separators.
8. Battery over-charged by long daylight runs.
Probable Results:
1. Sulfated Plates.
2. Burned, Carbonized Separators.
3. Buckled Plates.
4. Excessive Shedding.
Electrolyte Leaking Out at Top
Probable Causes:
1. Too much water added.
2. Battery loose in box.
3. Cracks in sealing compound due to poor sealing, or cables pulling
on terminals, or due to poor quality of sealing compound, or good
quality compound which has been burned.
4. Vent plugs loose.
Probable Results:
1. Upper portion of case rotted by acid.
2. Electrolyte low.
3. Plates sulphated.
4. Upper parts of separators dry.
Summary
1. When May a Battery Be Left on the Car?
(a) When you find that the specific gravity of all cells is more than
1.150, the voltage of each cell is at least 2, the voltage doe's not
drop when the lights are turned on, or the lights do not become very
dim when the engine is cranked with the starting motor, there are no
loose terminals or connectors, the sealing compound is not broken or
cracked so as to cause a "slopper," the electrolyte covers the plates,
the box is not rotted by acid, and there are no broken jars.
These conditions will exist only if battery has been well taken care
of, and some trouble has suddenly and recently arisen, such as caused
by a break in one of the battery cables, loosening of a cable
connection at the battery or in the line to the starting motor.
2. When Should a Battery Be Removed From Car?
(a) When you find broken sealing compound, causing the battery to be a
"slopper."
(b) When you find inter-cell connectors and terminals loose, corroded,
or poorly burned on.
(c) When you find box badly rotted by acid, or otherwise defective.
(d) When you find a cracked jar, indicated by lower part of case being
acid soaked, or by low electrolyte, or find that electrolyte level
falls below the tops of the plates soon after adding water.
(e) When you find a dead cell, indicated by very low or no voltage,
even on open circuit.
(f) When specific gravity of electrolyte is less than 1.150, or
gravity readings of cells vary considerably.
(g) When battery voltage drops to about 1.7 or less per cell when
lamps are turned on, or lamps become very dim when the starting motor
is cranking the engine, or the high rate discharge test shows that
there is trouble in the cells.
(h) When you find that electrolyte is below tops of plates, and it
requires considerable water to bring it up to the correct height.
(i) When battery overheats on charge, or discharge, although battery
is not located in hot place, charging rate is not too high and lamps
and accessories load is normal.
(j) When battery is more than a year old and action is not
satisfactory.
(k) When a blacksmith, tinsmith or plumber has tried his hand at
rebuilding the battery. Such a battery is shown in Fig. 189.
(1) When ends of care are bulged out.
3. When Is It Unnecessary to Open a Battery?
(a) When the only trouble is broken sealing compound. The battery
should be resealed.
(b) When loose, corroded, or poorly burned on terminals and connectors
have merely resulted in keeping battery only partly charged and no
internal troubles exist. The remedy is to drill off the connectors, or
terminals, and re-burn them.
(c) When the external condition of battery is good, and a bench
charge, see page 198 (with several charge and discharge cycles if
necessary) puts battery in a good condition, as indicated by voltage,
cadmium, and 20 minute high rate discharge test.
4. When Must a Battery Be Opened?
(a) When prolonged charging (72 hours or more) will not cause gravity
or voltage to rise. Such trouble is due to defective plates and
separators.
(b) When battery case is badly acid soaked. A slightly acid soaked
case need not be discarded, but if the damage caused by the acid has
been excessive, a new case is needed. Plates may also be damaged.
(c) When one or more jars are cracked. New jars are needed. The plates
may also be damaged.
(d) When one or more cells are "dead," as indicated by little or no
voltage, even on open circuit. New plates (positives at least) may be
required.
(e) When battery is more than a year old and action is unsatisfactory.
(Battery will not hold its charge.) Battery may have to be junked, or
new separators may be required. Every battery should be reinsulated at
least once during its lifetime.
(f) When a blacksmith, tinsmith, or plumber have tried to repair a
case, Fig. 189.
[Fig. 189. A Blacksmith and Tinsmith Tried Their Hands on This Case,
Lower Part Enclosed in Tin, Strap Iron, Covered with Friction Tape,
Around The Top]
(g) When the ends of case are bulged. A new case is needed. If the
battery has been frozen it should generally be junked. There are some
cases on record of a frozen battery having been thawed out and put in
serviceable condition by a long charge at a low rate followed by
several cycles of discharge and recharge. Generally, at least, a new
case, jars, and positives are required.
NOTE: New separators should always be installed, whenever a battery is
opened for repairs, unless the separators already in the battery are
new, and the trouble for which the battery was opened consists of a
leaky jar, a separator left out, or some other trouble which does not
require pulling the plates out of mesh.
====================================================================
CHAPTER 15.
REBUILDING THE BATTERY.
-----------------------
How to Open a Battery
[Fig. 190 Battery to be opened]
A battery is open when its plates have been drawn out of the hard
rubber jars. All parts are then exposed, and accessible for inspection
and repairs. In an assembled battery, the top of each cell is closed
by a hard rubber cover. Leakproof joints are made between these covers
and the rubber jars and the wooden case by means of sealing compound
which is poured in place while in a molten condition, and joins the
covers to the jars and which hardens as it cools. The joints between
the covers and the posts which project through the covers are in many
batteries made with sealing compound. The cells are then connected to
each other by means of the cell connectors, also called
"top-connectors," or simply "connectors." These connectors are joined
to the lead posts, to which are connected the plate groups by fusing
with a flame, and melting in additional lead to make a joint.
In opening a battery, we must first disconnect the cells from each
other, and then open the joint made by the sealing compound between
the covers and the jars and case. The plates may then be lifted out of
the jars, and the battery is open. The steps necessary to open a
battery follow, in the order in which they must be taken.
1. Clean the Battery. Set the battery on the tear down rack. See that
the vent plugs are all tight in place. Then clean the outside of the
battery. Remove the greater part of the dirt with a brush, old
whisk-broom, or a putty knife. Then put the battery in the water,
using a stiff bristled brush to remove whatever dirt was not removed
in the first place. A four-inch paint brush is satisfactory for this
work, and will last a year or more if taken care of. If water will not
remove all the dirt, try a rag wet with gasoline.
2. Drilling Off the Connectors and Terminals. When you have cleaned
the outside of the battery as thoroughly as possible, set the battery
on the floor near your work bench. Make a sketch of the top of the
battery, showing the exact arrangement of the terminals and
connectors. This sketch should be made on the tag which is tied to the
battery. Tic this tag on the handle near the negative terminal of the
battery or tack it to the ease. Then drill down over the Center of the
posts. For this you will need a large brace with a heavy chuck, a
drill the same size as the post (the part that goes down into the
battery), a large screw driver, a center punch, and a hammer.
[Fig. 191 Drilling post and cell connector]
With the center punch, mark the exact centers of the tops of the posts
and connectors. Then drill down about half way through the connectors
and terminals until you cut through the part of the connector which is
welded to the post. When you can see a seam between the post and
connector you have drilled through the welded part. See Figs. 191 and
192.
Now pry off the connectors with the screw driver, as shown in Fig.
193. Lay a flat tool such as a chisel or file on the top edge of the
ease to avoid damaging the ease when prying off the connectors.
If any connector is still tight, and you cannot pry it off with a
reasonable effort, drill down a little deeper, and it will come off
easily, provided that the hole which you are drilling is exactly over
the center of the post and as large as the post. There are five things
to remember in drilling the connectors and posts:
[Fig. 192 Connector drilled to correct depth]
(a) Be sure that the hole is exactly over the center of the post.
(b) Do not drill too deep. Make each hole just deep enough so that the
connector will come off easily. Fig. 192 shows a cross section of a
post and connector drilled to the proper depth. Notice that you need
not drill down the whole depth of the connector, because the bottom
part is not burned to the post.
(c) Be sure that the drill makes the right sized hole to permit the
connectors and terminals to be removed easily when drilled half way
through. An electric drill will do the work much faster than a hand
brace.
(d) Protect the edge of the battery box when you pry up the connectors
with a screw driver.
(e) Remove your drill after the hole is well started and see whether
the hole is in the center of the post. Should you find that it is off
center, tilt the drill, and with the end of the drill pointing the
center of the post as you drill, gradually straighten the drill. This
will bring the hole over the center of the post.
Having removed the connectors, sweep all the lead drillings front the
top of the battery into a box kept for lead drillings only. Fig. 194.
When this box is full, melt the drillings and pour off in the burning
lead mould.
[Fig. 193 Prying off cell connector]
Post Seal. If the post seal consists of a lead sealing nut, this may
be removed now. With some types of batteries (Willard and U. S. L.),
drilling the connectors also breaks the post seal. With other
batteries, such as the Vesta, Westinghouse, Prest-0-Lite, Universal,
it is more difficult to break the post seal.
[Fig. 194 Brushing lead drillings into box]
On these batteries, therefore, do not break this seal before drawing
out the plates. You may find that it will not be necessary to separate
the groups, and the post seal will not have to be broken at all,
thereby saving yourself considerable time on the overhauling job.
3. Heating Up the Sealing Compound. Having disconnected the cells from
each other by removing the cell connectors, the next step is to open
the joint made by the sealing compound between the covers and jars.
Fig. 195 shows the battery ready for this step. When cold, the
compound is a tough substance that sticks to the cover and jar, and
hence it must be heated until it is so soft that it is easily removed.
There are several methods by means of which compound may be heated.
These are as follows:
Steam. This is the most popular, and undoubtedly the best means of
heating the compound, and in the following instructions it will be
assumed that steam has been used. The battery is either placed in a
special box in which steam is sent, or else steam is sent directly
into each cell through the vent tube. In the first method the compound
is heated from the outside, and in the second it is heated from the
inside of the cell.
[Fig. 195 Battery ready for steaming]
[Fig. 196 Drawing up an element]
If the battery is placed in the steaming box, about ten minutes will
be required for the steam to heat up the sealing compound. For
batteries which use but very little compound, less time is required.
if steam is sent directly into the cells through the vent tubes, five
to seven minutes will generally be enough. The covers must be limp and
the 1 compound must be soft before turning off the steam.
Hot Water. The electrolyte is poured out of the battery, which is then
inverted in a vessel of hot water. This method is slower than the
others, and is more expensive because it requires a larger volume of
water to be heated.
Hot Putty Knife and Screwdriver. The compound may be dug out with a
hot putty knife. This is a slow, unsatisfactory method in most
instances, especially in those batteries which use a considerable
amount of sealing compound. With some batteries using only a small
quantity of compound, a heated putty knife may be run around the
inside of the jar between the jar and the cover. This will break the
joint between the cover and the jar, and allow the plates to be lifted
out. The compound is then scraped from covers and inside of jars,
heating the knife or screwdriver whenever it cools off.
Lead Burning Flame. Any soft lead burning flame may be used. Such a
flame may be adjusted to any desired size. Where steam is available, a
flame should, however, never be used. The temperature of the flame is
very high, and the covers, jars, case, posts, and vent plugs may be
burned and made worthless. Even for the expert repairman, a flame is
not as satisfactory as steam.
The Gasoline Torch. This is the most unsatisfactory method, and should
not be used if possible. The torch gives a hot, spreading flame and it
is difficult to prevent the covers, jars, case, etc., from being
burned. Do not use a gasoline torch if you can possibly avoid doing
so. Alcohol torches are open to the same objections, and are not
satisfactory, even in the hands of a highly skilled workman.
If a flame is used for heating the compound, be sure to blow out with
a hand bellows or compressed air any gas that may have gathered above
the plates, before you bring the flame near the battery.
Electric Heat. Special electric ovens for softening sealing compound
are on the market. The heating element is brought close to the top of
the battery. Where electric power is cheap, this method may be used.
Otherwise it is rather expensive.
[Fig. 197 Resting element on jar to drain]
When the sealing compound has been softened, place the battery on the
floor between your feet. Grasp the two posts of one cell with pliers,
and pull straight up with an even, steady pull. If the battery has
been steamed long enough, the plates will come up easily, carrying
with them the cover (or covers, if the batter has upper and lower
covers) to which the compound is sticking, as shown in Fig. 196. Do
not remove the plates of the other cells until later.
Rest the plates on the top of the jar just long enough to allow most
of the acid to drain from them, Fig. 197. If you have removed the post
seal, or if the seal consists of compound (old Philadelphia
batteries), pry off the covers now with a screw driver. Otherwise,
leave the covers in place while cleaning off the compound.
While the plates are resting on the jars to drain, scrape the compound
from the covers with a warm screw driver or putty knife, Fig. 198.
Work quickly while the compound is still hot and soft, and comes off
easily. As the compound cools it hardens and sticks to the covers and
is removed with difficulty. If the battery has sealing compound around
the posts, this should also be removed thoroughly, both from the cover
and from the post.
When you scrape the compound from the covers, do a good job. Do not
scrape off most of it, and then leave pieces of it here and there.
Remove every bit of compound, on the tops, edges, sides, and bottoms
of the covers. If you need different sized putty knives or screw
drivers to do this, use them. The time to remove all the compound is
while it is still hot, and not after it has become hard and cold. If
the battery has single covers, the compound can be removed very
quickly. If the battery is of the old double-cover type, the job will
take more time, since all the compound should be scraped from both top
and bottom covers, Fig. 199.
[Fig. 198 Removing compound from cover]
As soon as you have removed the compound from the covers of the first
cell, serape away the compound which may be sticking to the top and
inside walls of the jar, Fig. 200. Here again you must do a good job,
and remove all of this compound. If you do not do it now, you will
have to do it when you try to put the plates back into the jar later
on, as compound sticking to the inside walls of the jar will make it
difficult, and even impossible to lower the plates into the jar.
Now draw up the plates of the next cell. Rest the plates on the top of
the jar just long enough to drain, and then lift off the covers, and
remove all of the compound, from cover, posts, and jar, just as you
did in the first cell. The third cell, (and the others, if there are
more than three cells) are handled just as you did the first one.
Remember that you should lose no time after you have steamed the
battery. Hot compound is soft and does not stick to the covers, jars,
and posts and may therefore be removed quickly and easily. Cold
compound is hard, and sticks to the covers. Draw out the plates of
only one cell at a time, and clean the compound from the cover, posts
and jar of that one cell before you draw out the plates of the other
cells. In this way, the compound on the covers of the other cells will
remain hotter than if all the plates of the battery were drawn out of
the jars before any of the compound was removed from the covers. You
should have all the plates drawn out, and all the compound removed
within five minutes after you draw up the plates.
[Fig. 199 Removing sealing compound from double cover]
Throw away the old compound. If is very likely acid-soaked and not fit
for further use.
What Must Be Done with the Battery?
The battery is now open, and in a condition to be examined and
judgment pronounced upon it. The question now arises, "What must be
done with it!" In deciding upon this, be honest with your customer,
put yourself in his place, and do just what you would like to have him
do if he were the repairman and you the car owner. The best battery
men occasionally make mistakes in their diagnosis of the battery's
condition, and the repairs necessary. Experience is the best teacher
in this respect, and you will in time learn to analyze the condition
of a battery quickly.
Handle every cell of a battery that comes in for repairs in the same
way, even though only one dead cell is found, and the others are
apparently in good condition. Each cell must be overhauled, for all
cells are of the same age, and the active materials are in about the
same condition in all the cells, and one cell just happened to give
out before the others. If you overhaul only the dead cell, the others
cells are quite likely to give out soon after the battery is put into
service again.
[Fig. 200 Removing compound from top of jar]
It is absolutely necessary for you to have a standard method in
working on battery plates. You must divide your work into a number of
definite steps, and always perform these steps, and in the same order
each time. If you have a different method of procedure for every
battery, you will never be successful. Without a definite, tangible
method of procedure for your work you will be working in the dark, and
groping around like a blind man, never becoming a battery expert,
never knowing why you did a certain thing, never gaining confidence in
yourself.
It is impossible to overemphasize the importance of having a standard
method of procedure and to stick to that method. Careless, slip-shod
methods will please your competitor and give him the business which
belongs to you.
1. Examine plates to determine whether they can be used again Rules
for determining when to discard or use old plates follow.
2. If all plates of both positive and negative groups are to be
discarded, use new groups.