horizontally and placed on its bed, where it is secured by

chains passing over a rod fitted with a lever for ``letting

go.'' The cat davit is hinged at its base, and can be laid flat

on the deck for right ahead fire or when at sea. Ground and

catting chains have been superseded in some ships by a wire

pendant and cat hook; the anchor is then hove close up to the

hawse-pipe. To avoid cutting away a portion of the forecastle,

in the ``Cressy,'' ``Terrible'' and ``Diadem'' classes of

the British navy, the anchors, secured by chains, are stowed

a-cock-bill, outside the ship, with their crowns resting on

iron shoes secured to the ship's side and the flukes fore and

aft. A difficulty is experienced in stowing the anchors when

the ship is pitching or rolling heavily. Fig. 4 illustrates

an anchor with cat davit or anchor crane used in the P.

and O. Company's steamers (``India'' class, 8000 tons);

for sea the anchor is stowed on board by the anchor crane.

Stockless anchors have been extensively used in the British

mercantile marine and in some foreign navies. In 1903 they

FIG. 5.--Hall's Improved FIG. 6.--W. L.

Byer's Stockless Anchor. Stockless Anchor.

were adopted generally for the British navy, after extensive

anchor trials, begun in 1885. Their advantages are:--handiness

combined with a saving of time and labour; absence of davits,

anchor-beds and other gear, with a resulting reduction in

weight; and a clear forecastle for ``right ahead'' gun fire

or for working ship. On the other hand a larger hawse-pipe is

required, and there appears to be a consensus of opinion that

a stockless anchor when ``let go'' does not hold so quickly

as a stocked one, is more uncertain in its action over uneven

ground, and is more liable to ``come home,' (drag). The

stockless anchors principally in use in the British navy are

Hall's improved, Byer's, and Wasteneys Smith's. In Hall's

improved (fig. 5) the arms and crown of cast steel are in one

piece, and the shank of forged steel passes up through an

aperture in the crown to which it is secured by two cross

bolts. Two trunnions or lugs are forged to the lower end of the

shank. In Byer's plan (fig. 6) the flukes and crown consist

of a steel-casting secured to a forged shank by a through bolt

of mild steel, the axis of which is parallel to the points

of the flukes; one end of the bolt has a head, but the other

is screwed and fitted with a phosphor bronze nut to allow the

bolt to be withdrawn for examination. A palm is cast on each

side of the crown to trip the flukes when the anchor is on the

ground, and for bringing them snug against the ship's side when

weighing. Wasteneys Smith's anchor (fig. 7) is composed of

Fig. 7.--Wasteneys Smith's Stockless anchor.

three main parts, the shank and crown which form one forging,

and the two flukes or arms which are separate castings. A bolt

passes through the crown of the anchor, connecting the flukes

to it; to prevent the flukes working off the connecting through

bolt, two smaller bolts pass through the flukes at right angles

to the through bolt and are recessed half their diameter into it.

Fig. 8 represents the starboard bow of H.M.S. ``New Zealand''

FIG. 8.--Starboard Bow of H.M.S. ``New Zealand.''

(16,350 tons) with lower and sheet (spare) anchors stowed.

To let go a stockless anchor (fig. 9) the cable or capstan

holder C is unscrewed, and in practice it is found desirable

to knock off the bottle screw-slip A, allowing the weight

of the anchor to be taken by the inner slip A' (Blake's

stopper). Stern, stream and kedge anchors are usually

stowed with special davits. A portable anchor suitable for

small yachts is the invention of Mr Louis Moore; the shank

passes through the crown of the anchor like the handle of

a pickaxe and the stock over the head of the shank. At

the end of the stock are loose pawls. There are no keys or

bolts, and the only fastening is for the cable. The anchor

takes to pieces readily and stows snugly. In 1890 Colonel

Bucknill also invented a portable anchor for small yachts.

Iron buoy-sinkers (fig. 10), as used by the London Trinity

House Corporation, weigh from 8 to 40 cwt.; the specified

weight is cast on them in large raised figures, and the

cast and wrought irons used are of special quality, of which

samples are previously submitted to the engineer-in-chief.

The anchors supplied to ships of the British navy are reqaired

FIG. 9.--Forecastle of H.M.S. ``New Zealand.,' A.

Bottle or screw-slip. B. Deck or navel pices. A'. Slip

or Blake's stopper. F. Fairleads for wire hawsers. D.

Bitts. H. Hawse-pipes. C. Cable or Capstan-holders. S.

Stopoer-bolts. C'. Centre line capstan. R. Rollers.

to withstand a certain tensile strain, expressed in tons,

proportionate to their weights in cwts. New anchors are

supplied by contractors, but repairs are made in H.M. dockyards,

a record of its repairs being stamped on each anchor. In

the Anchors and Cables Act 1899 a list is given of authorized

testing-establishments, with their distinctive marks and

charges, and testing- houses for foreign-owned vessels are

Fig. 10.--Iron Buoy- Sinker.

enumerated in Table 22 of Lloyd's Register of British and

Foreign Shipping. Cast-steel anchors, in addition to the

statutory tests, are subjected to percussive, hammering and

bending tests, and are stamped ``annealed steel.'' (J. W. D.)

ANCHOVY (Engraulis encrasicholus), a fish of the herring

family, easily distinguished by its deeply-cleft mouth,

the angle of the gape being behind the eyes. The pointed

snout extends beyond the lower jaw. The fish resembles a

sprat in having a forked tail and a single dorsal fin, but

the body is round and slender. The maximum length is 8 1/8

in. Anchovies are abundant in the Mediterranean, and are

regularly caught on the coasts of Sicily, Italy, France and

Spain. The range of the species also extends along the

Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of Norway. In winter

it is common off Devon and Cornwall, but has not hitherto been

caught in such numbers as to be of commercial importance. Off

the coast of Holland in summer it is more plentiful, entering

the Zuider Zee in such numbers as to give rise to a regular

and valuable fishery. It is also taken in the estuary of the

Scheldt. There is reason to believe that the anchovies found

at the western end of the English Channel in November and

December are those which annually migrate from the Zuider

Zee and Scheldt in autumn, returning thither in the following

spring; they must be held to form an isolated stock, for

none come up from the south in summer to occupy the English

Channel, though the species is resident on the coast of

Portugal. The explanation appears to be that the shallow

and landlocked waters of the Zuider Zee, as well as the sea

on the Dutch coast, become raised to a higher temperature

in summer than any part of the sea about the British coasts,

and that therefore anchovies are able to spawn and maintain

their numbers in these waters. Their reproduction and

development were first described by a Dutch naturalist from

observations made on the shores of the Zuider Zee. Spawning

takes place in June and July, and the eggs, like those of

the majority of marine fishes, are buoyant and transparent,

but they are peculiar in having an elongated, sausage-like

shape, instead of being globular. They resemble those of

the sprat and pilchard in having a segmented yolk and there

is no oil globule. The larva is batched two or three days

after the fertilization of the egg, and is very minute and

transparent. In August young specimens 1 1/2 to 3 1/2 in. in

length have been taken in the Zuider Zee, and these must be

held to have been derived from the spawning of the previous

summer. There is no evidence to decide the question whether

all the young anchovies as well as the adults leave the Zuider

Zee in autumn, but, considering the winter temperature there,

it is probable that they do. The eggs have also been obtained

from the Bay of Naples, and near Marseilles, also off the coast

of Holland, and once at least off the coast of Lancashire.

The occurrence of anchovies in the English Channel has been

carefully studied at the laboratory of the Marine Biological

Association at Plymouth. They were most abundant in 1889 and

1890. In the former year considerable numbers were taken

off Dover in drift nets of small mesh used for the capture of

sprats. In the following December large numbers were taken

together with sprats at Torquay. In November 1890 a thousand

of the fish were obtained in two days from the pilchard boats

fishing near Plymouth; these were caught near the Eddystone.

When taken in British waters anchovies are either thrown away

or sent to the market fresh with the sprats. If salted in

the proper way, they would doubtless be in all respects equal

to Dutch anchovies, if not to those imported from Italy. The

supply, however, is small and inconstant, and for this reason

English fish-curers have not learnt the proper way of preparing

them. The so-called ``Norwegian anchovies'' imported into

England in little wooden kegs are nothing but sprats pickled

in brine with bay-leaves and whole pepper. (J. T. C.)

ANCIEN REGIME, THE, a French phrase commonly used, even

by English writers, to denote the social and political system

established in France under the old monarchy, which was swept

away by the Revolution of 1789. The phrase is generally

applicable only to France, for in no other country, with perhaps

the exception of Japan, has there been in modern times so

clearly marked a division between ``the old order'' and the new.

ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr.

ancien, old, from the late Lat. anitianum, from ante,

before), old or in olden times. ``Ancient history'' is

distinguished from medieval and modern, generally as meaning

before the fall of the western Roman empire. In English legal

history, ``ancient'' tenure or demesne refers to what was

crown property in the time of Edward the Confessor or William

the Conqueror. ``The Ancient of days'' is a Biblical phrase

for God. In the London Inns of Court the senior barristers

used to be called ``ancients.'' From the 16th to the 18th

century the word was also used, by confusion with ``ensign,''

i.e; flag or standard-bearer, for that military title, as

in the case of Shakespeare's ``ancient Pistol''; but this

use has nothing to do with ``ancient'' meaning ``old.''

ANCIENT LIGHTS, a phrase in English law for a negative

easement (q.v.) consisting in the right to prevent the

owner or occupier of an adjoining tenement from building

or placing on his own land anything which has the effect of

illegally obstructing or obscuring the light of the dominant

tenement. At common law a person, who opens a window in his

house, has a natural right to receive the flow of light

that passes through it. But his neighbour is not debarred

thereby from building on his own land even though the

effect of his action is to obstruct the flow of light thus

obtained. Where, however, a window had been opened for so

long a time as to constitute immemorial usage in law, the

light became an ``ancient light'' which the law protected from

disturbance. The Prescription Act 1832 created a statutory

prescription for light. It provided (s. 3) that ``when the

access and use of light to and for'' (any building) ``shall

have been actually enjoyed therewith for the full period of

20 years without interruption, the right thereto shall be

deemed absolute and indefeasible, any local usage or custom

to the contrary notwithstanding, unless it shall appear that

the same was enjoyed by some consent or agreement, expressly

made or given for that purpose by deed or writing.'' The

statute does not create an absolute or indefeasible right

immediately on the expiration of twenty years. Unless and

until the dominant owner's claim is brought into question

(s.4) no absolute or indefeasible title can arise under the

act. The dominant owner has only an inchoate right to avail

himself under the act of the twenty years' uninterrupted

enjoyment, if his claim is brought into question. But in the

meantime, however long the enjoyment may have been, his right

is just the same, and the origin of his right is just the

same as if the act had never been passed. These principles

were laid down in 1904 by the House of Lords in the leading

case of Colls v. Home & Colonial Stores Ltd. (1904 A.C.

179). They overrule an earlier view propounded by Lord

Westbury in 1865 (Tapling v. Jones, 11 H.L.C. 290) that the

Prescription Act 1832 had abrogated the common law prescription

as to light, that the right to ``ancient lights'' now depends

upon positive enactment alone, and does not require, and

ought not to be rested on, any fiction of a ``lost grant''

(see EASEMENT.) There has been much difference of judicial

opinion as to what constitutes an actionable interference

with ``ancient lights.'' On the one hand, the test has

been prescribed that if an angle of 45 deg. --uninterrupted sky

light--was left, the easement was not interfered with, and,

while this is not a rule of law, it is a good rough working

criterion. On the other hand, it was held in effect by the

Court of Appeal in the case of Colls v. Home & Colonial

Stores Ltd. (1902; 1 Ch. 302) that to constitute an actionable

obstruction of ancient lights it was sufficient if the light

was sensibly less than it was before. The House of Lords,

however, in the same case (1904 A. C. 179) overruled this

view, and held that there must be a substantial privation

of light enough to render the occupation of the house or

building uncomfortable according to the ordinary notions of

mankind and (in the case of business premises) to prevent the

plaintiff from carrying on his business as beneficially as

before. See also Kine v. Jolly (1905; 1 Ch. 480).

There is, in Scots law, no special doctrine as to ``ancient

lights.'' The servitude of light in Scotland is simply the

Roman servitude non officiendi luminibus vel prospectui (see

EASEMENT and ROMAN LAW). The same observation applies

to the Code Civil and other European Codes based on it. The

doctrine as to ancient lights does not prevail generally in

the United States (consult Rulinig Cases, under ``Air'').

ANCILLARY (from the Lat. anicilla, a handmaid), an

adjective meaning ``subordinate to'' or ``merely helping,''

as opposed to ``essential.'' By Thackeray and some other

writers it is also employed rather affectedly in its

primary meaning of ``pertaining to a maid-servant.''

ANCILLON, CHARLES (1659--1715), one of a distinguished family

of French Protestants, was born on the 28th of July 1659, at

Metz. His father, David Ancillon (1617-1692), was obliged

to leave France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes,

and became pastor of the French Protestant community in

Berlin. Charles Ancillon studied law at Marburg, Geneva, and

Paris, where he was called to the bar. At the request of the

Huguenots at Metz, he pleaded its cause at the court of Louis

XIV., urging that it should be excepted in the revocation of

the edict of Nantes, but his efforts were unsuccessful, and

he joined his father in Berlin. He was at once appointed

by the elector Frederick ``juge et directeur de colonic

de Berlin.'' He had before this published several works on

the revocation of the edict of Nantes and its consequences,

but his literary capacity was mediocre, his style stiff and

cold, and it was his personal character rather than his

reputation as a writer that earned him the confidence of the

elector. In 1687 he was appointed head of the so-called

Academie des nobles, the principal educational establishment

of the state; later on, as councillor of embassy, he took

part in the negotiations which led to the assumption of

the title of king by the elector. In 1699 he succeeded

Pufendorf as historiographer to the elector, and the same

year replaced his uncle Joseph Ancillon as judge of all the

French refugees in Brandenburg. He died on the 5th of July

1715. Ancillon's chief claim to remembrance is the work

that he did for education in Prussia, and the share he took,

in co-operation with Leibnitz, in founding the Academy of

Berlin. Of his fairly numerous works the only one still

of value is the Histoire de l'etablissement des Francais

refugies dans les etats de Brandebourg (Berlin, 1690).

ANCILLON, JOHANN PETER FRIEDRICH (1766-1837), Prussian

historian and statesman, great-grandson of Charles Ancillon,

was born at Berlin on the 30th of April 1766. He studied

theology at Geneva, and after finishing his course was

appointed minister to the French community at Berlin.

At the same time his reputation as a historical scholar

secured him the post of professor of history at the military

academy. In 1793 he visited Switzerland, and in 1796 France,

and published the impressions gathered during his travels

in a series of articles which he afterwards collected under

the title of Melanges de litterature et de philosophie

(1801). Ancillon took rank among the most famous historians

of his day by his next work, Tableau des revolutions

du systeme politique de l'Europe depuis le XVe siecle

(1803, 4 vols.; new ed., 1824), which gained him the eulogium

of the Institute of France, and admission to the Academy of

Berlin. It was the first attempt to recognize psychological

factors in historical movements, but otherwise its importance was

exaggerated. Its ``sugary optimism, unctuous phraseology and

pulpit logic'' appealed, however, to the reviving pietism of

the age succeeding the Revolution, and these qualities, as well

as his eloquence as a preacher, early brought Ancillon into

notice at court. In 1808 he was appointed tutor to the royal

princes, in 1809 councillor of state in the department of

religion, and in 1810 tutor of the crown prince (afterwards

Frederick William IV.), on whose sensitive and dreamy

nature he was to exercise a powerful but far from wholesome

influence. In October 1814, when his pupil came of age, Ancillon

was included by Prince Hardenberg in the ministry, as privy

councillor of legation in the department of foreign affairs,

with a view to utilizing his supposed gifts as a philosophical

historian in the preparation of the projected Prussian

constitution. But Ancillon's reputed liberalism was of too

invertebrate a type to survive the trial of actual contact with

affairs. The practical difficulty of the constitutional problem

gave the ``court parson''--as Gneisenau had contemptuously

called him--excuse enough for a change of front which,

incidentally, would please his exalted patrons. He covered

his defection from Hardenberg's liberal constitutionalism

by a series of ``philosophical'' treatises on the nature of

the state and of man, and became the soul of the reactionary

movement at the Berlin court, and the faithful henchman of

Metternich in the general politics of Germany and of Europe.

In 1817 Ancillon became a councillor of state, and in 1818

director of the political section of the ministry for foreign

affairs under Count Bernstorff. In his chief's most important

work, the establishment of the Prussian Zollverein, Ancillon

had no share, while the entirely subordinate role played

by Prussia in Europe during this period, together with the

personal part taken by the sovereign in the various congresses,

gave him little scope for the display of any diplomatic

talents he may have possessed. During this time he found

plentiful leisure to write a series of works on political

philosophy, such as the Nouveaux essais de politique et

de philosophie (Paris, 1824). In May 1831 he was made an

active privy councillor, was appointed chief of the department

for the principality of Neuchatel, in July became secretary

of state for foreign affairs, and in the spring of 1832, on

Bernstorff's retirement, succeeded him as head of the ministry.

By the German public, to whom Ancillon was known only through

his earlier writings and some isolated protests against the

``demagogue-hunting'' in fashion at Berlin, his advent to

power was hailed as a triumph of liberalism. They were soon

undeceived. Ancillon had convinced himself that the rigid class

distinctions of the Prussian system were the philosophically

ideal basis of the state, and that representation ``by estates''

was the only sound constitutional principle; his last and indeed

only act of importance as minister was his collaboration with

Metternich in the Vienna Final Act of the 12th of June 1834,

the object of which was to rivet this system upon Germany for

ever. He died on the 19th of April 1837, the last of his

family. His historical importance lies neither in his

writings nor in his political activity, but in his personal

influence at the Prussian court, and especially in its

lasting effect on the character of Frederick William IV.

See C. A. L. P. Varnhagen von Ense, Blatter aus der

preussischen Geschichte, 5 vols. (Leipzig, 1868-1869);

ib. Tagebucher, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1861); H. O. Treitschke,

Deutsche Geschichte (Leipzig, 1879-1894), and essay

on Ancillon in Preussiche Jahrbucher for April 1872;

Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, s.v. (Leipzig, 1875).

ANCON, a small village and bathing-place on the coast

of Peru, 22 m. N. of Lima by rail. The bay is formed

by two projecting headlands and is one of the best on the

coast. It has a gently sloping beach of fine sand and has

been a popular bathing-place since the time of President

Balta, although the country behind it is arid and absolutely

barren. At some time previous to the discovery of America,

Ancon had a large aboriginal population. Traces of

terraces on the southern headland can still be seen, and the

sand-covered hills and slopes overlooking the bay contain

extensive burial-grounds which were systematically explored

in 1875 by Messrs W. Reiss and A. Stubel (see Reiss and

Stubel's The Necropolis of Anicon in Peru, translated by

A. H. Keane, 3 vols., Berlin, 1880-1887). In modern times

Ancon has been the scene of several important historical

events. Its anchorage was used by Lord Cochrane in 1820

during his attacks on Callao; it was the landing-place of

an invading Chilean army in 1838; it was bombarded by the

Chileans in 1880; and in 1883 it was the meeting-place

of the Chilean and Peruvian commissioners who drew up the

treaty of Ancon, which ended the war between Chile and Peru.

ANCON (from the Gr. agkon), the anatomical name for

``elbow''; ``ancones'' in architecture are the projecting

bosses left on stone blocks or on drums of columns, to allow

of their being either hoisted aloft or rubbed backwards and

forwards to obtain a fine joint; the term is also given by

Vitruvius to the trusses or console brackets on each side

of the doorway of a Greek or Roman building which support

the cornice over the same. A particular sort of sheep,

with short crooked forelegs, is called ``ancon'' sheep.

ANCONA, ALESSANDRO (1835- ), Italian critic and man of

letters, was born at Pisa on the 20th of February 1835, of

a wealthy Jewish family, and educated in Florence; at the

age of eighteen he published his essay on the life and work

of the philosopher Tommaso Campanella. In 1855 Ancona went

to Turin, nominally to study law, but in reality to act as

intermediary between the Tuscan Liberals and Cavour; he was an

intimate friend of Luigi Carlo Farini (q.v.) and represented

Tuscany in the Societa Nazionale. On the fall of the Austrian

dynasty in Tuscany (April 27, 1859) he returned to Florence,

where he edited the newly founded newspaper La Nazionie.

In 1861 he was appointed professor of Italian literature at

the university of Pisa. Among his works the following may

be mentioned: Operadi Tommaso Campanella, 2 vols. (Turin,

1854); Sacre Rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV., e XVI.

(3 vols., Florence, 1872); Origini del Teatro in Italia (2

vols., Florence, 1877); La Poesia popolare italiana (Livorno,

1878), besides several volumes of literary essays, editions

of the works of Dante and other early Italian writers, &c.

ANCONA, a seaport and episcopal see of the Marches, Italy,

capital of the province of Ancona, situated on the N.E. coast of

Italy, 185 m. N.E. of Rome by rail and 132 m. direct, and 127

m. S.E. of Bologna. Pop. (1901) 56,835. The town is finely

situated on and between the slopes of the two extremities

of the promontory of Monte Conero, Monte Astagno to the S.,

occupied by the citadel, and Monte Guasco to the N., on which

the cathedral stands (300 ft.). The latter, dedicated to S.

Ciriaco, is said to occupy the site of a temple of Venus, who

is mentioned by Catullus and Juvenal as the tutelary deity

of the place. It was consecrated in 1128 and completed in

1189. Some writers suppose that the original church was in

the form of a Latin cross and belonged to the 8th century.

An early restoration was completed in 1234. It is a fine

Romanesque building in grey stone, built in the form of a Greek

cross, with a dodecagonal dome over the centre slightly altered

by Margaritone d' Arezzo in 1270. The facade has a Gothic

portal, ascribed to Giorgio da Como (1228), which was intended

to have a lateral arch on each side. The interior, which has

a crypt in each transept, in the main preserves its original

character. It has ten columns which are attributed to the

temple of Venus, and there are good screens of the 12th

century, and other sculptures. In the dilapidated episcopal

palace Pope Pius II. died in 1464. An interesting church

is S. Maria della Piazza, with an elaborate arcaded facade

(1210). The Palazzo del Comune, with its lofty arched

substructures at the back, was the work of Margaritone d'

Arezzo, but has been since twice restored. There are also

several fine late Gothic buildings, among them the churches

of S. Francesco and S. Agostino, the Palazzo Benincasa, and

the Loggia dei Mercanti, all by Giorgio Orsini, usually called

da Sebenico (who worked much at Sebenico, though he was not

a native of it), and the prefecture, which has Renaissance

additions. The portal of S. Maria della Misericordia is an

ornate example of early Renaissance work. The archaeological

museum contains interesting pre-Roman objects from tombs in

the district, and two Roman beds with fine decorations in

ivory (E. Brizio, in Notizie degli scavi, 1902, 437, 478).

To the east of the town is the harbour, now an oval basin of

990 by 880 yards, the finest harbour on the S. W. coast of the

Adriatic, and one of the best in Italy. It was originally

protected only by the promontory on the N., from the elbow-like

shape of which (Gk. agkon) the ancient town, founded by

Syracusan refugees about 390 B.C., took the name which it still

holds. Greek merchants established a purple factory here

(Sil. Ital. viii. 438). Even in Roman times it kept its

own coinage with the punning device of the bent arm holding

a palm branch, and the head of Aphrodite on the reverse, and

continued the use of the Greek language. When it became a

Roman colony is doubtful.1 It was occupied as a naval station

in the Illyrian war of 178 B.C. (Liv. xli. 1). Caesar took

possession of it immediately after crossing the Rubicon. Its

harbour was of considerable importance in imperial times, as

the nearest to Dalmatia,2 and was enlarged by Trajan, who

constructed the north quay, his architect being Apollodorus of

Damascus. At the beginning of it stands the marble triumphal

arch with a single opening, and without bas-reliefs, erected

in his honour in A.D. 115 by the senate and people. Pope

Clement II. prolonged the quay, and an inferior imitation of

Trajan's arch was set up; he also erected a lazaretto at the

south end of the harbour, now a sugar refinery, Vanvitelli

being the architect-in-chief. The southern quay was built

in 1880, and the harbour is now protected by forts on the

heights, while the place is the seat of the 7th army corps.

The port of Ancona was entered in 1904 by 869 steamships

and 600 sailing vessels, with a total tonnage of 961,612

tons. The main imports were coal, timber, metals,

jute. The main exports were asphalt and calcium

carbide. Sugar refining and shipbuilding are carried on.

Ancona is situated on the railway between Bologna and Brindisi,

and is also connected by rail with Rome, via Foligno and Orte.

After the fall of the Roman empire Ancona was successively

attacked by the Goths, Lombards and Saracens, but recovered

its strength and importance. It was one of the cities of

the Pentapolis under the exarchate of Ravenna, the other four

being Fano, Pesaro, Senigallia and Rimini, and eventually

became a semi-independent republic under the protection of

the popes, until Gonzaga took possession of it for Clement

VII. in 1532. From 1797 onwards, when the French took it,

it frequently appears in history as an important fortress,

until Lamoriciere capitulated here on the 29th of September

1860, eleven days after his defeat at Castelfidardo. (T. As.)

1 Scanty remains of the ancient town walls, of a gymnasium

near the harbour and of the amphitheatre are still extant.

2 It was connected by a road with the Via

Flaminia at Nuceria (Norcera), a distance of 70 m.

ANCREN RIWLE, a Middle English prose treatise written for

a small community of three religious women and their servants

at Tarent Kaines (Tarrant Crawford), at the junction of the

Stour and the Tarrant, Dorset. It was generally supposed to

date from the first quarter of the 13th century, but Professor

E. Kolbing is inclined to place the Corpus Christi MS.

about the middle of the 12th century. The house of Tarrant

was founded by Ralph de Kahaines, and greatly enriched about

1230 by Richard Poor, bishop successively of Chichester,

Salisbury and Durham, who was born at Tarrant and died there in

1237. At the time when the Ancren Riwle was addressed to

them the anchoresses did not belong to any of the monastic

orders, but the monastery was under the Cistercian rule before

1266.1 There are extant seven English MSS. of the work, and

one Latin, the Latin version being generally supposed to be a

translation. The Latin MS., Regula Anachoritarum sive de vita

solitaria ( Magdalen College, Oxford, No. 67, fol. 50) has

a prefatory note:-- Hic incipit prohemium venerabilis patris

magistri Simonis de Gandavo, episcopi Sarum, in librum de

vita solitaria, qaem scripsit sororibus suis anachoritis

apud Tarente. But Bishop Simon of Ghent, who died in 1315,

could not have written the book, if it dates, at latest, from

the early 13th century. It has been tentatively attributed

to Richard Poor, who was connected with Tarrant, and was

actually a benefactor of the monastery. But the adoption of

Prof. Kolbing's early date would almost destroy Poor's claim.

The Ancren Riwle is written in a simple, non-rhetorical

style. The severity of the doctrine of self-renunciation

is softened by the affectionate tone in which it is

inculcated. The book contains rules for the conduct of the

anchoresses, and gives liturgical directions for divine

service; but the greater part of it is taken up with the

purely spiritual side of religion. The rules for the

restraint of the senses, for Confession and penance, are

subordinated to the central idea of the supreme importance

of purity of heart and the love of Christ. The last chapter

deals with the domestic affairs and administration of the

monastery. Incidentally the writer gives a picture of the

manners and ideas of the time, and provides an account of

the doctrine then generally accepted in the English church.

Ancren Riwale was edited for the Camden Society by the Rev.

James Morton in 1843 from the Cotton MS. (Nero A xiv.). A

collation of this text with the MS. by E. Kolbing is printed

in the Jahrbuch fur romanische u. engl. Spr. und Lit.

xv. 180 seq. (1876). The Ancren Riwle (ed. Abbot F. A.

Gasquet, 1905) is available for the ordinary reader in The

King's Classics. There are three English MSS. of Ancren

Riwle in the Cottonian collection in the British Museum,

numbered Nero A xiv., Titus D xviii., and Cleopatra C vi. Nero

A xiv. is written in pure south-western dialect. Portions of

this text are printed in Henry Sweet's First Middle English

Primer (Oxford, 2nd ed., 1895), which contains a grammatical

introduction. MS. 402 in the library of Corpus Christi

College, Cambridge, contains the earliest version of Ancren

Riwle, entitled Ancren Wisse, and dating (according to E.

Kolbing in Englische Studien, 1886, vol. ix. 116) from about

1150. The language shows considerable traces of the Midland

dialect. MS. 234 in Caius College, Cambridge, contains a

considerable portion of the Ancren Riwle, but does not

follow the order of the other MSS. For its exact contents

see Kolbing, in Englische Studien, iii. 533 (1880).

A more recently discovered version in Magdalene College,

Cambridge, in MS. Pepys 2498, is entitled The Recluse, and

is abridged and differently arranged. It ir written in English

of the latter half of the 14th century (see A. C. Paues in

Englische Studien, xxx. 344-346, 1902). A Latin version

(Cotton MS. Vitellins E vii.), and a French copy (ibid.

F vii.) were seriously damaged in the fire at Ashburnham

House, but both MSS. have been recently restored. The Latin

MS. (Codex lxvii.) at Magdalen College, Oxford, is probably

a copy of another Latin text, for it contains obvious slips.

See also R. Wulker, ``Uber die Sprache der Ancren Riwle

und die der Homilie: Halli Meidenhad,'' in Beitrage zur

Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur (Halle,

1874, i. 209), giving an analysis of the differences in

dialect between the two works; and Edgar Elliott Bramlette,

``The Original Language of the Ancren Riwle,'' in

Anglia, xv. 478-498, arguing in favour of a Latin original.

1 For information on the subject of Tarent Kaines see Sir W.

Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum (new ed., 1846), vol. v. 619 et seq.

ANCRUM, a village on Ale or Alne Water (a tributary of the

Teviot), Roxburghshire, Scotland, 2 m. W. of Jedfoot Bridge

station on the Roxburgh-Jedburgh branch of the North British

railway. Pop. (1901) 973. The earlier forms of the name,

``Alnecrumba,'' ``Ankrom'' and ``Alnecrom,'' indicate its

Gaelic derivation from crom, ``crooked''--``the crook or

bend of the Alne.'' The village is of considerable antiquity,

and was formerly held by the see of Glasgow. Its cross,

said to date from the time of David I., is one of the best

preserved crosses in the Border counties. Ancrum Moor, 2

m. N.W., was the scene of the battle in which, on the 17th

of February 1545, the Scots under the earl of Angus, Sir

Walter Scott of Buccleuch, and Norman Leslie, defeated 5000

English, whose leaders, Sir Ralph Evers or Eure and Sir

Brian Latoun or Layton, were slain. A Roman road, 24 ft.

broad, forms the N.E. boundary of the parish of Ancrum.

ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616 B.C.), fourth legendary king of

Rome. Like Numa, his reputed grandfather, he was a friend of

peace and religion, but was obliged to make war to defend his

territories. He conquered the Latins, and a number of them he

settled on the Aventine formed the origin of the Plebeians. He

fortified the Janiculum, threw a wooden bridge across the Tiber,

founded the port of Ostia, established salt-works and built a prison.

Ancus Marcius is merely a duplicate of Numa, as is shown by

his second name, Numa Marcius, the confidant and pontifex of

Numa, being no other than Numa Pompilius himself, represented as

priest. The identification with Ancus is shown by the legend

which makes the latter a bridge-builder (pontifex), the

constructor of the first wooden bridge over the Tiber. It is

in the exercise of his priestly functions that the resemblance

is most clearly shown. Like Numa, Ancus died a natural death.

See Livy i. 32, 33; Dion Halic. iii. 36-45; Cicero, De

Republica, ii. 18. For a critical examination of the story

see Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xiii.; Sir G.

Cornewall kewis, Credibility of Early Roman History,

ch. xi.; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i.; R. Pais, Storia di

Roma, i. (1898), who considers that the name points to the

personification of the cult of Mars, and that the military

achievements of Ancus are anticipations of later events.

ANCYLOPODA, or ANCYLODACTYLA, an apparently primitive extinct

subordinal group of Ungulata showing certain resemblances to

the Perissodactyla, both as regards the cheek-teeth and the

skeleton, but broadly distinguished by the feet being of

an edentate type, carrying long curved and cleft terminal

claws. From this peculiar structure of the feet it would

seem that the weight of the body was mainly carried on their

outer sides, as in Edentates. The group is typified by

Chalicotherium, of which the original species was discovered

in the Lower Pliocene strata of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt,

in 1825, and named on the evidence of the teeth, the limbs

being subsequently described as Macrotherium. The skull

is short, with a dental formula of i. 3/3, c. 0/1, p. 3/3,

m. 3/3, but in fully adult animals most of the front teeth were

shed. The molar teeth recall those of Palaeosyops (see

TITANOTHERIIDAE.) Remains referred to Chalicotherium

have been also obtained from the Lower Pliocene and Upper

Miocene strata of Greece, Hungary, India, China and North

America. A skull from Pikermi, near Mt. Pentelikon,

Attica, shows the absence in the adult state of upper and

lower incisors and upper canines, much the same condition

being indicated in an Indian skull. There were three toes

to each foot, and the femur lacked a third trochanter.

Macrotherium, which is typically from the Middle Miocene

of Sansan, in Gers, France, may indicate a distinct genus.

Limb-bones nearly resembling those of Macrotherium, but

relatively stouter, have been described from the Pliocene beds

of Attica and Samos as Ancylotherium. In America the names

Morothorium and Moropus have been applied to similar bones,

on the belief that they indicated edentates. Macrotherium

magnum must have been an animal of about 9 ft. in length.

The South American genus Homalodontotherium is often placed

in the Ancylopoda, but reasons against this view are given in

the article LITOPTERNA. Professor H. F. Osborn considers that

the Ancylopoda are directly descended from the Condylarthra.

See also H. F. Osborn, ``The Ancylopoda Chalicotherium and Artionyx,''

Amer. Nat. (1893), p. 118, and ``Artionyx, a New Genus of

Ancylopoda,'' Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. v. p. 1 (1893). (N.B.--

Artionyx was subsequently found to be an Artiodactyle.] (R. L.*)

ANCYRA (mod. Angora, q.v.), an ancient city of Galatia

in Asia Minor, situated on a tributary of the Sangarius.

Originally a large and prosperous Phrygian city on the Persian

Royal Road, Ancyra became the centre of the Tectosages,

one of the three Gaulish tribes that settled permanently in

Galatia about 232 B.C. The barbarian occupation dislocated

civilization, and the town sank to a mere village inhabited

chiefly by the old native population who carried on the

arts and crafts of peaceful life, while the Gauls devoted

themselves to war and pastoral life (see GALATIA.) In 189

B.C. Ancyra was occupied by Cn. Manlius Vulso, who made

it his headquarters in his operations against the tribe.

In 63 B.C. Pompey placed it (together with the Tectosagan

territory) under one chief, and it continued under native rule

till it became the capital of the Roman province of Galatia

in 25 B.C. By this time the population included Greeks,

Jews, Romans and Romanized Gauls, but the town was not yet

Hellenized, though Greek was spoken. Strabo (c. A.D. 19)

calls it not a city, but a fortress, implying that it had none

of the institutions of the Graeco-Roman city. Inscriptions

and coins show that its civilization consisted of a layer

of Roman ideas and customs superimposed on Celtic tribal

characteristics, and that it is not until c. A.D. 150 that

the true Hellenic spirit begins to appear. Christianity was

introduced (from the N. or N.W.) perhaps as early as the 1st

century, but there is no shred of evidence that the Ancyran

Church (first mentioned A.D. 192) was founded by St Paul

or that he ever visited northern Galatia. The real greatness

of the town dates from the time when Constantinople became

the metropolis of the Roman world: then its geographical

situation raised it to a position of importance which it

retained throughout the middle ages. See further ANGORA (1).

The modern town contains many remains of the Roman and Byzantine

periods. The most important monument is the Augusteum,

a temple of white marble erected to ``Rome and Augustus''

during the lifetime of that emperor by the common council

or diet of the three Galatian tribes. The temple was

afterwards converted into a church, and in the 16th century

a fine mosque was built against its S. face. On the walls

of the temple is engraved the famous Monumentum Ancyranum,

a long inscription in Latin and Greek describing the Res

gestae divi Augusti; the Latin portion being inscribed on

the inner left-hand wall of the pronaos, the Greek on the

outside wall of the naos (cella.) The inscription is a

grave and majestic narrative of the public life and work of

Augustus. The original was written by the emperor in

his 76th year (A.D. 13-14) to be engraved on two bronze

tablets placed in front of his mausoleum in Rome, and as a

mark of respect to his memory a copy was inscribed on the

temple walls by the council of the Galatians. Thus has been

preserved an absolutely unique historical document of great

importance, recounting (1) the numerous public offices

and honours conferred on him, (2) his various benefactions

to the state, to the plebs and to his soldiers, and (3)

his military and administrative services to the empire.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--C. Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien, vol.

xviii. (1837- 1859); Hamilton, Researches in A. M. (1842);

Texier, Descrip. de l'Asie Min. (1839-1849); Perrot,

Explor. de la Galatie (1862): Humann and Puchstein,

Reisen in Kleinasien (1890). For Mon. Ancyr., Mommsen,

Res gestae divi Augusti (1883); and Inscr. graecae ad

res Romanas pertinentes, iii. (1902). For coins, Brit.

Museum Catal., Galatia (1899); Babelon-Reinach, Recueil

general d, A. M. See also under GALATIA. (J. G. C. A.)

SYNOD OF ANCYRA.--An important ecclesiastical synod was held at

Ancyra, the seat of the Roman administration for the province of

Galatia, in A.D. 314. The season was soon after Easter; the

year may be safely deduced from the fact that the first nine

canons are intended to repair havoc wrought in the church by

persecution, which ceased after the overthrow of Maximinus in

313. The tenth canon tolerates the marriages of deacons who

previous to ordination had reserved the right to take a wife;

the thirteenth forbids chorepiscopi to ordain presbyters or

deacons; the eighteenth safeguards the right of the people in

objecting to the appointment of a bishop whom they do not wish.

See Mansi, ii. 514 ff. The critical text of R. B. Rackham

(Oxford, 1891), Studia Biblica et ecclesiastica,

iii. 139 ff., is conveniently reprinted in Lauchert 29

ff. H. R. Percival translates and comments on an old

text in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2nd series),

xiv. 61 ff. An elaborate discussion is found in Hefele,

Concilien- geschichte (2nd ed.), i. 219 ff. (English

translation, i. 199 ff.); more briefly in Herzog-Hauck (3rd

ed.), i. 497. For full titles see COUNCIL. (W. W. R.*)

ANDALUSIA, or ANDALUCIA, a captaincy-general, and

formerly a province, of southern Spain; bounded on the

N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia and the

Mediterranean Sea, S. by the Mediterranean and Atlantic,

and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 3,563,606; area, 33,777 sq.

m. Andalusia was divided in 1833 into the eight provinces of

Almeria, Cadiz, Cordova, Granada, Jaen, Huelva, Malaga and

Seville, which are described in separate articles. Its

ancient name, though no longer used officially, except to

designate a military district, has not been superseded in

popular speech by the names of the eight modern divisions.

Andalusia consists of a great plain, the valley of the

Guadalquivir, shut in by mountain ranges on every side except

the S.W., where it descends to the Atlantic. This lowland,

which is known as Andalucia Baja, or Lower Andalusia,

resembles the valley of the Ebro in its slight elevation above

sea-level (300-400 ft.), and in the number of brackish lakes

or fens, and waste lands (despoblados) impregnated with

salt, which seem to indicate that the whole surface was covered

by the sea at no distant geological date. The barren tracts

are, however, exceptional and a far larger area is richly

fertile. Some districts, indeed, such as the Vega of Granada,

are famous for the luxuriance of their vegetation. The

Guadalquivir (q.v.) rises among the mountains of Jaen and

flows in a south-westerly direction to the Gulf of Cadiz,

receiving many considerable tributaries on its way. On the

north, its valley is bounded by the wild Sierra Morena; on the

south, by the mountains of the Mediterranean littoral, among

which the Sierra Nevada (q.v.), with its peaks of Mulhacen

(11,421 ft.)and Veleta(11,148 ft.), is the most conspicuous.

These highlands, with the mountains of Jaen and Almeria on

the east, constitute Anidalucia Alta or Upper Andalusia.

No part of Spain has greater natural riches. The sherry

produced near Jerez de la Frontera, the copper of the Rio

Tinto mines and the lead of Almeria are famous. But the

most noteworthy characteristics of the province are, perhaps,

the brilliancy of its climate, the beauty of its scenery

(which ranges in character from the alpine to the tropical),

and the interest of its art and antiquities. The climate

necessarily varies widely with the altitude. Some of the

higher mountains are covered with perpetual snow, a luxury

which is highly prized by the inhabitants of the valleys,

where the summer is usually extremely hot, and in winter the

snow falls only to melt when it reaches the ground. Here the

more common European plants and trees give place to the wild

olive, the caper bush, the aloe, the cactus, the evergreen

oak, the orange, the lemon, the palm and other productions

of a tropical climate. On the coasts of the Mediterranean

about Marbella and Malaga, the sugar-cane is successfully

cultivated. Silk is produced in the same region. Agriculture

is in a very backward state and the implements used are

most primitive. The chief towns are Seville (pop. 1900,

148,315), which may be regarded as the capital, Malaga

(130,109), Granada (75,900), Cadiz (69,382), Jerez de la

Frontera (63,473), Cordova (58,275) and Almeria (47,326).

Andalusia has never been, like Castile or Aragon, a separate

kingdom. Its history is largely a record of commercial and

artistic development. The Guadalquivir valley is often,

in part at least, identified with the biblical Tarshish

and the classical Tartessus, a famous Phoenician mart.

The port of Agadir or Gaddir, now Cadiz, was founded as

early as 1100 B.C. Later Carthaginian invaders came from

their advanced settlements in the Balearic Islands, about

516 B.C. Greek merchants also visited the coasts. The

products of the interior were conveved by the native Iberians

to the maritime colonies, such as Abdera (Adra), Calpe

(Gibraltar) or Malaca (Malaga), founded by the foreign

merchants. The Punic wars transferred the supreme power from

Carthage to Rome, and Latin civilization was established firmly

when, in 27 B.C., Andalusia became the Roman province of

Baetica--so called after its great waterway, the Baetis

(Guadalquivir). In the 5th century the province was overrun

by successive invaders--Vandals, Suevi and Visigoths-- from

the first of whom it may possibly derive its name. The forms

Vandalusia and Vandalitia are undoubtedly ancient; many

authorities, however, maintain that the name is derived from

the Moorish Andalus or Andalosh, ``Land of the West.''

The Moors first entered the province in 711, and only in 1492

was their power finally broken by the capture of Granada.

Their four Andalusian kingdoms, Seville, Jaen, Cordova and

Granada, developed a civilization unsurpassed at the time in

Europe. An extensive literature, scientific, philosophical and

historical, with four world-famous buildings--the Giralda and

Alcazar of Seville, the Mezquita or cathedral of Cordova and the

Alhambra at Granada--are its chief monuments. In the 16th and

17th centuries, painting replaced architecture as the distinctive

art of Andalusia; and many of the foremost Spanish painters,

including Velazquez and Murillo, were natives of this province.

Centuries of alien domination have left their mark upon the

character and appearance of the Andalusians, a mixed race,

who contrast strongly with the true Spaniards and possess

many oriental traits. It is impossible to estimate the

influence of the elder conquerors, Greek, Carthaginian and

Roman; but there are clear traces of Moorish blood, with

a less well-defined Jewish and gipsy strain. The men are

tall, handsome and well-made, and the women are among the most

beautiful in Spain; while the dark complexion and hair of both

sexes, and their peculiar dialect of Spanish, so distasteful

to pure Castilians, are indisputable evidence of Moorish

descent. Their music, dances and many customs, come from the

East. In general, the people are lively, good-humoured

and ready-witted, fond of pleasure, lazy and extremely

superstitious. In the literature and drama of his country,

the Andalusian is traditionally represented as the Gascon of

Spain, ever boastful and mercurial; or else as a picaresque

hero, bull-fighter, brigand or smuggler. Andalusia is

still famous for its bull-fighters; and every outlying

hamlet has its legends of highwaymen and contraband.

In addition to the numerous works cited under the heading

SPAIN, see Curiosidades historicas de Andalucia, by N.

Diaz de Escovar (Malaga, 1900): Histoire de la conquete de

l'Andalousie, by O. Houdas (Paris, 1889); Andalousie et Portugal

(Paris, 1886); El. Folk-Lore Andaluz (Seville, 1883); and

Nobleza de Andalucia, by G. Argote de Molina (Seville, 1588).

ANDALUSITE, a mineral with the same chemical composition

as cyanite and sillimanite, being a basic aluminium silicate,

Al2SiO5. As in sillimanite, its crystalline form is

referable to the orthorhombic system. Crystals of andalusite

have the form of almost square prisms, the prism-angle

being 89 deg. 12'; they are terminated by a basal plane and

sometimes by small dome-faces. As a rule the crystals are

roughly developed and rude columnar masses are common, these

being frequently altered partially to kaolin or mica. Such

FIG. 1.

crystals, opaque, and of a greyish or brownish colour, occur

abundantly in the mica-schist of the Lisens Alp near Innsbruck

in Tirol, while the first noted of the many localities of the

mineral is in Andalusia, from which place the mineral derives its

name. The unaltered mineral is found as transparent pebbles

with topaz in the gem-gravels of the Minas Novas district,

in Minas Geraes, Brazil. These pebbles are usually green

but sometimes reddish-brown in colour, and are remarkable for

their very strong dichroism, the same pebble appearing green

or reddish-brown according to the direction in which it is

viewed. Such specimens make very effective gem-stones,

the degree of hardness of the mineral (H.= 7 1/2) being quite

sufficient for this purpose. Its specific gravity is 3.18; it

is unattacked by acids and is infusible before the blowpipe.

FIG. 2.--Transverse sections of a crystal of Chiastolite.

Andalusite is typically a mineral of metamorphic origin,

occurring most frequently in altered clay-slates and crystalline

schists, near the junction of these with masses of intrusive

igneous rocks such as granite. It has been recognized

also, however, as a primary constituent of granite itself.

A curious variety of andalusite known as chiastolite is

specially characteristic of clay-slates near a contact with

granite. The elongated prismatic crystals enclose symmetrically

arranged wedges of carbonaceous material, and in cross-section

show a black cross on a greyish ground. Cross-sections of such

crystals are polished and worn as amulets or charms. Crystals

of a size suitable for this purpose are found in Brittany and

the Pyrenees, while still larger specimens have been found

recently in South Australia. The name chiastolite is derived

from the Greek chiastos, crossed or marked with the latter ch:

cross-stone and macle are earlier names, the latter having

been given on account of the resemblance the cross-section of

the stone bears to the heraldic macula or mascle. (L. J. S.)

ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal.

Large and small, they number 204, and lie 590 m. from the mouth

of the Hugli, 120 m. from Cape Negrais in Burma, the nearest

point of the mainland, and 340 m. from the northern extremity of

Sumatra. Between the Andamans and Cape Negrais intervene two

small groups, Preparis and Cocos; between the Andamans and

Sumatra lie the Nicobar Islands, the whole group stretching

in a curve, to which the meridian forms a tangent between Cape

Negrais and Sumatra; and though this curved line measures 700

m., the widest sea space is about 91 m. The extreme length

of the Andaman group is 219 m. with an extreme width of 32

m. The main part of it consists of a band of five chief islands,

so closely adjoining and overlapping each other that they have

long been known collectively as ``the great Andaman.'' The

axis of this band, almost a meadian line, is 156 statute miles

long. The five islands are in order from north to south: North

Andaman (51 m. long); Middle Andaman (59 m.); South Andaman

(49 m.); Baratang, running parallel to the east of the South

Andaman for 17 m. from the Middle Andaman; and Rutland Island (11

m.). Four narrow straits part these islands: Austin Strait,

between North and Middle Andaman; Homfray's Strait between

Middle Andaman and Baratang, and the north extremity of South

Andaman; Middle (or Andaman) Strait between Baratang and South

Andaman; and Macpherson Strait between South Andaman and Rutland

Island. Of these only the last is navigable by ocean-going

vessels. Attached to the chief islands are, on the extreme

N., Landfall Islands, separated by the navigable Cleugh

Passage; Interview Island, separated by the very narrow but

navigable Interview Passage, off the W. coast of the Middle

Andaman; the Labyrinth Island off the S.W. coast of the South

Andaman, through which is the safe navigable Elphinstone

Passage; Ritchie's (or the Andaman) Archipelago off the E.

coast of the South Andaman and Baratang, separated by the wide

and safe Diligent Strait and intersected by Kwangtung Strait

and the Tadma Juru (Strait). Little Andaman, roughly 26 m. by

16, forms the southern extremity of the whole group and lies 31

m. S. of Rutland Island across Duncan Passage, in which lie

the Cinque and other islands, forming Manners Strait, the

main commercial highway between the Andamans and the Madras

coast. Besides these are a great number of islets lying off

the shores of the main islands. The principal outlying islands

are the North Sentinel, a dangerous island of about 28 sq. m.,

lying about 18 m. off the W. coast of the South Andaman; the

remarkable marine volcano, Barren Idand (1150 ft.), quiescent

for more than a century, 71 m. N.E. of Port Blair; and the

equally curious isolated mountain, the extinct volcano of

Narcondam, rising 2330 ft. out of the sea, 71 m. E. of the North

Andaman. The land area of the Andaman Idands is 2508 sq.

m. About 18 m. to the W. of the Andamans are the dangerous

Western Banks and Dalrymple Bank, rising to within a few fathoms

of the surface of the sea and forming, with the two Sentinel

Islands, the tops of a line of submarine hills parallel to the

Andamans. Some 40 m. distant to the E. is the Invisible Bank,

with one rock just awash; and 34 m. S.E. of Narcondam is a

submarine hill rising to 377 fathoms below the surface of the

sea. Narcondam, Barren Island and the Invisible Bank, a

great danger of these seas, are in a line almost parallel

to the Andamans inclining towards them from north to south.

Topography.--The islands forming Great Andaman consist of a

mass of hills enclosing very narrow valleys, the whole covered

by an exceedingly dense tropical jungle. The hills rise,

especially on the east coast, to a considerable elevation:

the chief heights being in the North Andaman, Saddle Peak

(2400 ft.); in the Middle Andaman, Mount Diavolo behind

Cuthbert Bay (1678 ft.); in the South Andaman, Koiob (1505

ft.), Mount Harriet (1193 ft.) and the Cholunga range (1063

ft.); and in Rutland Island, Ford's Peak (1422 ft.). Little

Andaman, with the exception of the extreme north, is practically

flat. There are no rivers and few perennial streams in the

islands. The scenery is everywhere strikingly beautiful and

varied, and the coral beds of the more secluded bays in

its harbours are conspicuous for their exquisite colouring.

Harbours.--The coasts of the Andamans are deeply indented,

giving existence to a number of safe harbours and tidal creeks,

which are often surrounded by mangrove swamps. The chief

harbours, some of which are very capacious, are (starting

northwards from Port Blair, the great harbour of South

Andaman) on the E. coast: Port Meadows, Colebrooke Passage,

Elphinstone Harbour (Homfray's Strait), Stewart Sound and Port

Cornwallis. The last three are very large. On the W. coast:

Temple Sound, Interview Passage, Port Anson or Kwangtung Harbour

(large), Port Campbell (large), Port Mouat and Macpherson

Strait. There are besides many other safe anchorages about

the coast, notably Shoal Bay and Kotara Anchorage in the

South Andaman; Cadell Bay and the Turtle Islands in the

North Andaman; and Outram Harbour and Kwangtung Strait in the

archipelago. The whole of the Andamans and the outlying

islands were completely surveyed topographically by the Indian

Survey Department under Colonel Hobday in 1883-1886, and the

surrounding seas were charted by Commander Carpenter in 1888-1889.

Geology.--The Andaman Islands, in conjunction with the

other groups mentioned above, form part of a lofty range

of submarine mountains, 700 m. long, running from Cape

Negrais in the Arakan Yoma range of Burma, to Achin Head in

Sumatra. This range separates the Bay of Bengal from the

Andaman Sea; and it contains much that is geologically

characteristic of the Arakan Yoma, and formations common also

to the Nicobars and to Sumatra and the adjacent islands. The

older rocks are early Tertiary or late Cretaceous but there

are no fossils to indicate age. The newer rocks, common also

to the Nicobars and Sumatra, are in Ritchie's Archipelago

chiefly and contain radiolarians and foraminifera. There is

coral along the coasts everywhere, and the Sentinel Islands

are composed of the newer rocks with a superstructure of

coral. A theory of a still continuing subsidence of the

islanda was formed by Kurz in 1866 and confirmed by Oldham in

1884. Signs of its continuance are found on the east coast

in several places. Barren Island is a volcano of the general

Sunda group which includes also the Pegu group to which

Narcondam belongs. Barren Island was last in eruption in

1803, but there is still a thin column of steam from a

sulphur bed at the top and a variable hot spring at the

point where the last outburst of lava flowed into the sea.

Climate.--Rarely affected by a cyclone, though within

the influence of practically every one that blows in the

Bay of Bengal, the Andamans are of the greatest importance

because of the accurate information relating to the

direction and intensity of storms which can be communicated

from them better than from any other point in the bay,

to the vast amount of shipping in this part of the Indian

Ocean. Trustworthy information also regarding the weather

which may be expected in the north and east of India, is

obtained at the islands, and this proves of the utmost value

to the controllers of the great trades dependent upon the

rainfall. A well-appointed meteorological station has been

established at Port Blair since 1868. Speaking generally,

the climate of the Andamans themselves may be described as

normal for tropical islands of similar latitude. It is warm

always, but tempered by pleasant sea-breezes; very hot when

the sun is northing; irregular rainfall, but usually dry

during the north-east, and very wet during the south-west

monsoon. Not only does the rainfall at one place vary from

year to year, but there is an extraordinary difference in the

returns for places quite close to one another. The official

figures in inches for the station at Port Blair, which is

situated in by far the driest part of the settlement, were:--

_______________________________________________________________________

| 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. |

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

| 125.64 | 107.28 | 136.41 | 127.22 | 87.01 | 83.28 | 132.50 |

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A tidal observatory has also been maintained at Port Blair since 1880.

Flora.--A section of the Forest Department of India has

been established in the Andamans since 1883, and in the

neighbourhood of Port Blair 156 sq. m. have been set apart

for regular forest operations which are carried on by convict

labour. The chief timber of indigenous growth is padouk

(Pterocarpus dalbergioides) used for buildings, boats,

furniture, fine joinery and all purposes to which teak,

mahogany, hickory, oak and ash are applied. This tree

is widely spread and forms a valuable export to European

markets. Other first-class timbers are koko (Albizzia

lebbek), white chuglam (Terminalia bialata), black

chugiam (Myristica irya), marble or zebra wood (Diospyros

kurzii) and satin-wood (Murraya exotica), which differs

from the satin-wood of Ceylon (Chloroxylon swietenia.)

All of these timbers are used for furniture and similar

purposes. In addition there are a number of second-and

third-class timbers, which are used locally and for export to

Calcutta. Gangaw (Messua ferrea) the Assam iron-wood, is

suitable for sleepers; and didu (Bombax insigne) is used

for tea-boxes and packing-cases. Among the imported flora

are tea, Siberian coffee, cocoa, Ceara rubber (which has

not done well), Manila hemp, teak, cocoanut and a number

of ornamental trees, fruit-trees, vegetables and garden

plants. Tea is grown in considerable quantities and the

cultivation is under a department of the penal settlement.

The general character of the forests is Burmese with an

admixture of Malay types. Great mangrove swamps supply

unlimited fire-wood of the best quality. The great peculiarity

of Andaman flora is that, with the exception of the Cocos

islands, no cocoanut palms are found in the archipelago.

Fauna.--Animal life is generally deficient throughout the

Andamans, especially as regards mammalia, of which there

are only nineteen separate species in all, twelve of these

being peculiar to the islands. There is a small pig (Sus

andamanensis), important to the food of the people, and a wild

cat (Paradoxurus tytleri); but the bats (sixteen species) and

rats (thirteen species) constitute nearly three-fourths of the

known mammals. This paucity of animal life seems inconsistent

with the theory that the islands were once connected with the

mainland. Most of the birds also are derived from the distant

Indian region, while the Indo-Burmese and Indo-Malayan regions

are represented to a far less degree. Rasorial birds, such as

peafowl, junglefowl, pheasants and partridges, though well

represented in the Arakan hills, are rare in the islands; while

a third of the different species found are peculiar to the

Andamans. Moreover, the Andaman species differ from those

of the adjacent Nicobar Islands. Each group has its distinct

harrier-eagle, red-cheeked paroquet, oriole, sun- bird and

bulbul. Fish are very numerous and many species are peculiar to

the Andaman seas. Turtles are abundant and supply the Calcutta

market. Of imported animals, cattle, goats, asses and dogs

thrive well, ponies and horses indifferently, and sheep

badly, though some success has been achieved in breeding them.

Population.--The Andaman Islands, so near countries that

have for ages attained considerable civilization and have

been the seat of great empires, and close to the track of a

great commerce which has gone on at least 2000 years, are the

abode of savages as low in civilization as almost any known on

earth. Our earliest notice of them is in a remarkable

collection of early Arab notes on India and China (A.D.

851) which accurately represents the view entertained of this

people by mariners down to modern times. ``The inhabitants

of these islands eat men alive. They are black, with

woolly hair, and in their eyes and countenances there is

something quite frightful. . . . They go naked and have no

boats. If they had, they would devour all who passed near

them. Sometimes ships that are windbound and have exhausted

their provision of water, touch here and apply to the natives

for it; in such cases the crews sometimes fall into the

hands of the latter and most of them are massacred.'' The

traditional charge of cannibalism has been very persistent;

but it is entirely denied by the islanders themselves, and is

now and probably always has been untrue. Of their massacres

of shipwrecked crews, even in quite modern times, there is no

doubt, but the policy of conciliation unremittingly pursued

for the last forty years has now secured a friendly reception

for shipwrecked crews at any port of the islands except the

south and west of Little Andaman and North Sentinel Island.

The Andamanese are probably the relics of a negro race that

once inhabited the S.E. portion of Asia and its outlying

islands, representatives of which are also still to be found

in the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines. Their antiquity

and their stagnation are attested by the remains found in their

kitchen-middens. These are of great age, and rise sometimes to

a height exceeding 15 ft. The fossil shells, pottery and rude

stone implements, found alike at the base and at the surface

of these middens, prove that the habits of the islanders have

not varied since a remote past, and lead to the belief that

the Andamans were settled by their present inhabitants some

time during the Pleistocene period, and certainly no later

than the Neolithic age. The population is not susceptible

of accurate computation, but probably it has always been

small. The estimated total at a census taken in 1901 was

only 2000. Though all descended from one stock, there are

twelve distinct tribes of the Andamanese, each with its own

clearly-defined locality, its own distinct variety of the one

fundamental language and to a certain extent its own separate

habits. Every tribe is divided into septs fairly well

defined. The tribal feeling may be expressed as friendly within

the tribe, courteous to other Andamanese if known, hostile

to every stranger, Andamanese or other. Another division

of the natives is into Aryauto or long-shore-men, and the

Eremtaga or jungle-dwellers. The habits and capacities of

these two differ, owing to surroundings, irrespectively of

tribe. Yet again the Andamanese can be grouped according to

certain salient characteristics: the forms of the bows and

arrows, of the canoes, of ornaments and utensils, of tattooing

and of language. The average height of males is 4 ft. 10 1/2

in.; of females, 4 ft. 6 in. Being accustomed to gratify

every sensation as it arises, they endure thirst, hunger,

want of food and bodily discomfort badly. The skin varies in

colour from an intense sheeny black to a reddish-blown on the

collar-bones, cheeks and other parts of the body. The hair

varies from a sooty black to dark and light brown and red. It

grows in small rings, which give it the appearance of growing

in tufts, though it is really closely and evenly distributed

over the whole scalp. The figures of the men are muscular and

well-formed and generally pleasing; a straight, well-formed

nose and jaw are by no means rare, and the young men are often

distinctly good-looking. The only artificial deformity is

a depression of the skull, chiefly among one of the southern

tribes, caused by the pressure of a strap used for carrying

loads. The pleasing appearance natural to the men is not

a characteristic of the women, who early have a tendency to

stoutness and ungainliness of figure, and sometimes to pronounced

prognathism. They are, however, always bright and merry, are

under no special social restrictions and have considerable

influence. The women's heads are shaved entirely and the

men's into fantastic patterns. Yellow and red ochre mixed

with grease are coarsely smeared over the bodies, grey in

coarse patterns and white in fine patterns resembling tattoo

marks. Tattooing is of two distinct varieties. In the south

the body is slightly cut by women with small flakes of glass

or quartz in zigzag or lineal patterns downwards. In the north

it is deeply cut by men with pig-arrows in lines across the

body. The male matures when about fifteen years of age,

marries when about twenty-six, begins to age when about

forty, and lives onto sixty or sixty-five if he reaches old

age. Except as to the marrying age, these figures fairly

apply to women. Before marriage free intercourse between the

sexes is the rule, though certain conventional precautions

are taken to prevent it. Marriages rarely produce more

than three children and often none at all. Divorce is rare,

unfaithfulness after marriage not common and incest unknown.

By preference the Andamanese are exogamous as regards sept

and endogamous as regards tribe. The children are possessed

of a bright intelligence, which, however, soon reaches its

climax, and the adult may be compared in this respect with

the civilized child of ten or twelve. The Andamanese are,

indeed, bright and merry companions, busy in their own pursuits,

keen sportsmen, naturally independent and not lustful, but

when angered, cruel, jealous, treacherous and vindictive,

and always unstable--in fact, a people to like but not to

trust. There is no idea of government, but in each sept

there is a head, who has attained that position by degrees on

account of some tacitly admitted superiority and commands a

limited respect and some obedience. The young are deferential

to their elders. Offences are punished by the aggrieved

party. Property is communal and theft is only recognized as to

things of absolute necessity, such as arrows, pigs' flesh and

fire. Fire is the one thing they are really careful about,

not knowing how to renew it. A very rude barter exists between

tribes of the same group in regard to articles not locally

obtainable. The religion consists of fear of the spirits of the

wood, the sea, disease and ancestors, and of avoidance of acts

traditionally displeasing to them. There is neither worship

nor propitiation. An anthropomorphic deity, Puluga, is the

cause of all things, but it is not necessary to propitiate

him. There is a vague idea that the ``soul'' will go somewhere

after death, but there is no heaven nor hell, nor idea of

a corporeal resurrection. There is much faith in dreams,

and in the utterances of certain ``wise men,'' who practise

an embryonic magic and witchcraft. The great amusement of

the Andamanese is a formal night dance, but they are also

fond of simple games. The bows differ altogether with each

group, but the same two kinds of arrows are in general use:

(1) long and ordinary for fishing and other purposes; (2)

short with a detachable head fastened to the shaft by a thong,

which quickly brings pigs up short when shot in the thick

jungle. Bark provides material for string, while baskets and

mats are neatly and stoutly made from canes and buckets out

of bamboo and wood. None of the tribes ever ventures out of

sight of land, and they have no idea of steering by sun or

stars. Their canoes are simply hollowed out of trunks with the

adze and in no other way, and it is the smaller ones which are

outrigged; they do not last long and are not good sea-boats,

and the story of raids on Car Nicobar, out of sight across a

stormy and sea-rippled channel, must be discredited. Honour

is shown to an adult when he dies, by wrapping him in a cloth

and placing him on a platform in a tree instead of burying

him. At such a time the encampment is deserted for three

months. The Andaman languages are extremely interesting

from the philological standpoint. They are agglutinative in

nature, show hardly any signs of syntactical growth though

every indication of long etymological growth, give expression

to only the most direct and the simplest thought, and are purely

colloquial and wanting in the modifications always necessary

for communication by writing. The sense is largely eked out by

manner and action. Mincopie is the first word in Colebrooke's

vocabulary for ``Andaman Island, or native country,'' and

the term--though probably a mishearing on Colebrooke's part

for Mongebe (``I am an Onge,'' i.e. a member of the

Onge tribe)--has thus become a persistent book-name for the

people. Attempts to civilize the Andamanese have met with

little success either among adults or children. The home

established near Port Blair is used as a sort of free asylum

which the native visits according to his pleasure. The

policy of the government is to leave the Andamanese alone,

while doing what is possible to ameliorate their condition.

Penal Setllement.--The point of enduring interest as regards

the Andamans is the penal system, the object of which is to turn

the life-sentence and few long-sentence convicts, who alone are

sent to the settlement, into honest, self-respecting men and

women, by leading them along a continuous course of practice

in self-help and self-restraint, and by offering them every

inducement to take advantage of that practice. After ten years'

graduated labour the convict is given a ticket-of-leave and

becomes self-supporting. He can farm, keep cattle, and marry

or send for his family, but he cannot leave the settlement or be

idle. With approved conduct, however, he may be absolutely

released after twenty to twenty-five years in the settlement;

and throughout that time, though possessing no civil rights,

a quasi-judicial procedure controls all punishments inflicted

upon him, and he is as secure of obtaining justice as if

free. There is an unlimited variety of work for the labouring

convicts, and some of the establishments are on a large

scale. Very few experts are employed in supervision;

practically everything is directed by the officials, who

themselves have first to learn each trade. Under the chief

commissioner, who is the supreme head of the settlement,

are a deputy and a staff of assistant superintendents and

overseers, almost all Europeans, and sub-overseers, who are

natives of India. All the petty supervising establishments

are composed of convicts. The garrison consists of 140

British and 300 Indian troops, with a few local European

volunteers. The police are organized as a military battalion

643 strong. The number of convicts has somewhat diminished

of late years and in 1901 stood at 11,947. The total

population of the settlement, consisting of convicts, their

guards, the supervising, clerical and departmental staff,

with the families of the latter, also a certain number of

ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families, numbered

16,106. The labouring convicts are distributed among four

jails and nineteen stations; the self-supporters in thirty-eight

villages. The elementary education of the convicts' children

is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a

resident medical officer, under the general supervision of

a senior officer of the Indian medical service, and medical

aid is given free to the whole population. The net annual

cost of the settlement to the government is about L. 6 per

convict. The harbour of Port Blair is well supplied with

buoys and harbour lights, and is crossed by ferries at fixed

intervals, while there are several launches for hauling local

traffic. On Ross Island there is a lighthouse visible for 19

m. A complete system of signalling by night and day on

the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts are

frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular.

History.--It is uncertain whether any of the names of the

islands given by Ptolemy ought to be attached to the Andamans;

yet it is probable that his name itself is traceable in the

Alexandrian geographer. Andaman first appears distinctly

in the Arab notices of the 9th century, already quoted. But

it seems possible that the tradition of marine nomenclature

had never perished; that the 'Agathou daimonos nesos

was really a misunderstanding of some form like Agdaman,

while Nesoi Baroussai survived as Lanka Balus, the

name applied by the Arabs to the Nicobars. The islands

are briefly noticed by Marco Polo, who probably saw without

visiting them, under the name Angamanain, seemingly an

Arabic dual, ``The two Angamans,'' with the exaggerated

but not unnatural picture of the natives, long current,

as dog-faced Anthropophagi. Another notice occurs in the

story of Nicolo Conti (c. 1440), who explains the name to

mean ``Island of Gold,'' and speaks of a lake with peculiar

virtues as existing in it. The name is probably derived

from the Malay Handuman, coming from the ancient Hanuman

(monkey). Later travellers repeat the stories, too well

founded, of the ferocious hostility of the people; of whom we

may instance Cesare Federici (1569), whose narrative is given

in Ramusio, vol. iii. (only in the later editions), and in

Purchas. A good deal is also told of them in the vulgar and

gossiping but useful work of Captain A. Hamilton (1727).

In 1788-1789 the government of Bengal sought to establish

in the Andamans a penal colony, associated with a harbour of

refuge. Two able officers, Colebrooke of the Bengal Engineers,

and Blair of the sea service, were sent to survey and

report. In the sequel the settlement was established by Captain

Blair, in September 1789, on Chatham Island, in the S.E. bay

of the Great Andaman, now called Port Blair, but then Port

Cornwallis. There was much sickness, and after two years,

urged by Admiral Cornwallis, the government transferred

the colony to the N.E. part of Great Andaman, where a naval

arsenal was to be established. With the colony the name also

of Port Cornwallis was transferred to this new locality.

The scheme did ill; and in 1796 the government put an end to

it, owing to the great mortality and the embarrassments of

maintenance. The settlers were finally removed in May

1796. In 1824 Port Cornwallis was the rendezvous of the fleet

carrying the army to the first Burmese war. In 1839, Dr Helfer,

a German savant employed by the Indian government, having

landed in the islands, was attacked and killed. In 1844 the

troop-ships ``Briton'' and ``Runnymede'' were driven ashore

here, almost close together. The natives showed their usual

hostility, killing all stragglers. Outrages on shipwrecked

crews continued so rife that the question of occupation had

to be taken up again; and in 1855 a project was formed for

such a settlement, embracing a convict establishment. This

was interrupted by the Indian Mutiny of 1857, but as soon

as the neck of that revolt was broken, it became more urgent

than ever to provide such a resource, on account of the great

number of prisoners falling into British hands. Lord Canning,

therefore, in November 1857, sent a commission, headed by

Dr F. Mouat, to examine and report. The commission reported

favourably, selecting as a site Blair's original Port

Cornwallis, but pointing out and avoiding the vicinity of a

salt swamp which seemed to have been pernicious to the old

colony. To avoid confusion, the name of Port Blair was given

to the new settlement, which was established in the beginning of

1858. For some time sickness and mortality were excessively

large, but the reclamation of swamp and clearance of jungle

on an extensive scale by Colonel Henry Man when in charge

(1868-1870), had a most beneficial effect, and the health of

the settlement has since been notable. The Andaman colony

obtained a tragical notoriety from the murder of the viceroy,

the earl of Mayo, by a Mahommedan convict, when on a visit

to the settlement on the 8th of February 1872. In the same

year the two groups, Andaman and Nicobar, the occupation of

the latter also having been forced on the British government

(in 1869) by the continuance of outrage upon vessels, were

united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair.

See Sir Richard Temple, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands

(Indian Census, 1901); C. B. Kloss, In the Andamans and

Nicobars (1903); E. H. Man, Aboriginal Inhabitants of

the Andaman Islands (1883); M. V. Portman, Record of the

Andamanese (11 volumes MS. in India Office, London, and

Home Department, Calcutta), 1893- 1898, Andamanese Monual

(1887), Notes on the Languages of the South Andaman Group

of Tribes (1898), and History of our Relations with

the Andamanese (1899); S. Kurz, Vegetation of the Andamans

(1867); G. S. Miller, Mammals of the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands (vol. xxiv. of the Proceedings of the National

Museum, U.S.A.); A. L. Butler, ``Birds of the Andamans and

Nicobars'' (Proc. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vols. xii. and

xiii.); and A. Alcock, A Naturalist in Indian Seas (1902).

ANDANTE (Ital. for ``moving slowly,'' from andare, to

go), a musical term to indicate pace, coming between adagio

and allegro; it is also used of an independent piece of

music or of the slow movement in a sonata, symphony, &c.

ANDERIDA, an ancient Roman fort at Pevensey, near Eastbourne

in Sussex (England), built about A.D. 300 as part of a scheme

of land-defence against the Saxon pirates; repaired, probably

by the great Stilicho, about A.D. 400; and after the Norman

Conquest utilized by William the Conqueror for a Norman castle.

Its massive Roman enceinte still stands but little damaged.

ANDERNACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,

on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 m. N.W. of Coblenz by

the main line to Cologne. Pop. (1900) 7889. Viewed from

the river it makes a somewhat gloomy, though picturesque,

impression, with its parish church (a basilica dating from

the 12th century, with four towers), the round watch-tower

on the Rhine, old walls in places 15 ft. thick, and a famous

crane (erected 1554) for lading merchandise. Among other

buildings are a Gothic Minorite church (now Protestant), a town

hall, and a prison, formerly the castle of the archbishops of

Cologne. Andernach has considerable industries, brewing and

manufactures of chemicals and perfumes, and has also a trade

in corn and wine. But its most notable article of commerce

is that of mill-stones, made of lava and tufa-stone, a product

much used by the Dutch in the construction of their dykes.

Andernach (Antunnacum) is the old Roman Castellum ante

Nacum, founded by Drusus and fortified in the 3rd century

A.D. In 1109 Andernach received civic rights, passed in 1167

to the electors of Cologne, in 1253 joined the confederation

of the Rhine cities and was the most southern member of the

Hanseatic league. Here in 1474 a treaty was signed between

the emperor Frederick III., the four electors of the Rhine and

France. In 1794 Andernach passed to France, but in 1815 was

ceded, together with the left bank of the Rhine, to Prussia.

ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN (1805-1875), Danish poet and

fabulist, was born at Odense, in Funen, on the 2nd of April

1805. He was the son of a sickly young shoemaker of

twenty-two, and his still younger wife: the whole family lived

and slept in one little room. Andersen very early showed

signs of imaginative temperament, which was fostered by the

indulgence and superstition of his parents. In 1816 the

shoe-maker died and the child was left entirely to his own

devices. He ceased to go to school; he built himself a little

toy-theatre and sat at home making clothes for his puppets,

and reading all the plays that he could borrow; among them

were those of Holberg and Shakespeare. At Easter 1819 he

was confirmed at the church of St Kund, Odense, and began to

turn his thoughts to the future. It was thought that he was

best fitted to be a tailor; but as nothing was settled, and

as Andersen wished to be an opera-singer, he took matters

into his own hand and started for Copenhagen in September

1819. There he was taken for a lunatic, snubbed at the theatres,

and nearly reduced to starvation, but he was befriended by

the musicians Christoph Weyse and Siboni, and afterwards by

the poet Frederik Hoegh Guldberg (1771-1852). His voice

failed, but he was admitted as a dancing pupil at the Royal

Theatre. He grew idle, and lost the favour of Guldberg,

but a new patron appeared in the person of Jonas Collin, the

director of the Royal Theatre, who became Andersen's life-long

friend. King Frederick VI. was interested in the strange

boy and sent him for some years, free of charge, to the great

grammar-school at Slagelse. Before he started for school he

published his first volume, The Ghost at Palnatoke's Grave

(1822). Andersen, a very backward and unwilling pupil, actually

remained at Slagelse and at another school in Elsinore until

1827; these years, he says, were the darkest and bitterest in his

life. Collin at length consented to consider him educated, and

Andersen came to Copenhagen. In 1829 he made a considerable

success with a fantastic volume entitled A Journey on Foot

from Holman's Canal to the East Point of Amager, and he

published in the same season a farce and a book of poems. He

thus suddenly came into request at the moment when his friends

had decided that no good thing would ever come out of his early

eccentricity and vivacity. He made little further progress,

however, until 1833, when he received a small travelling

stipend from the king, and made the first of his long European

journeys. At Le Locle, in the Jura, he wrote Agnate and

the Merman; and in October 1834 he arrived in Rome. Early

in 1835 Andersen's novel, The Improvisatore, appeared, and

achieved a real success; the poet's troubles were at an end at

last. In the same year, 1835, the earliest instalment of

Andersen's immortal Fairy Tales (Eventyr) was published in

Copenhagen. Other parts, completing the first volume, appeared

in 1836 and 1837. The value of these stories was not at first

perceived, and they sold slowly. Andersen was more successful

for the time being with a novel, O.T., and a volume of

sketches, In Sweden; in 1837 he produced the best of his

romances, Only a Fiddler. He now turned his attention,

with but ephemeral success, to the theatre, but was recalled

to his true genius in the charming miscellanies of 1840 and

1842, the Picture-Book without Pictures, and A Poet's

Bazaar. Meanwhile the fame of his Fairy Tales had been

steadily rising; a second series began in 1838, a third in

1845. Andersen was now celebrated throughout Europe, although

in Denmark itself there was still some resistance to his

pretensions. In June 1847 he paid his first visit to

England, and enjoyed a triumphal social success; when he

left, Charles Dickens saw him off from Ramsgate pier. After

this Andersen continued to publish much; he still desired to

excel as a novelist and a dramatist, which he could not do,

and he still disdained the enchanting Fairy Tales, in the

composition of which his unique genius lay. Nevertheless he

continued to write them, and in 1847 and 1848 two fresh volumes

appeared. After a long silence Andersen published in 1857

another romance, To be or not to be. In 1863, after a

very interesting journey, he issued one of the best of his

travel-books, In Spain. His Fairy Tales continued to

appear, in instalments, until 1872, when, at Christmas, the

last stories were published. In the spring of that year

Andersen had an awkward accident, falling out of bed and

severely hurting himself. He was never again quite well,

but he lived till the 4th of August 1875, when he died very

peacefully in the house called Rolighed, near Copenhagen. (E. G.)

ANDERSON, ADAM (1692--1765), Scottish economist, was born in

1692, and died in London on the 10th of January 1765. He was a

clerk for forty years in the South Sea House, where he published

a work entitled Historical and Chronological Deduction

of the Origin of Commerce from the Earliest Accounts to the

Present Time, containing a History of the Great Commercial

Interests of the British Empire (1762, 2 vols. fol.).

ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (c. 1582-1620?), Scottish mathematician,

was born at Aberdeen. In his youth he went to the continent

and taught mathematics at Paris, where he published or

edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometrical

and algebraical tracts, which are conspicuous for their

ingenuity and elegance. He was selected by the executors of

Franciscus Vieta to revise and edit his manuscript works, a

task which he discharged with great ability. The works of

Anderson amount to six thin 4to volumes, and as the last of

them was published in 1619, it is probable that the author

died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown.

ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND (1530-1605), English lawyer, descended

from a Scottish family settled in Lincolnshire, was born

in 1530 at Flixborough or Broughton in that county. After

studying for a short time at Lincoln College, Oxford, he

became in 1550 a student of the Inner Temple. In 1579 he

was appointed serjeant-at-law to Queen Elizabeth, and also

an assistant judge on circuit. As a reward for his services

in the trial of Edmund Campian and his followers (1581), he

was, on the death of Sir James Dyer, appointed lord chief

justice of the Common Pleas (1582), and was knighted. He

took part in all the leading state trials which agitated

England during the latter years of Elizabeth's reign. Though

a great lawyer and thoroughly impartial in civil cases, he

became notorious by his excessive severity and harshness when

presiding over the trials of catholics and nonconformists; more

markedly so in those of Sir John Perrot, Sir Walter Raleigh,

and John Udall the puritan minister. Anderson was also one

of the commissioners appointed to try Mary queen of Scots in

1586. He died on the 1st of August 1605 at Eyworth in

Bedfordshire. In addition to Reports of Many Principal

Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Time of Queen Elizabeth

in the Common Bench, published after his death, he drew

up several expositions of statutes enacted in Elizabeth's

reign which remain in manuscript in the British Museum.

ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT (1836- ), English medical

practitioner, daughter of Newson Garrett, of Aldeburgh,

Suffolk, was born in 1836, and educated at home and at a private

school. In 1860 she resolved to study medicine, an unheard-of

thing for a woman in those days, and one which was regarded

by old-fashioned people as almost indecent. Miss Garrett

managed to obtain some more or less irregular instruction at

the Middlesex hospital, London, but was refused admission as a

full student both there and at many other schools to which she

applied. Finally she studied anatomy privately at the London

hospital, and with some of the professors at St Andrews

University, and at the Edinburgh Extra-Mural school. She

had no less difficulty in gaining a qualifying diploma to

practise medicine. London University, the Royal Colleges

of Physicians and Surgeons, and many other examining bodies

refused to admit her to their examinations; but in the end

the Society of Apothecaries, London, allowed her to enter

for the License of Apothecaries' Hall, which she obtained in

1865. In 1866 she was appointed general medical attendant to

St Mary's dispensary, a London institution started to enable

poor women to obtain medical help from qualified practitioners

of their own sex. The dispensary soon developed into the

New hospital for women, and there she worked for over twenty

years. In 1870 she obtained the Paris degree of M.D. The

same year she was elected to the first London School Board,

at the head of the poll for Marylebone, and was also made one

of the visiting physicians of the East London hospital for

children; but the duties of these two positions she found to

be incompatible with her principal work, and she soon resigned

them. In 1871 she married Mr J. G. S. Anderson (d. 1907), a

London shipowner, but did not give up practice. She worked

steadily at the development of the New hospital, and (from

1874) at the creation of a complete school of medicine in

London for women. Both institutions have since been handsomely

and suitably housed and equipped, the New hospital (in the

Euston Road) being worked entirely by medical women, and the

schools (in Hunter Street, W.C.) having over 200 students,

most of them preparing for the medical degree of London

University, which was opened to women in 1877. In 1897 Mrs

Garrett Anderson was elected president of the East Anglian

branch of the British Medical Association. In 1908 she was

elected (the first lady) mayor of Aldeburgh. The movement

for the admission of women to the medical profession, of

which she was the indefatigable pioneer in England, has

extended to every civilized country except Spain and Turkey.

ANDERSON, JAMES (1662-1728), Scottish genealogist, antiquary

and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 5th of August

1662. He was educated for the law, and became a writer to

the signet in 1691. His profession gave him the opportunity

of gratifying his taste for the study of ancient documents;

and just before the union the Scottish parliament commissioned

him to prepare for publication what remained of the public

records of the kingdom, and in their last session voted a sum

of L. 1940 sterling to defray his expenses. At this work he

laboured for several years with great judgment and perseverance;

but it was not completed at his death in 1728. The book was

published posthumously in 1739, edited by Thomas Ruddiman,

under the title Selectus Diplomatum et Numismatum Scotiae

Thesaurus. The preparation of this great national work involved

the author in considerable pecuniary loss; and soon after his

death, the numerous plates, engraved by Sturt, were sold for

L. 530. These plates are now lost, and the book has become

exceedingly scarce. After the union of the crowns, Anderson

was appointed in 1715 postmaster-general for Scotland, as

some compensation for his labours; but in the political

struggles of 1717 he was deprived of this office, and never

again obtained any reward for his services. He died on the

3rd of April 1728. He published, during the controversy

about the union, An Historical Essay showing that the Crown

and Kingdom of Scotland is Imperial and Independent (Edin.,

1705,), and later Collections relating to the History of

Mary Queen of Scotland (in 4 vols., Edin., 1727-1728).

ANDERSON, JAMES (1739-1808), Scottish agriculturist and

economist, was born at Hermiston, near Edinburgh, in

1739. While still a boy he undertook the working of a farm

in Mid- Lothian which his family had occupied for several

generations, and later he rented in Aberdeenshire a farm

of 1300 acres of unimproved land. In 1783 he settled in

Edinburgh, where in 1791 he projected a weekly publication

called The Bee, which was largely written by himself, and

of which eighteen volumes were published. In 1797 he began

to reside at Isleworth, and from 1799 to 1802 he produced

a monthly publication, Recreations in Agriculture,

Natural History, Arts and Miscellaneous Literature. He

was also the author of many pamphlets on agricultural and

economical topics. He died on the 15th of October 1808.

ANDERSON, JOHN (1726-1796), Scottish natural philosopher,

was born at Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, in 1726. In 1756 he

became professor of oriental languages in the university of

Glasgow, where he had finished his education; and in 1760

he was appointed to the more congenial post of professor of

natural philosophy. He devoted himself particularly to the

application of science to industry, instituting courses of

lectures intended especially for artisans, and he bequeathed

his property for the foundation of an institution for

the furtherance of technical and scientific education in

Glasgow, Anderson's College, now merged in the Glasgow and

West of Scotland Technical College. He died in Glasgow on

the 13th of January 1796. His Institutes of Physics,

published in 1786, went through five editions in ten years.

ANDERSON, MARY (1859- ), American actress, was born at

Sacramento, California, on the 28th of July 1859. Her father,

an officer in the Confederate service in the Civil War, died in

1863. She was educated in various Roman Catholic institutions,

and at the age of thirteen, with the advice of Charlotte

Cushman, began to study for the stage, making her first

appearance at Louisville, Kentucky, as Juliet in 1875. Her

remarkable beauty created an immediate success, and she played

in all the large cities of the United States with increasing

popularity. Between 1883 and 1889 she had several seasons in

London, and was the Rosalind in the performance of As You

Like It which opened the Shakespeare Memorial theatre at

Stratford-on-Avon. Among her chief parts were Galatea (in W.

S. Gilbert's Pygmalion and Galatea), Clarice (in his Comedy

and Tragedy, written for her), Hermione, Perdita, and Julia

(in The Hunchback.) In 1889 she retired from the stage and

in 1890 married Antonio de Navarro, and settled in England.

See William Winter's Stage Life of Mary Anderson (New

York, 1886), and her own A Few Momories (New York, 1896).

ANDERSON, RICHARD HENRY (1821-1879), American soldier, was

born in South Carolina on the 7th of October 1821. Graduating

at West Point in 1842, he served in the Mexican War (in which

he won the brevet of first lieutenant) and in the Kansas

troubles of 1856-1857, becoming first lieutenant in 1848 and

captain in 1855. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861

he resigned his commission in the U.S. army, and entered the

Confederate service as a brigadier-general, being promoted

major-general in August 1862 and lieutenant-general in May

1864. With the exception of a few months spent with the army

under Bragg in 1862, Anderson's service was wholly in the Army

of Northern Virginia. Under Lee and Longstreet he served as

a divisional commander in nearly every battle from 1862 to

1864, winning especial distinction at Chancellorsville and

Gettysburg. When Longstreet was wounded at the battle of

the Wilderness, Anderson succeeded him in command of the

1st corps, which he led in the subsequent battles. His

services at the battle of Spottsylvania (q.v.) were most

important. He remained with the army, as a corps commander,

to the close of the war, after which he retired into private

life. He died at Beaufort S.C. on the 26th of June 1879.

ANDERSON, ROBERT (1750-1830), Scottish author and critic,

was born at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, on the 7th of January

1750. He studied first divinity and then medicine at the

university of Edinburgh, and subsequently, after some experience

as a surgeon, took the degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1778.

He began to practise as a physician at Alnwick, but he became

financially independent by his marriage with the daughter of Mr

John Gray, and abandoned his profession for a literary life in

Edinburgh. For several years his attention was occupied

with his edition of The Works of the British Poets, with

Prefaces Biographical and Critical (14 vols. 8vo, Edin.,

1792-1807). His other publications were, The Miscellaneous

Works of Tobias Smollett, M.D., with Memoirs of his Life

and Writings (Edin., 1796); Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.,

with Critical Observations on his Works (Edin., 1815);

The Works of John Moore, M.D., with Memoirs of his Life

and Writings (Edin., 7 vols., 1820); and The Grave and other

Poems, by Robert Blair; to which are prefixed some Account

of his Life and Observations on his Writings (Edin., 1826).

Dr Anderson died at Edinburgh on the 20th of February 1830.

ANDERSON, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Indiana,

U.S.A., situated on the west fork of the White river, about 35

m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880) 4126; (1890) 10,741;

(1900) 20,178, of whom 1081 were foreign-born; (1910, census)

22,476. It is served by the Central Indiana, the Cleveland,

Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Pittsburg, Chicago & St

Louis railways, and also by the Indiana Union Traction System

(electric), the general offices and central power plant of

which are situated there. Its importance as a manufacturing

centre is due to its location in the natural gas region. In

1905 Anderson ranked first among the cities of the state in

the manufacture of carriage and wagon material, and iron and

steel. Among its many other manufactures are glass and

glassware, paper, strawboards, crockery and tiles. In 1905

the total factory product was valued at $8,314,760. There is a

good public library; much attention has been devoted to public

improvements; and the water works and the electric lighting

plants are owned and operated by the city. In connexion

with the water works there is a good filtration plant.

First settled about 1822, Anderson was incorporated in 1865.

ANDERSONVILLE, a village of Sumter county, Georgia, U.S.A.,

in the S.W. part of the state, about 60 m. S.W. of Macon,

on the Central of Georgia railway. Pop. (1910) 174. From

November 1863 until the close of the Civil War it was the seat

of a Confederate military prison. A tract of 16 1/2 acres of

land near the village was cleared of trees and enclosed with a

stockade. Prisoners began to arrive in February 1864, before

the prison was completed and before adequate supplies had

been received, and in May their number amounted to about

12,000. In June the stockade was enlarged so as to include

26 1/2 acres, but the congestion was only temporarily relieved,

and in August the number of prisoners exceeded 32,000. No

shelter had been provided for the inmates: the first arrivals

made rude sheds from the debris of the stockade; the others

made tents of blankets and other available pieces of cloth,

or dug pits in the ground. Owing to the slender resources

of the Confederacy, the prison was frequently short of

food, and even when this was sufficient in quantity it was

of a poor quality and poorly prepared on account of the lack

of cooking utensils. The water supply, deemed ample when

the prison was planned, became polluted under the congested

conditions. During the summer of 1864 the prisoners

suffered greatly from hunger, exposure and disease, and in

seven months about a third of them died. In the autumn,

after the capture of Atlanta, all the prisoners who could

be moved were sent to Millen, Georgia and Florence, South

Carolina. At Millen better arrangements prevailed, and when,

after Sherman began his march to the sea, the prisoners were

returned to Andersonville, the conditions there were somewhat

improved. During the war 49,485 prisoners were received at

the Andersonville prison, and of these about 13,000 died.

The terrible conditions obtaining there were due to the lack

of food supplies in the Confederate States, the incompetence

of the prison officials, and the refusal of the Federal

authorities in 1864 to make exchanges of prisoners, thus filling

the stockade with unlooked-for numbers. After the war Henry

Wirz, the superintendent, was tried by a court-martial, and

on the 10th of November 1865 was hanged, and the revelation

of the sufferings of the prisoners was one of the factors

that shaped public opinion regarding the South in the Northern

states, after the close of the Civil War. The prisoners' burial

ground at Andersonville has been made a national cemetery, and

contains 13,714 graves of which 921 are marked ``unknown.''

There is an impartial account of the Andersonville prison

in James F. Rhodes, History of the United States (vol.

v., New York, 1904). The partisan accounts are numerous;

see, for instance, A. C. Hamlin, Martyria; or, Andersonville

Prison (Boston, 1866); and R. R. Stevenson, The Southern

Side; or, Andersonville Prison (Baltimore, 1876).

ANDES, a vast mountain system forming a continuous chain

of highland along the western coast of South America. It is

roughly 4400 m. long, 100 m. wide in some parts, and of an

average height of 13,000 ft.1 The connexion of this system

with that of the Rocky Mountains, which has been pointed out

by many writers, has received much support from the discovery

of the extensive eruptions of granite during Tertiary times,

extending from the southern extremity of South America to

Alaska. The Andean range is composed of two great principal

chains with a deep intermediate depression, in which, and at

the sides of the great chains, arise other chains of minor

importance, the chief of which is that called the Cordillera

de la Costa of Chile. This starts from the southern extremity

of the continent, and runs in a northerly direction, parallel

with the coast, being broken up at its beginning into a number

of islands, and afterwards forming the western boundary of

the great central valley of Chile. To the north this coastal

chain continues in small ridges or isolated hills along the

Pacific as far as Colombia, always leaving the same valley

more or less visible to the west of the western great chain.

Tierra del Fuego.

Of the two principal chains the eastern is generally called Los

Andes, and the western La Cordillera, in Colombia, Peru and

Bolivia, where the eastern is likewise known as Cordillera Real

de los Andes, while to the south of parallel 23 deg. S. lat. in

Chile and Argentina, the western is called Cordillera de los

Andes. The eastern disappears in the centre of Argentina,

and it is therefore only the Cordillera de los Andes that

is prolonged as far as the south-eastern extremity of the

continent. The Cordillera de la Costa begins near Cape

Horn, which is composed principally of crystalline rocks,

and its heights are inconsiderable when compared with

those of the true Cordillera of the Andes. The latter,

as regards its main chain, is on the northern coast of the

Beagle Channel, in Tierra del Fuego, bounded on the north

by the deep depression of Lake Fagnano and of Admiralty

Sound. Staten Island appears to be the termination to the

east. The Cordillera of the Andes in Tierra del Fuego is

formed of crystalline schists, and culminates in the snow-capped

peaks of Mount Darwin and Mount Sarmiento (7200 ft.), which

contains glaciers of greater extent than those of Mont

Blanc. The extent of the glaciers is considerable in this

region, which, geographically, is more complex than was formerly

supposed. Although, in the explored portion of the Fuegian

chain, the volcanoes which have been mentioned from time to

time have not been met with, there seem to have existed to the

south, on the islands, many neo-volcanic rocks, some of which

appear to be contemporaneous with the basaltic sheet that covers

a part of eastern Patagonia. The insular region between Mount

Sarmiento and the Cordillera de los Andes, properly so called,

i.e. that which extends from Magellan Strait northwards, is

not fully explored, and all that is known of it is that it is

principally composed of the same rocks as the Fuegian section,

and that the greater part of its upper valleys is occupied

by glaciers that reach down to the sea amid dense forest.

Chile-Argentina, 52 deg. -38 deg. S.

As Admiralty Sound and Lake Fagnano bound the Cordillera to

the north in Tierra del Fuego, so at the eastern side of the

Cordillera in the southernmost part of the continent there is

a longitudinal depression which separates the Andes from some

independent ridges pertaining to a secondary parallel broken

chain called the pre-Cordillera. This depression is occupied

in great part by a series of lakes, some of these filling

transversal breaches in the range, whilst others are remains

of glacial reservoirs, bordered by morainic dams, extending

as far as the eastern tableland and corresponding in these

cases with transversal depressions which reach the Atlantic

Ocean. Between the larger lakes, fed by the Andine glaciers

of the eastern slope of the Southern Andes, are Lakes

Maravilla, 100 sq. m., and Sarmiento, 26 sq. m., 51 deg. S.

lat., which overflow into Last Hope Inlet; Argentino, 570 sq.

m., 50 deg. S. lat.; and Viedma, 450 sq; m., 49 deg. 30' S. lat.,

which empty into the river Santa Cruz; the fjordian Lake San

Martin, 49 deg. S. lat;, and Lakes Nansen, 18 sq. m.; Azara,

8 sq. m.; and Belgrano, 18 sq. m., which are dependents of

Lake San Martin (380sq. m.), and Lakes Pueyrredon (98 sq. m.)

and Buenos Aires (700 sq. m.), which now overflow into the

Pacific, through one of the remarkable inlets that are found

throughout the Cordillera, the Calen Inlet, which is the

largest western fjord of Patagonia. To the north of Lake

Buenos Aires there is Lake Elizalde, which, while situated

on the eastern slope, sends its waters to the Pacific Ocean,

and Lakes Fontana (30 sq. m.) and La Plata (34 sq. m.), 45 deg.

S. lat., which feed the river Senguerr, which flows to the

Atlantic. Lake General Paz (66 sq. m.) on the eastern slope

of the Andes, at 44 deg. S. lat., is the principal source of

the Palena river, which cuts all the Cordillera, while Lakes

Fetalauquen (20 sq. m.) Menendez (28 sq. m.), Rivadavia (10

sq. m.), and other smaller lakes, also situated between 43 deg.

30', and 42 deg. 30' S. lat. on the eastern slope send their

waters to the Pacific by the river Fetaleufu which cuts

through the Andes by a narrow gorge. The waters of Lake

Puelo (18 sq. m.) likewise flow into the same ocean through

the river of that name, which also cuts the Cordillera, and

of which the principal affluent likewise drains the waters

of a system of small lakes, the largest of which, Lake

Mascardi, measures 17 sq. m., which in comparatively recent

times formed part of the basin of Lake Nahuel Huapi (207 sq.

m.), 41 deg. S. lat. An extensive area of glacial deposits

shows that a sheet of ice formerly covered the whole eastern

slope to a great distance from the mountains. To the west

another sheet reached at the same time the Pacific Ocean.

From the Strait of Magellan up to 52 deg. S. lat., the western

slope of the Cordillera does not, properly speaking, exist.

Abrupt walls overlook the Pacific, and great longitudinal and

transversal channels and fjords run right through the heart of the

range, cutting it generally in a direction more or less oblique

to its axis, the result of movements of the earth's crust.

The mountains forming the Cordillera between Magellan Strait

and 41 deg. S. lat. are higher than those previously mentioned

in Tierra del Fuego. Generally composed of granite, gneiss

and Palaeozoic rocks, covered in many parts by rugged masses

of volcanic origin, their general height is not less than

6500 ft., while Mount Geikie is 7500 ft. and Mount Stokes

7100ft. To the north are Mounts Mayo (7600 ft.), Agassiz

(10,600 ft.), and Fitzroy, in 49 deg. S. lat. (11,120 ft.). The

section from 52 deg. to 48 deg. S. lat. is a continuous ice-capped

mountain range, and some of the glaciers extend from the

eastern lakes to the western channels, where they reach the

sea-level. The level of the lakes begins at 130 ft. at Lake

Maravilla and gradually ascends to nearly 700 ft. at Lake San

Martin. Passing the breach through which Lake San Martin

empties itself into Calen Inlet, in 48 deg. S. lat., is found a wide

oblique opening in the range, through which flows the river Las

Heras, fed by Lake Pueyrredon, which is only 410 ft. above the

sea-level to the east of the Andes, while Lake Buenos Aires,

immediately to the north, is 710 ft. The Andes continue to be

to the west an enormous rugged mass of ice and snow of an average

height of 9000 ft., sending glaciers to all the eastern fjords.

Mount San Lorenzo, detached from the main chain in the

Pre-Cordillera, is 11,800 ft. high. Mount San Valentin

(12,700 ft.) is the culminating point of the Andes in the

region extending from 49 deg. to 46 deg. S. lat., a little north of

which is the river Huemules which is followed by the breach

of the river Aisen. These two rivers have emptied a large

system of lakes, which in pre-Glacial times occupied the

eastern zone, thus forming a region suitable for colonization

in the broad valleys and hollows, where the rivers, as in

the case with those in the north, cut through the Andes by

narrow gaps, forming cataracts and rapids between the snowy

peaks. Volcanic action is still going on in these latitudes,

as the glaciers are at times covered by ashes, but the

predominant rocks to the east are the Tertiary granite,

while to the west gneiss, older granite and Palaeozoic rocks

prevail. The highest peaks, however, seem to be of volcanic

origin. Farther north, up to 41 deg. S. lat., the water gaps are

situated at a lesser distance one from the other, owing mainly

to more continuous erosion, this section of the continent

being the region of the maximum rainfall on the western

coast to the south of the equator. Between the gaps of the

river Aisen and river Cisnes or Frias, which also pierces the

chain, is found a huge mountain mass, in which is situated

Mount la Torre (7150 ft.). These form the continental

watershed, but in this region erosion is taking place so

rapidly that the day is not far distant when Lakes La Plata and

Fontana, situated to the east at a height of 3000 ft. and now

tributaries of the Atlantic, may become tributaries of the

Pacific. Already filtrations from the former go to feed

western affluents through the granitic masses. To the north

of Mount la Torre flows in the river Cisnes, 44 deg. 48' S. lat.,

across another water gap, continuing the range to the north

with high peaks, as Alto Nevado (7350 ft.) and Cacique (7000

ft.). The glaciers reach almost the western channels, as is

the case at the river Quelal. The northern glaciers, descending

nearly to sea- level, are situated at 43 deg. 40' S. lat. To

the north 45 deg. S. lat. a well-defined western longitudinal

valley, at some recent time occupied by lakes and rivers,

divides the Cordillera into two chains, the eastern being

the main chain, to which belong Mounts Alto Nevado, Cacique,

Dentista, Maldonado, Serrano, each over 7000 ft. high; and

Torrecillas (7400 ft.), Ventisquero (7500 ft.), and Tronador

(11,180 ft.); while the western chain, broken into imposing

blocks, contains several high volcanic peaks such as Mounts

Tanteles, Corcovado, Minchimahuida, Hornopiren and Yates. The

rivers Palena, with its two branches, Pico and Carrenleufu,

Fetaleufu, Puelo and Manso cut the two chains, while the rivers

Renihue, Bodadahue and Cochamo have their sources in the main

eastern ridge. Mention has been made of active volcanoes in

51 deg. , 49 deg. and 47 deg. S. lat., but these have not been properly

located. The active volcanoes south of 41 deg. , concerning

which no doubt exists, are the Huequen, in 43 deg. lat., and the

Calbuco, both of which have been in eruption in modern times.

The surroundings of Mount Tronador, consisting of Tertiary

granite and basalt, form one of the most interesting regions

in the Pataronian Andes for the mountaineers of the future. To

the east extends the large and picturesque lake of Nahuel-Huapi,

to the west is Lake Todos Los Santos (50 sq. m.), to which

the access is easy and of which the scenery is of surpassing

beauty. Between 41 deg. and 38 deg. S. lat., among other smaller

lakes, are Lakes Traful (45 sq. m.), Lacar (32 sq. m.),

which, properly belonging to the system of Atlantic lakes,

empties itself by the only water gap that occurs in this zone

of the Cordillera into the river Valdivia, a tributary of

the Pacific, Lake Lolog (15 sq. m.), Huechu-lafquen (45 sq.

m.), and Lake Alumine (21 sq. m.). The volcanoes of Lanin

(12,140 ft.), Quetropillan (9180 ft.), Villarica (10,400 ft.),

Yaimas and Tolhuaca are all more or less active; the first

is in the main chain, while the others are on the western

slope. The scenery in the neighbourhood is magnificent, the

snowy cones rising from amidst woods of araucaria, and being

surrounded by blue lakes. While the scenery of the western

slope of the Andes is exceedingly grand, with its deep fjords,

glaciers and woods, yet the severity of its climate detracts

considerably from its charm. The climate of the eastern

slope, however, is milder, the landscapes are magnificent, with

wooded valleys and beautiful lakes. The valleys are already

partly settled by colonists. Between 52 deg. and 40 deg. S. lat.

erosion has carried the watershed of the continent from the

summit of the Cordillera to the eastern plains of Patagonia.

From 40 deg. S. southward the Chile-Argentine Boundary Commission

under Sir T. H. Holdich carried out important investigations in

1902; and between 38 deg. and 33 deg. S. lat. the Andes were somewhat

extensively explored about the close of the 19th century by

Argentine and Chilean Commissions. The highest peaks in the

latter section are volcanic and their eruptions have sensibly

modified the character of the primitive ridges. Outflows

of lava and tufa cover the mountain sides and fill up the

valleys. The Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, which in

the Southern Cordillera are situated outside of the range

to the east, form to a considerable extent the mass of the

great range, together with quartz porphyry, the Tertiary,

granite and other eruptive rocks, which have been observed

along all the chain in South America up to Alaska in the

north. Gneiss is seldom met with, but there are crystalline

rocks, belonging chiefly to the pre-Cordillera of the eastern

and to the Cordillera de la Costa on the western side.

Chile-Argentina from 38 deg. S. northward.

About 38 deg. S. the Andes take a great transversal extension;

there are no wide intermediate valleys between the different

ridges but the main ridge is perfectly defined. Volcanic

cones continue to predominate, the old crystalline rocks

almost disappear, while the Mesozoic rocks are most

common. The higher peaks are in the main chain, while

the Domuyo (15,317 ft.) belongs to a lateral eastern

ridge. The principal peaks between this and Mount Tupungato

at 33 deg. S. lat. are: Mount Cochico (8255 ft.), Campanario,

(13,140 ft.), Peteroa (13,297 ft.), Tinguiririca, Castillo

(16,535 ft.), Volcano Maipu (17,576 ft.), Alvarado (14,600

ft.), Amarillo (15,321 ft.), Volcano San Jose (19,849 ft.),

Piuquenes (17,815 ft.), and Volcano Bravard (19,619 ft.).

North of Maipu volcano, ascended by R. P. Gussfeldt in

1883, the Cordillera is composed of two huge principal ridges

which unite and terminate in the neighbourhood of Mount

Tupungato. The valley between them is 9000 ft. high; and in

that part of the Cordillera are situated the highest passes

south of 33 deg. S. lat., one of which, the Piuquenes Pass,

reaches 13,333 ft., whilst the easiest of transit and almost

the lowest is that of Pichachen (6505 ft.), which is the most

frequented during winter. Mount Tupungato reaches 22,329

ft., according to Argentine measurement. To the north of this

mountain, situated at the watershed of the Andes, extends

a lofty region comprising peaks such as Chimbote (18,645

ft.) and Mount Polleras (20,266 ft.). The Pircas Pass is

situated at a height of 16,962 ft. The gaps of Bermejo and

Iglesia, in the Uspallata road, the best known of all the

passes between Argentina and Chile, are at 13,025 ft. and

13,412 ft. altitude respectively, while the nearest peaks,

those of Juncal and Tolorsa, are 19,358 and 20,140 ft. high.

Mounts Tupungato, Aconcagua (23,393 ft.) and Mercedario

A. Alluvium G. Upper Jurassic Gypsum

C. Cretaceous (including upper & lower) YV. Younger Volcanic Rocks

M. Upper Jurassic (Malm) } OV. Older Volcanic Rocks

D. Middle Jurassic (Dogger) }mostly porphyrite Di. Dioritic Rocks

L. Liassic }porphyritic X. Change of bearing in the

conglomerate Sections