A few years after, the department of general anatomy first
assumed a substantial form in the systematic view of the
membranes and their mutual connexions traced by Andrew Bonn of
Amsterdam. In his inaugural dissertation De Continuationibus
Membranarum, published at Leiden in 1763, this author, after
some preliminary observations on membranes in general and
their structure, and an exposition of that of the skin, traces
its transition into the mucous membranes and their several
divisions. He then explains the distribution of the cellular
membrane, the aponeurotic expansions, and the periosteum and
perichondrium, by either of which, he shows, every bone of the
skeleton is invested and connected. He finally gives a very
distinct view of the arrangement of the internal membranes of
cavities, those named serous and fibro-serous, and the manner
of their distribution over the contained organs. This essay,
which is a happy example of generalization, is remarkable
for the interesting general views of the structure of the
animal body which it exhibits; and to Bonn belongs the merit
of sketching the first outlines of that system which it was
reserved for the genius of M. F. X. Bichat to complete and
embellish. Lastly, T. de Bordeu, in an elaborate essay
(1767) on the mucous tissue, or celluar organ, as he
terms it, brought forward some interesting views of the
constitution, nature and extent of the cellular membrane.
Though anatomy was hitherto cultivated with much success as
illustrating the natural history and morbid states of the
human body, yet little had been done for the elucidation
of local diseases, and the surgical means by which they may
be successfully treated. The idea of applying anatomical
knowledge directly to this puroose appears to have originated
with Bernardin Genga, a Roman surgeon, who published in 1672,
at Rome, a work entitled Surgical Anatomy, or the Anatomical
History of the Bones and Muscles of the Human Body, with
the Description of the Blood- vessels. This work, which
reached a second edition in 1687, is highly creditable to the
author, who appears to have studied intimately the mutual
relations of different parts. It is not improbable that
the example of Genga led J. Palfyn, a surgeon at Ghent, to
undertake a similar task about thirty years after (1718-
1726). For this, however, he was by no means well qualified;
and the work of Palfyn, though bearing the name of Surgical
Anatomy, is a miserable compilation, meagre in details,
inaccurate in description, and altogether unworthy of the honour
of being republished, as it afterwards was by Antony Petit.
While these two authors, however, were usefully employed
in showing what was wanted for the surgeon, others were
occupied in the collection of new and more accurate facts.
Albinus, indeed, ever assiduous, had, in his account of the
operations of Rau, given some good sketches of the relative
anatomy of the bladder and urethra; and Cheselden had
already, in his mode of cutting into the urinary bladder,
shown the necessity of an exact knowledge of the relations
of contiguous parts. The first decided application,
however, of this species of anatomical research it was
reserved for a Dutch anatomist of the 18th century to make.
Camper.
Peter Camper, professor of anatomy at Amsterdam, published
in 1760 and 1762 his anatomico- pathological demonstrations
of the parts of the human arm and pelvis, of the diseases
incident to them, and the mode of relieving them by operation,
and explained with great clearness the situation of the
blood-vessels, nerves and important muscles. His remarks on
the lateral operation of lithotomy, which contain all that
was then known on the subject, are exceedingly interesting
and valuable to the surgeon. It appears, further, that he
was the first who examined anatomically the mechanism of
ruptures, his delineations of which were published in 1801
by S. T. Sommerring. Camper also wrote some important
memoirs on Comparative Anatomy, and he was the author of a
well-known work on the Relations of Anatomy to the Fine Arts.
The attention of anatomists was now directed to the elucidation
of the most obscure and least explored parts of the human
frame--the lymphatic vessels and the nerves. Although, since
the first discovery of the former by Aselli, Rudbeck and Pecquet.
much had been done, especially by Ruysch, Nuck, Meckel and
Haller, many points, notwithstanding, relating to their origin
and distribution in particular organs, and in the several classes
of animals, were imperfectly ascertained or entirely unknown.
W. and J. Hunter.
William Hunter investigated their arrangement, and proposed
the doctrine that they are absorbents; and John Hunter, who
undertook to demonstrate the truth of this hypothesis by
experiment, discovered, in 1758, lymphatics in the neck in birds.
Hewson.
As the doctrine required the existence of this order of
vessels, not only in quadrupeds and birds but in reptiles and
fishes, the inquiry attracted attention among the pupils of
Hunter; and William Hewson16 at length communicated, in
December 1768, to the Royal Society of London an account of the
lacteals and lymphatics in birds, fishes and reptiles, as he
had discovered and demonstrated them. The subject was about
the same time investigated by the second Alexander Monro, who
indeed claimed the merit of discovering these vessels in the
classes of animals now mentioned. But whatever researches
this anatomist may have instituted, Hewson, by communicating
his observations to the Royal Society, must be allowed
to possess the strongest as well as the clearest claim to
discovery. The same author, in 1774, gave the first complete
account of the anatomical peculiarities of the lymphatic
system in man and other animals, and thereby supplied an
important gap in this department. Hewson is the first who
distinguishes the lymphatics into two orders--the superficial
and the deep--both in the extremities and in the internal
organs. He also studied the structure of the intestinal
villi, in which he verified the observations of Lieberkuhn;
and he made many important observations on the corpuscles
of the lymph and blood. He finally applied his anatomical
discoveries to explain many of the physiological and
pathological phenomena of the animal body. Ten years after,
John Sheldon, another pupil of Hunter, gave a second history
and description of the lymphatics, which, though divested of
the charm of novelty, contains many interesting anatomical
facts. He also examined the structure of the villi.
Cruikshank.
Lastly, Cruikshank,17 in 1786, published a valuable history
of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, in which he maintains
the accuracy of the Hunterian doctrine, that the lymphatics are
the only absorbents; gave a more minute account than heretofore
of these vessels, of their coats and valves; and explained
the structure of the lymphatic glands. He also injected the
villi, and examined them microscopically, verifying most of the
observations of Lieberkuhn . The origin of the lymphatics he
maintains rather by inference than direct demonstration. To
these three works, though in other respects very excellent, it
is a considerable objection that the anatomical descriptions
are much mixed with hypothetical speculation and reasonings
on properties, and that the facts are by no means always
distinguished from mere matters of opinion. At the same time
J. G. Haase published an account of the lymphatics of the
skin and intestines, and the plexiform nets of the pelvis.
Mascagni.
To complete this sketch of the history of the anatomy of
the lymphatic system, it may be added that Paolo Mascagni,
who had been engaged from the year 1777 to 1781 in the same
train of investigation, first demonstrated to his pupils
several curious facts relating to the anatomy of the lymphatic
system. When at Florence in 1782 he made several preparations,
at the request of Peter Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany;
and when the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris announced
the anatomy of this system for their prize essay appointed
for March 1784, Mascagni resolved on communicating to the
public the results of his researches--the first part of his
commentary, with four engravings. Anxiety, however, to complete
his preparations detained him at Florence till the close
of 1785; and from these causes his work did not appear till
1787. These delays, however, unfavourable as they were to
his claims of priority to Sheldon and Cruikshank, were on
the whole advantageous to the perfection of his work, which
is not only the most magnificent, but also the most complete
that ever was published on the lymphatics. In his account
of the vessels and their valves he confirms some of Hewson's
observations and rectifies others. Their origin he proves
by inference much in the same manner as Cruikshank; but he
anticipates this author in the account of the glands, and he
gives the most minute description of the superficial and deep
lymphatics, both in the members and in the internal organs.
General accounts of the nerves had been given with various
degrees of accuracy by Willis, Vieussens, Winslow, and the first
Monro; and the subject had been much rectified and improved
by the indefatigable Haller. The first example of minute
descriptive neurography was given in 1748 by John Frederick
Meckel, whose account of the fifth pair and of the nerves
of the face will long remain a lasting proof of accuracy and
research. The same subject was investigated in 1765 by Hirsch
and in 1777 by Wrisberg. In 1766 Metzger examined the origin,
distribution and termination of the first pair--a point which
was afterwards very minutely treated by A. Scarpa18 in his
anatomical disquisitions, published in 1780; and the internal
nerves of the nostrils were examined in 1791 by Haase. The
optic nerve, which had been studied originally by Varoli, and
afterwards by Mery, Duverney, J. F. Henkel, Moeller, Hein
and Kaldschmid, was examined with extreme accuracy, with the
other nerves of the organ of vision, by Zinn in his elaborate
treatise. The phrenic nerves and the oesophageal branches of
the vagus were studied by Haase; the phrenic, the abdominal
and the pharyngeal nerves, by Wrisberg; those of the heart
most minutely by Andersch; and the origins, formation and
distribution of the intercostal nerves, by Iwanov, C. G.
Ludwig, and Girardi. The labours of these anatomists, however,
were eclipsed by the splendid works of Walter (1783) on the
nerves of the chest and belly; and those of Scarpa (1794) on
the distribution of the eighth pair and splanchnic nerves in
general. In minuteness of description and in beauty of engraving
these works have not yet been equalled, and will never perhaps be
surpassed. About the same time, Scarpa, so distinguished in
every branch of anatomical research, investigated the minute
structure of the ganglions and plexuses. The anatomy of the
brain itself was also studied (1780) with great attention
by the second Monro, M. V. G. Malacarne and Vicq d'Azyr.
Lastly, the anatomy of the gravid uterus, which had been originally
studied by Albinus, Roederer and Smellie, was again illustrated
(1774) most completely by William Hunter, whose engravings will
remain a lasting memorial of scientific zeal and artistic talent.
19th century.
The perfection which anatomical science attained in the last
ten years of the 18th and during the 19th century is evinced
not only in the improved character of the systems published by
anatomists, but in the enormous advance which has taken place in
the knowledge of the minute structure of the animal tissues, of
the development of the tissues and organs, and of the modifications
in form and structure exhibited by various groups of animals.
Sommering.
The first who gave a good modern system was R. B. Sabatier;
but his work was speedily eclipsed by the superior merits of
the treatises of Sommerring, Bichat and Portal. The excellent
work by Samuel Thomas Sommerring, originally published in
the German languaae. between the years 1791 and 1796; then
in the Latin language, between the years 1794 and 1800;
and in a second edition in the German language in 1800 and
1801, maintaining the high character which it first possessed
for clear arrangement, accurate description and general
precision, was, between the years 1841 and 1844 republished
in eight volumes at Leipzig by Th. L. W. Bischoff, F. G. J.
Henle, E. H. Huschke, Theile, G. G. Valentin, Vogel, and R.
Wagner, with suitable additions, and a large amount of new
and accurate information. In this edition Rudolph Wagner
gives, in the first division of the first volume, the life,
correspondence and literary writings of Sommerring; and in
the second volume the anatomy of the bones and ligaments.
The third volume contains the anatomy of the muscles and
the vascular system by Theile. G. G. Valentin devotes one
volume, the fourth, to the minute anatomy of the nervous
system and its parts, as disclosed by careful examination by
the microscope; and it must be allowed that the author has
been at great pains to present just views of the true anatomy
of the brain, the spinal cord, the nervous branches and the
ganglia. In the fifth volume, E. H. Huschke of Jena gives
the anatomical history of the viscera and the organs of the
senses, a department which had been left in some degree
incomplete in the original, but for one division of which the
author had left useful materials in his large figures already
mentioned. In the sixth volume, an entire and complete system
of general anatomy, deduced from personal observation and that
of other careful observers, the materials being in general
new, and in all instances confirmed and rectified, is given
by F. G. J. Henle. The seventh volume contains the history of
the process of development in mammalia and man, by Th. L. W.
Bischoff. The eighth volume treats of the pathological
anatomy of the human body, by Julius Vogel, but contains
only the first division, relating to the generalities of the
subject. This, which is probably the most accurate as
it is the most elaborate system of anatomical knowledge
up to the date of its publication in 1844, was translated
into the French language by Jourdan, and published in 1846
under the name of Encyclopedie anatomique. The eighth
volume was translated into English in the year 1847.
Bichat.
The Anatomie generale of M. F. X. Bichat is a monument
of his philosophical genius which will last as long as the
structure and functions of the human body are objects of
interest. His Anatomie descriptive is distinguished by clear
and natural arrangement, precise and accurate description,
and the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated.
The physiological observations are in general correct, often
novel, and always highly interesting. It is unfortunate,
however, that the ingenious author was cut off prematurely during
the preparation of the third volume. The later volumes are,
however, pervaded with the general spirit by which the others
are impressed, and are highly creditable to the learning, the
judgment and the diligence of P. J. Roux and M. F. R. Buisson.
French systematic anatomists.
The system of A. Portal is a valuable and correct digest
of anatomical and pathological knowledge, which, in exact
literary information, is worthy of the author of the Histoire
de l'anatomie et de la chirurgie, and, in accuracy of
descriptive details, shows that Portal trusted not to the
labours of his predecessors only. A. Boyer published in
1803 a complete treatise on descriptive anatomy. H. Cloquet
formed, on the model of the Anatomie descriptive of Bichat,
a system in which he avails himself of the literature and
precision of Sommerring and the details of Portal. An
English translation of this work was prepared by Dr Robert
Knox. Jean Cruveilhier published in 1834-1835 a good
general treatise on descriptive anatomy, which was translated
into English, and published as a part of The Library of
Medicine. Cruveilhier's treatise has passed through several
editions. The most elaborate work of the French school is
the great treatise of M. J. Bourgery, consisting of four
divisions, on descriptive, general, surgical and philosophical
anatomy (1832-1854). These are beautifully illustrated.
MODERN HUMAN ANATOMY (Anthropotomy)
The history of modern human anatomy in Great Britain begins with
the time at which the dissection of the human body became part
of the training of students of medicine, and this is one of the
greatest debts, though by no means the best recognized, of the
many which medical science owes to that remarkable man William
Hunter. Before his time the anatomy professors of the most
celebrated schools both at home and abroad used one or at
most two subjects to illustrate their courses of lectures,
and were in the habit of demonstrating the performance of
surgical operations not on human bodies but on those of lower
animals. Few students dissected the human body, because for
such dissection they had no opportunities. The English law,
since the time of Henry VIII., allowed only the bodies of
persons executed for murder to be dissected, and the supply
seems to have been sufficient for the humble needs of the
time. The reformation of this antiquated and imperfect
system took place in 1747, when Hunter established complete
courses of anatomical lectures and opened a school for
dissection. The practice of dissection grew so rapidly that
by about 1793 there were 200 regular anatomy students in
London, while in 1823 their number was computed at about
1000. Of course the supply of murderers was not enough for
all these students, and the very fact that only murderers
were allowed for this purpose made people bitterly hostile to
the bodies of their relations and friends being dissected.
In accounting for the great aversion which there has always
been from dissection in England, it should be remembered
that, although capital punishment was the penalty for very
many offences at the beginning of the 19th century, only
the bodies of murderers were handed over to the anatomists.
When once the absolute necessity of a surgeon's having a
good knowledge of anatomy was realized, bodies had to be
procured at any hazard, and the chief method was to dig them
up as soon as possible after their burial. This practice
of exhumation or ``body-snatching'' on a large scale seems
to have been peculiar to Great Britain and America, and not
to have been needed on the continent of Europe. In France,
Italy, Portugal and Austria no popular objection was raised
to the bodies of friendless people, who died in hospitals,
or of those whose burial was paid for by the state, being
dissected, provided a proper religious service was held over
them. In Germany it was obligatory that the bodies of all
people unable to pay for their burials, all dying in prisons,
all suicides and public women should be given up. In all these
countries the supply was most ample, exhumation was unknown,
and the cost of learning anatomy to the students was very
moderate. In Great Britain the earlier exhumations seem
to have caused very little popular concern; Hunter, it is
said, could manage to get the body of any person he wanted,
were it that of giant, dwarf, hunchback or lord, but later,
when the number of students increased very rapidly, the
trade of ``resurrection man'' became commoner, and attracted
the lowest dregs of the vicious classes. It is computed
that in 1828 about 200 people were engaged in it in London
alone, though only a few gained their entire livelihood by
it. In the first half of the 18th century, and for some time
afterwards, the few dissections which were undertaken were
carried out in the private houses of medical men. In 1702 a
rule was passed at St Thomas's Hospital preventing the surgeons
or pupils from dissecting bodies there without the express
permission of the treasurer, but by 1780 this rule seems to
have lapsed, and a definite dissecting-room was established, an
example which was soon followed by Guy's and St Bartholomew's.
In the early years of the 19th century the number of
students increased so rapidly that a good many private
anatomy schools grew up, and in 1828 we find that the total
list of London dissecting rooms comprised those of Guy's,
London, St Bartholomew's and St Thomas's hospitals, the Webb
Street school of Mr Grainger, the Aldersgate school of Mr
Tyrrell, the Windmill Street school where Caesar Hawkins and
Herbert Mayo lectured, and the schools of Messrs. Bennett,
Carpue, Dermott and Sleigh. These schools needed and, it
seems, obtained nearly 800 bodies a year in the years about
1823, when there were nearly 1000 students in London, and it
is recorded that bodies were even sent to Edinburgh and Oxford.
When it is realized that the greater number of these were
exhumed, it is easy to understand how hostile the public
feeling became to the body-snatchers or ``resurrection men,''
and also in a modified form to the teachers of anatomy and
medical students. This was increased by the fact that it
soon became well known that many of the so-called resurrection
men only used their calling as a cloak for robbery, because,
if they were stopped with a horse and cart by the watch at
night, the presence of a body on the top of stolen goods was
sufficient to avert suspicion and search. It is in many places
suggested, though not definitely stated, that the Home Office
authorities understood how absolutely necessary it was that
medical students should learn the details of the human body,
on which they would be called to operate, and that the police
had instructions not to interfere more than was necessary with
the only method by which that education could be supplied,
however unlawful it might be. So emboldened and careless did
these body-snatchers become, and so great was the demand for
bodies, that they no longer confined themselves to pauper
graves, but took the remains of the wealthier classes, who
were in a position to resent it more effectually; often
they did not even take the trouble to fill in the graves
after rifling their contents, and, in consequence, many
sextons, who no doubt had been bribed, lost their posts, and
men armed with firearms watched the London burial-places at
night. The result of this was that the ``resurrection men''
had to go farther afield, and their occupation was attended
with considerable danger, so that the price of a body gradually
rose from L. 2 to about L. 14, which seems the maximum ever
paid. In addition to this heavy sum the anatomical teachers
had to pay the fines of the exhumers when they were caught,
or to support their families when they were imprisoned. By
1828 the annual supply of bodies had dropped to about 450,
and about 200 English students were forced each year to go
to Paris for their anatomical instruction. There they could
get a body for about seven francs and could also be taught by
English anatomists who settled in that city for the purpose.
As early as about 1810 an anatomical society was formed, to impress
on the government the necessity for an alteration in the law, and
among the members we find the names of John Abernethy, Charles
Bell, Everard Home, Benjamin Brodie, Astley Cooper and Henry
Cline. It was owing to the exertions of this body that in 1828
a select committee was appointed by the government to report
on the whole question, and to the minutes of evidence taken
before this body the reader is referred for further details.
The report of this committee led to the Anatomy Act of
1832, but there can be little doubt that its passage
through the House was expedited by the recent discovery
and arrest of the infamous William Burke and William Hare,
who, owing to the extreme difficulty of procuring subjects
for dissection in Edinburgh and the high price paid for
them, had made a practice of enticing men to their lodgings
and then drugging and suffocating them in order to sell
their bodies to Dr Knox. Hare turned king's evidence but
Burke was executed. (See MacGregor's History of Burke and
Hare, 1884, Lonsdale's Life and Writings of Robert Knox,
1870. Many further details connected with the condition of
anatomy, especially in Dublin, before the passing of the
Anatomy Act, will be found in Memoirs of James Macartney
by Professor A. Macalister, F.R.S.) The bill to legalize and
regulate the supply of subjects for dissection did not pass
without considerable opposition. In 1829 the College of
Surgeons petitioned against it, and it was withdrawn in the
House of Lords owing to the opposition of the archbishop of
Canterbury, but in 1832 a new Anatomy Bill was introduced,
which, though violently opposed by Messrs Hunt, Sadler
and Vyvyan, was supported by Macaulay and O'Connell, and
finally passed the House of Lords on the 19th of July 1832.
This is the act which governs the practice of anatomy in the
British Isles up to the present day, and which has only been
slightly modified as to the time during which bodies may be kept
unburied in the schools. It provides that any one intending
to practise anatomy must obtain a licence from the home
secretary. As a matter of fact only one or two teachers in
each institution take out this licence and are known as licensed
teachers, but they accept the whole responsibility for the
proper treatment of all bodies dissected in the building for
which their licence is granted. Watching over these licensed
teachers, and receiving constant reports from them, are
four inspectors of anatomy, one each for England, Scotland,
Ireland and London, who report to the home secretary and
know the whereabouts of every body which is being dissected.
The main clause of the act is the seventh, which says that
a person having lawful possession of a body may permit it to
undergo anatomical examination provided no relative objects;
the other clauses are subsidiary and detail the methods of
carrying this into effect. In clause 16, however, the old
act of Henry VIII. is repealed and the bodies of murderers
are no longer to be given up for dissection after execution.
There can be little doubt that this act has worked well
and with a minimum of friction; it at once did away with
body-snatching and crimes like those of Burke and Hare. No
licensed teacher now could or would receive a body without
a medical certificate and a warrant from the inspector of
anatomy, and, when the bodies are buried, a proper religious
service, according to the creed professed during life, is
provided. The great majority of bodies are those of
unclaimed poor in the workhouse infirmaries, but a few are
obtained each year from the general hospitals. Occasionally
a well-to-do person, following the example of Jeremy
Bentham, leaves his body for the advancement of science,
but even then, if his relatives object, it is not received.
The ample supply of subjects obtained by legitimate means
which the anatomy act provided was followed by the opening of
anatomical schools at all the great London hospitals and the
universities, with the result that anatomical research was
stimulated and text-books embodying the latest discoveries were
brought out. It is wonderful, however, how much descriptive
anatomy was taught in the days before text-books were common
and how much of what is essential to the study of surgery and
medicine the students knew. In looking through an old book of
anatomical questions and answers dated 1812, one is struck by
the fact that any one working through them with the body would
probably pass an average modern anatomical examination to-day.
The various phases which anatomy in the British Isles has
passed through have also been experienced in America, though
it is difficult to compare the two countries owing to the
fact that each state in the Union makes its own laws as to
dissection, and that these vary considerably. The first
anatomy act worthy of the name was that of Massachusetts, and
was passed in 1831, one year before the British act. There
is reason to believe, however, that, in some states, all the
evils of body-snatching existed up to the end of the 19th
century. In some more enlightened states, such as Pennsylvania
and Massachusetts, the modern acts are in advance of the
British in that they are mandatory instead of permissive,
and their compulsory nature is found rather to reduce than
to increase public opposition to dissection. A study of
the history of anatomy in the United States during the 19th
century furnishes an instructive lesson on the futility
of attempting to suppress dissection by legislation and on
the serious and sometimes terrible crimes to which any such
attempt naturally leads. It also teaches that, when unclaimed
bodies must be given up and must be treated reverently
and buried decently, there is less friction than when public
boards have the right of arbitrarily refusing to allow their
unclaimed dead to be used for the service of the living.
In all the important countries of Europe, with the exception
of Russia and Turkey, anatomy acts exist. They almost all
differ from the British act in being mandatory instead of
permissive; in other words, certain unclaimed bodies must be
given up to the schools of anatomy. As a rule these come from
the general hospitals, but sometimes, as in Germany, Austria
and Sweden, suicides are received and form a considerable
part of the whole number. Even where executed criminals are
available they nowadays form a negligible contribution, but
the unclaimed bodies of people dying in prison are provided
for in the French, Belgian, Norwegian, Swedish, German and
Italian regulations, and in Paris they form an important
element of the supply. In Russia several attempts to gain
an anatomy act have been made, but have always been opposed
by those in authority, and there is good reason to believe
that bodies are procured by bribing hospital and mortuary
attendants. It is said that the army contributes a large
percentage of the total number. In Turkey no facilities for
dissecting the dead body exist, as the practice is against
the Mahommedan religion; the German pathologists in Turkey,
however, insist on making post mortem examinations. In
the British colonies anatomical regulations vary a good deal;
sometimes, as in New South Wales, the act is founded on that of
Great Britain and is permissive, but in Victoria the minister
may authorize the medical officer of any public institution
supported wholly or in part by funds from the general revenue
to permit unclaimed bodies to be dissected, provided the
persons, during life had not expressed a wish against
it. This act in its working is equivalent to a mandatory
one, since the power of refusing bodies is not left in the
hands of, in this respect, uneducated poor law guardians.
In the early years of the 19th century Sir Charles Bell's work
on human anatomy is by far the most important in the British
Isles. He wrote the article on the nerves in his brother John
Bell's work on the anatomy of the human body, as well as his
own classical works on the anatomy of expression, the hand
and the arteries; but his chief work was the discovery of the
difference between motor and sensory nerves. Sir Astley Cooper
brought out his beautifully illustrated monograph on hernia in
1807. Besides these, the Edinburgh school had contributed
the systematic treatises of Andrew Fyfe, John Bell, the third
Monro and John Gordon. In 1828 appeared the first edition of
Quain's Anatomy, written by Jones Quain. This monumental
work, which is still among the very first of English text-books,
has run through ten editions, and is of even greater value
to the teacher and researcher than to the medical student,
because of its excellent bibliographies and the way in which
it has been kept abreast of modern morphological knowledge
by its various editors. Hardly any of the original work now
remains. In 1858 another famous text-book on systematic
anatomy appeared, written by Henry Gray, and this has
always been particularly popular with students both in
Great Britain and in America; it pays more attention to the
surgical applications of anatomy than to the scientific and
morphological side, and has reached its sixteenth edition.
The Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, edited by Dr Robert
Todd from 1835 to 1859, which contained articles on both human
and comparative anatomy, is now somewhat out of date, but
did much for the advancement of the science when it appeared.
In 1893 a text-book written by several authors and edited by
Henry Morris appeared. It has run through three editions and
is especially popular in America. The latest English systematic
work of first-rate importance is the splendid compilation
edited by D. J. Cunningham (1902) and written, with one or two
exceptions, by pupils of the veteran anatomist Sir William
Turner. It is dedicated to him and will long serve as a
memento of the work which he has done in training anatomists
for the whole of the British empire. Besides these systematic
treatises, many dissecting manuals have been published. The
earliest were the Dublin Dissector and the London Dissector;
others still in use are those of G. V. Ellis, C. Heath, D. J.
Cunningham, and J. Cleland and J. Mackay. In 1889 Professor
A. Macalister published a book on anatomy, which combined the
advantages of a text-book with those of a dissecting guide.
In America the English text-books are largely used in addition to that
edited by F. H. Gerrish. There is a special American edition of Gray.
Many systematic works on modern anatomy have come from
Germany. J. F. Meckel, J. C. Rosenmuller, C. F. Krause,
G. F. Hildebrandt, J. Hyrtl, H. Luschka and A. Meyer have
all published works which have made their mark, but by far
the most important, and, as some consider, still the best
of all anatomical text-books, is that of F. G. J. Henle,
professor of anatomy in Gottingen, which was comlpleted in
1873. The beautiful illustrations of frozen specimens of
the body brought out by W. Braune added a great deal to
the student's opportunities of learning the relations of
the various structures, and are largely used all over the
world. Rudinger's Anatomy also contains many plates showing
various sections, but the most complete text-book in the German
language is that by Prof. Karl von Bardeleben of Jena; this is
in eight volumes and contains notices of the latest literature
on descriptive and morphological anatomy by the most prominent
German anatomists. In addition to these W. Spalteholz and
C. Toldt have brought out valuable atlases. In France J.
Testut's and Poirier's anatomies, both of great excellence
and beautifully illustrated, are the ones in common use.
There are two epoch-making dates in the history of modern
English anatomy besides that of the passing of the Anatomy
Act in 1832. The first of these is 1867, when the first
volume of the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology appeared.
This afforded a medium for English anatomists to publish
their original work, besides containing valuable reviews
and notices of books and work published abroad; it has
appeared quarterly without a break since that time, and was
long under the immediate direction of Sir William Turner.
The second date is 1887, when the Anatomical Society
of Great Britain and Ireland was founded through the
exertions of Mr C. B. Lockwood. It meets three times a
year in London and once, in the summer, at some provincial
school. It numbers some one hundred and fifty members, and
enables anatomists from the whole British empire to meet one
another and discuss subjects of common interest. Its first
president was Prof. Murray Humphry of Cambridge, and its
official organ is the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.
No account of modern anatomical work would be complete without
drawing attention to the great mass of special periodical
literature containing the records of original work which are
being published. It is said that some three or four thousand
articles on anatomy appear in six hundred journals each
year. To mention a few of these, in addition to the British
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology there is an American
Journal of Anatomy, the French Bulletin et memoires de la
societe anatomique, and La journal de l'anatomie et de la
physiologie, and the German Internationale Monatschrift fur
Anatomie und Physiologie, Anatomischer Anzeiger, Waldeyer's
Archiv fur Anatomie und Physiologie, Schwalbe's Zeitschrift
fur Morphologie und Anthropologie, Gegenbaur's Morphologisches
Jahrbuch, edited by Ruge, and Merkel's Anatomische Hefte.
Unfortunately the outlook of anatomy in Great Britain is not
altogether satisfactory. The number of subjects for dissection
has since 1895 been steadily diminishing, especially in
London. This is due partly to the modern system of
insuring lives for small sums and so decreasing the number
of unclaimed bodies, and partly to the fact that, owing to
the permissive nature of the British Anatomy Act, several
boards of guardians will not allow even unclaimed bodies
to be used for dissection and for the teaching of operative
surgery. It is not popularly understood that a dearth of
bodies means not only a check to abstract science, but a serious
handicap to medical education, which must react more upon
the poor than upon the rich, since the latter can afford to
pay for the services of medical men educated abroad, where no
difficulties are placed in the way of their learning fully the
structure of the body they have to treat in disease. (F. G. P.)
SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC
The objects of the study of superficial anatomy are to
show, first, the form and proportions of the human body and,
second, the surface landmarks which correspond to deeper
structures hidden from view. This study blends imperceptibly
with others, such as physical anthropology, physiognomy,
phrenology and palmistry, but whereas these deal chiefly with
variations, superficial anatomy is concerned with the type.
With regard to the proportions of the body the artist and
anatomist approach the subject from a slightly different
point of view. The former, by a process of artistic
selection, seeks the ideal and adopts the proportions which
give the most pleasing effect, while the latter desires
to know only the mean of a large series of measurements.
The scheme which Dr Paul Richer suggests( Anatomie artistique,
Paris, 1890), and Professor Arthur Thomson approves (Anatomy
for Art Students, 1896), is to divide the whole body
into head-lengths, of which seven and a half make up the
stature. Four of these are above the fork and three and a
half below (see figs. 1 and 2). Of the four above, one forms
the head and face, the second reaches from the chin to the
level of the nipples, the third from the nipples to the navel,
and the fourth from there to the fork. By dividing these
into half-heads other points can be determined; for instance
the middle of the first head-length corresponds to the eyes,
the middle of the second to the shoulder, of the fourth to
the top of the hip-joint, and of the fifth to the knee-joint.
The elbow-joint, when the arms are by the side, is a little
above the lower limit of the third head-length, whilst the
wrist is opposite the very centre of the stature, three
head-lengths and three-quarters from the crown or the soles.
The tips of the fingers reach a little below the middle of the
fifth head-length. (In fig. 1 the fingers are bent.) By making
the stature eight head-lengths instead of seven and a half
the artistic effect is increased, as it is also by slightly
lengthening the legs in proportion to the body. Approximate
average breadth measurements are two heads for the greatest
width of the shoulders, one and a half for the greatest width
of the hips, one for the narrowest part of the waist, and
three-quarters for the breadth of the head on a level with the eyes.
The relation of superficial landmarks to deep structures cannot
be treated here in full detail, but the chief points may be
indicated. Certain parts of the head may easily be felt through
the skin. If the finger is run along the upper margin of the
orbit, the notch for the supraorbital nerve may usually be
felt at the junction of the inner and middle thirds. At the
outer end of the margin is its junction with the malar bone,
and this easily felt point is known as the external angular
process. The junction of the frontal and nasal bones at the
root of the nose is the nasion, while at the back of the skull
the external occipital protuberance or inion is felt and marks
the position of the torcular Herophili, where the venous sinuses
meet. The zygoma may be felt running back from the malar bone
to just in front of the ear, and two fingers' breadth above
the middle of it marks the pterion, a very important point in
the localization of intracranial structures. It corresponds
to the anterior branch of the middle meningeal artery, to the
Sylvian point where the three limbs of the fissure of Sylvius
diverge, to the middle cerebral artery, the central lobe of the
brain or island of Reil, and the anterior part of the corpus
striatum. The fissure of Sylvius can be marked out by drawing
a line from the external angular process back through the
Sylvian point to the lower part of the parietal eminence.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
a, Serratus magnus. b, Dimple over posterior superior
b, Deltoid. spine of ilium.
g, Biceps. g, Lower angle of scapula.
d, Poupart's ligament. d, External head of triceps.
e, Patella. e, Depression over the great
T.P. Transpyloric plane. trochanter.
S.C. Subcostal plane. z, Popliteal space.
I.T. Intertubercular plane. e, Gastrocnemius.
The scale between the figures represents head-lengths.
The position of the sulcus of Rolando is important because
of the numerous cortical centres which lie close to it.
For practical purposes it may be mapped out by taking the
superior Rolandic point, 1/2 in. behind the bisection of a
line drawn from the nasion to the inion over the vault of the
skull, and joining that to the inferior Rolandic point, which
is just above the line of the fissure of Sylvius and 1 in.
behind the Sylvian point. The external parieto-occipital
fissure, which forms the boundary between the parietal and
occipital lobes of the brain, is situated practically at
the lambda, which is a hand's breadth (2 3/4 in.) above the
inion. The lateral sinus can be mapped out by joining the
inion to the asterion, a point two-thirds of the distance from
the lambda to the tip of the mastoid process; thence the sinus
curves downward and forward toward the tip of the mastoid
process. A point 1 in. horizontally backward from the
top of the external auditory meatus will always strike it.
Cranio-cerebral topography has been dealt with by Broca,
Bischoff, Turner, Fere, Pozzi, Giacomini, Ecker, Hefftler and
Hare. Among the more recent papers are those of R. W.
Reid (Lancet, 27th September 1884), W. Anderson and G.
Makins (Lancet, 13th July 1889), Prof. Chiene (detailed
in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy), V. Horsley (Am.
Journal Med. Sci., 1887), G. Thane and R. Godlee (Quain's
Anatomy--appendix to 10th edition). D. J. Cunningham
discusses the whole question in his ``Contribution to the
Surface Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres'' (Cunningham
Memoirs, No. vii. R. Irish Academy, Dublin, 1892),
and he has prepared a series of casts to illustrate it.
The Face.--On the front of the face a line drawn down from
the supraorbital notch between the bicuspid teeth to the
side of the chin will cut the exit of the second division
of the fifth nerve from the infraorbital foramen, a quarter
of an inch below the infraorbital margin, and also the exit
of the third division of the fifth at the mental foramen,
midway between the upper and lower margins of the body of the
jaw. In practice it will be found that the angle of the
mouth at rest usually corresponds to the interval between
the bicuspid teeth. The skin of the eyelids is very thin,
and is separated from the subjacent fibrous tarsal plates
by the orbicularis palpebrarum muscle. On everting the lids
the delicate conjunctival membrane is seen, and between this
and the tarsal plates lie the meibomian glands, which can
be faintly seen as yellowish streaks. From the free edges
of the eyelids come the eyelashes, between which many large
sweat- glands open, and when one of these is inflamed it
causes a ``stye.'' Internally the two eyelids form a little
recess called the internal canthus, occupied by a small
red eminence, the caruncula lachrymalis, just external to
which a small vertical fold of conjunctiva may often be
seen, called the plica semilunaris, representing the third
eyelid of birds and many mammals. By gently drawing down
the lower eyelid the lower punctum may be seen close to the
caruncula; it is the pinhole opening into the lower of the two
canaliculi which carry away the tears to the lachrymal sac and
duct. On the side of the face the facial artery may be felt
pulsating about an inch in front of the angle of the jaw;
it runs a tortuous course to near the angle of the mouth,
the angle of the nose and the inner angle of the eye; in the
greater part of its course its vein lies some distance behind
it. The parotid gland lies between the ramus of the jaw
and the mastoid process; anteriorly it overlaps the masseter
to form the socia parotidis, and just below this its duct,
the duct of Stensen, runs forward to pierce the buccinator
and open into the mouth opposite the second upper molar
tooth. The line of this duct may be marked out by joining
the lower margin of the tragus to a point midway between
the lower limit of the nose and the mouth. The facial or
seventh nerve emerges from the skull at the stylomastoid
foramen just in front of the root of the mastoid process;
in the parotid gland it forms a network called the pes
anserinus, after which it divides into six branches which
radiate over the face to supply the muscles of expression.
The Neck.--In the middle line below the chin can be felt the
body of the hyoid bone, just below which is the prominence of
the thyroid cartilage called ``Adam's apple,'' better marked
in men than in women. Still lower the cricoid cartilage is
easily felt, while between this and the suprasternal notch
the trachea and isthmus of the thyroid gland may be made
out. At the side the outline of the sterno-mastoid muscle
is the most striking mark; it divides the anterior triangle
of the neck from the posterior. The upper part of the former
contains the submaxillary gland, which lies just below the
posterior half of the body of the jaw. The line of the
common and the external carotid arteries may be marked by
joining the sterno-clavicular articulation to the angle of the
jaw. The eleventh or spinal accessory nerve corresponds
to a line drawn from a point midway between the angle
of the jaw and the mastoid process to the middle of the
posterior border of the sterno-mastoid muscle and thence
across the posterior triangle to the deep surface of the
trapezius. The external jugular vein can usually be seen
through the skin; it runs in a line drawn from the angle of
the jaw to the middle of the clavicle, and close to it are
some small lymphatic glands. The anterior jugular vein is
smaller, and runs down about half an inch from the middle
line of the neck. The clavicle or collar-bone forms the
lower limit of the neck, and laterally the outward slope of
the neck to the shoulder is caused by the trapezius muscle.
The Chest.--It is important to realize that the shape of
the chest does not correspond to that of the bony thorax
which encloses the heart and lungs; all the breadth of the
shoulders is due to the shoulder girdle, and contains the
axilla and the head of the humerus. In the middle line the
suprasternal notch is seen above, while about three fingers'
breadth below it a transverse ridge can be felt, which is
known as Ludovic's angle and marks the junction between the
manubrium and gladiolus of the sternum. Level with this line
the second ribs join the sternum, and when these are found
the lower ribs may be easily counted in a moderately thin
subject. At the lower part of the sternum, where the seventh
or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage begins,
and over this there is often a depression popularly known as
the pit of the stomach. The nipple in the male is situated
in front of the fourth rib or a little below; vertically it
lies a little external to a line drawn down from the middle of
the clavicle; in the female it is not so constant. A little
below it the lower limit of the great pectoral muscle is seen
running upward and outward to the axilla; in the female this
is obscured by the breast, which extends from the second to
the sixth rib vertically and from the edge of the sternum
to the mid-axillary line laterally. The female nipple is
surrounded for half an inch by a more or less pigmented disc,
the areola. The apex of a normal heart is in the fifth left
intercostal space, three and a half inches from the mid-line.
The Abdomen.--In the mid-line a slight furrow extends
from the ensiform cartilage above to the symphysis pubis
below; this marks the linea alba in the abdominal wall, and
about its middle point is the umbilicus or navel. On each
side of it the broad recti muscles can be seen in muscular
people. The outline of these muscles is interrupted by
three or more transverse depressions indicating the lineae
transversae in the recti; there is usually one about the
ensiform cartilage, one at the umbilicus, and one between;
sometimes a fourth is present below the umbilicus. The upper
lateral limit of the abdomen is the subcostal margin formed
by the cartilages of the false ribs (8, 9, 10) joining one
another; the lower lateral limit is the anterior part of the
crest of the ilium and Poupart's ligament running from the
anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the pubis
(see fig. 1, d); these lower limits are marked by definite
grooves. Just above the pubic spine is the external abdominal
ring, an opening in the muscular wall of the abdomen for
the spermatic cord to emerge in the male. The most modern
method of marking out the abdominal contents is to draw
three horizontal and two vertical lines; the highest of the
former is the transpyloric line of C. Addison (fig. 1, T.P.
), which is situated half-way between the suprasternal
notch and the top of the symphysis pubis; it often cuts the
pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the right of the
mid-line. The hilum of each kidney is a little below it,
while its left end approximately touches the lower limit
of the spleen. It corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra
behind. The second line is the subcostal (fig. 1, S.C.),
drawn from the lowest point of the subcostal arch (tenth
rib); it corresponds to the upper part of the third lumbar
vertebra, and is an inch or so above the umbilicus; it indicates
roughly the transverse colon, the lower ends of the kidneys,
and the upper limit of the transverse (3rd) part of the
duodenum. The third line is called the intertubercular
(fig. 1, I.T.), and runs across between the two rough
tubercles, which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest
of the ilium about two and a half inches from the anterior
superior spine. This line corresponds to the body of the
fifth lumbar vertebra, and passes through or just above
the ileo-caecal valve where the small intestine joins the
large. The two vertical or mid-Poupart lines are drawn from
the point midway between the anterior superior spine and the
pubic symphysis on each side vertically upward to the costal
margin. The right one is the most valuable, as the ileo-caecal
valve is situated where it cuts the intertubercular line,
while the orifice of the vermiform appendix is an inch lower
down. At its upper part it meets the transpyloric line at
the lower margin of the ribs, usually the ninth, and here
the gallbladder is situated. The left mid-Poupart line
corresponds in its upper three-quarters to the inner edge of
the descending colon. The right subcostal margin corresponds
to the lower limit of the liver, while the right nipple is
about half an inch above the upper limit of this viscus.
The Back.--There is a well-marked furrow stretching all
the way down the middle line of the back from the external
occipital protuberance to the cleft of the buttocks. In this
the spinous processes of the vertebrae can be felt, especially
if the model bend forward. The cervical spines are difficult to
feel, except the seventh and sometimes the second, and although
the former is called the vertebra prominens, its spine is less
easily felt than is that of the first thoracic. In practice
it is not very easy to identify any one spine with certainty:
one method is to start from the prominent first thoracic and
to count down; another is to join the lower angles of the two
scapulae (fig. 2, g) when the arms are hanging down, and to
take the spine through which the line passes as the seventh.
The spinal furrow is caused by the prominence of the erector
spinae muscles on each side; these become less well marked
as they run upward. The outlines of the scapulae can be
well seen; they cover the ribs from the second to the seventh
inclusive. The scapular spine is quite subcutaneous, and can
be followed upward and outward from the level of the third
thoracic spine to the acromion, and so to the outer end of the
clavicle. On the lower margin of the acromion is a little
tubercle known as the metacromial process or acromial angle,
which is very useful for taking measurements from. The
tip of the twelfth rib may usually be felt about two inches
above the middle of the iliac crest, but this rib is very
variable in length. The highest point of the iliac crest
corresponds to the fourth lumbar spine, while the posterior
superior iliac spine is on a level with the second sacral
vertebra. This posterior superior spine is not easily felt,
owing to the ligaments attached to it, but there is usually a
little dimple in the skin over it (fig. 2, b) . By drawing
horizontal lines through the 1st, 3rd and 5th lumbar spines, the
transpyloric, subcostal and intertubercular lines or planes
may be reproduced behind and the same viscera localized.
The Arm.--Running downward and outward from the inner
half of the clavicle, where that bone is convex forward, is
the clavicular part of the pectoralis major, while from the
outer third of the bone, where it is concave forward, is the
clavicular part of the deltoid; between these two muscles is
an elongated triangular gap with its base at the clavicle,
and here the skin is somewhat depressed, while the cephalic
vein sinks between the two muscles to join the axillary
vein. The tip of the coracoid process is situated just under
cover of the inner edge of the deltoid, one inch below the
junction between the outer and middle thirds of the clavicle.
The deltoid muscle (fig. 1, b) forms the prominence of the
shoulder, and its convex outline is due to the presence of
the head of the humerus deep to it; when this is dislocated
the shoulder becomes flattened. The pectoralis major forms
the anterior fold of the axilla or armpit, the posterior being
formed by the latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles. The
skin of the . floor of this space is covered with hair in the
adult, and contains many large sweat glands. The axillary
vessels and brachial plexus of nerves lie in the outer wall,
while on the inner wall are the serrations of the serratus
magnus muscle, the outlines of some of which are seen on the
side of the thorax, through the skin, when the arm is raised
(fig. 1, a) . Below the edge of the pectoralis major, the
swelling of the biceps (fig. 1, g) begins to be visible,
and this can easily be traced into its tendon of insertion,
which reaches below the level of the elbow joint. On each side
of the biceps is the external and internal bicipital furrow,
in the latter of which the brachial artery may be felt and
compressed. The median nerve is here in close relation to the
artery. At the bend of the elbow the two condyles of the
humerus may be felt; the inner one projects beneath the
skin, but the outer one is obscured by the rounded outline
of the brachio-radialis muscle. The superficial veins at
the bend of the elbow are very conspicuous; they vary a good
deal, but the typical arrangement is an M, of which the radial
and ulnar veins form the uprights, while the outer oblique
bar is the median cephalic and the inner oblique the median
basilic vein. At the divergence of these two the median
vein comes up from the front of the forearm, while the two
vertical limbs are continued up the arm as the cephalic and
basilic, the former on the outer side, the latter on the
inner. On the back of the arm the three heads of the triceps
are distinguishable, the external forming a marked oblique
swelling when the forearm is forcibly extended and internally
rotated (fig. 2, d.) In the upper part of the front of
the forearm the antecubital fossa or triangle is seen;
its outer boundary is the brachio-radialis, its inner the
pronator radii teres, and where these two join below is the
apex. In this space are three vertical structures--externally
the tendon of the biceps, just internal to this the
brachial artery, and still more internally the median
nerve. Coming from the inner side of the biceps tendon the
semi-lunar fascia may be felt; it passes deep to the median
basilic vein and superficial to the brachial artery, and
in former days was a valuable protection to the artery when
unskilful operators were bleeding from the median basilic
vein. About the middle of the forearm the fleshy parts of
the superficial flexor muscles cease, and only the tendons
remain, so that the limb narrows rapidly. In front of the
wrist there is a superficial plexus of veins, while deep to
this two tendons can usually be made to start up if the wrist
be forcibly flexed; the outer of these is the flexor carpi
radialis, which is the physician's guide to the radial artery
where the pulse is felt. If the finger is slipped to the
outer side of this tendon, the artery, which here is very
superficial, can be felt beating. The inner of the two tendons
is the palmaris longus, though it is not always present. On
cutting down between these two the median nerve is reached.
The wrist joint may be marked out by feeling the styloid process
of the radius on the outer side, and the styloid process of the
ulna on the inner side behind, and joining these two by a line
convex upward. The superficial appearance of the palm of the
hand is described in the article on PALMISTRY; with regard
to anatomical landmarks the superficial palmar arterial arch
is situated in the line of the abducted thumb, while the deep
arch is an inch nearer the wrist. The digital nerves correspond
to lines drawn from the clefts of the fingers toward the
wrist. On the back of the forearm the olecranon process of
the ulna is quite subcutaneous, and during extension of the
elbow is in a line with the two condyles, while between it and
the inner condyle lies the ulnar nerve, here known popularly
as the ``funny bone.'' From the olecranon process the finger
may be run down the posterior border of the ulna, which
is subcutaneous as far as the styloid process at the lower
end. On the dorsum of the hand is a plexus of veins, deep
to which the extensor tendons are seen on extending the
fingers. When the thumb is extended, two tendons stand out
very prominently, and enclose a triangular space between them
which is sometimes known as the ``anatomical snuff box'';
the outer of these is the tendon of the extensor brevis,
the inner of the extensor longus pollicis. Situated deeply
in the space is the radial artery, covered by the radial
vein. On the dorsum of the hand there is a plexus of
veins, and deep to these the tendons of the extensor longus
digitorum stand out when the wrist and fingers are extended.
The Leg.--Just below Poupart's ligament (fig. 1, d), a
triangular depression with its apex downward may be seen in
muscular subjects; it corresponds to Scarpa's triangle, and
its inner border is the tendon of the adductor longus, which
is easily felt if the model forcibly adducts the thigh. In
this triangle the superficial inguinal glands may be made out.
The head of the femur lies just below the centre of Poupart's
ligament. The sartorius muscle forms the outer boundary of
the triangle, and may be traced from the anterior superior
spine obliquely downward and inward, across the front of the
thigh, to the inner side of the knee. The two vasti muscles
are well marked, the internal being the lower and forming with
the sartorius the rounded bulging above the inner side of the
knee. The internal saphenous vein runs superficially up the
inner side of the thigh from behind the internal condyle to
the femur to the saphenous opening in the deep fascia, the top
of which is an inch horizontally outward from the spine of the
pubis. On the other side of the thigh a groove runs down
which corresponds to the ilio-tibial hand, a thickening of
the fascia lata or deep fascia; the lower end of this leads to
the head of the fibula. On the front of the thigh, below the
sartorius, the rectus muscle makes a prominence which leads
down to the patella, the outlines of which bone are very
evident (fig. 1, e.) The only part of the femur besides
the great trochanter which is superficial is the lower end,
and this forms the two condyles for articulation with the
tibia. If the posterior part of the inner condyle be joined
to the mid-point between the anterior superior spine and the
symphysis pubis, when the thigh is externally rotated, the
line will correspond in its upper two-thirds to that of the
common and superficial femoral arteries, the former occupying
the upper inch and a half. The common femoral vein lies just
internal to its artery, while the anterior crural nerve is a
quarter of an inch external to the latter. The rounded mass
of the buttock is formed by the gluteus maximus muscle covered
by fat; the lower horizontal boundary is called the fold of the
nates, and does not correspond exactly to the lower edge of the
muscle. At the side of the buttock is a depression (fig. 2,
e) where the great trochanter of the femur can be felt; a
line, named after Nelaton, drawn from the anterior superior
spine to the tuberosity of the ischium, passes through the top of
this. On the back of the thigh the hamstrings form a distinct
swelling; below the middle these separate to enclose the
diamond-shaped popliteal space (fig. 2, z), the outer hamstrings
or biceps being specially evident, while, on the inner side,
the tendons of the semi-tendinosus and semi-membranosus can be
distinguished. The external popliteal nerve may be felt
just behind the biceps tendon above the head of the fibula.
On the front of the leg, below the knee, the ligamentum
patellae is evident, leading down from the patella (fig. 1,
e) to the tubercle of the tibia. From this point downward
the anterior border of the tibia or shin is subcutaneous, as is
also the internal surface of the tibia. Internal to the skin
is the fleshy mass made by the tibialis anticus and extensor
longus digitorum muscles. At the inner side of the ankle the
internal malleolus is subcutaneous, while on the outer side
the tip of the external malleolus is rather lower and farther
back. Both this malleolus and the lower quarter of the shaft
of the fibula are subcutaneous, and this area, if traced upward,
is continuous with a furrow on the outer side of the leg which
separates the anterior tibial from the peroneal groups of
muscles, and eventually leads to the subcutaneous head of the
fibula. At the back of the leg the two heads of the gastrocnemius
form the calf, the inner one (fig. 2, e) being larger than the
outer. Between the two, in the mid-line of the calf, the
external saphenous vein and nerve lie, while lower down they
pass behind the external malleolus to the outer side of the
foot. The internal saphenous vein and nerve lie just behind
the internal border of the tibia, and below pass in front
of the internal malleolus. At the level of the ankle-joint
the tibialis posticus and flexor longus digitorum tendons
lie just behind the internal malleolus, while the peroneus
longus and brevis are behind the external. Running down to
the heel is the tendo Achillis with the plantaris on its inner
side. On the dorsum of the foot the musculo-cutaneous nerve
may be seen through the skin in thin people when the toes are
depressed; it runs from the anterior peroneal furrow, already
described, to all the toes, except the cleft between the
two inner ones. There is also a venous arch to be seen, the
two extremities of which pass respectively into the external
and internal saphenous veins. The long axis of the great
toe, even in races unaccustomed to boots, runs forward and
outward, away from the mid-line between the two feet, so
that perfectly straight inner sides to boots are not really
anatomical. The second toe in classical statues is often
longer than the first, but this is seldom seen in Englishmen.
On the outer side of the sole the skin is often in contact
with the ground all along, but on the inner side the arch
is more marked, and, except in flat-footed people, there is
an area in which the sole does not touch the ground at all.
For further details of surface anatomy see Anatomy for Art
Students, by A. Thomson (Oxford, 1896); Harold Stiles's
article in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy (Young J.
Pentland, 1902); G. Thane and R. Godlee's Appendix to
Quain's Anatomy (Longmans, Green & Co., 1896); Surface
Anatomy, by B. Windle and Manners Smith (H. K. Lewis, 1896);
Landmarks and Surface Markings of the Human Body, by
L. B. Rawling (H. K. Lewis, 1906); Surface Anatomy, by
T. G. Moorhead (Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, 1903). No one
interesred in the subject should omit to read an article
on ``Art in its relation to Anatomy,'' by W. Anderson,
British Medical Journal, 10th August 1895. (F. G. P.)
1 The article in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia,
dealing with the history of anatomy, and written by the late
Dr Craigie of Edinburgh, has gained such a just reputation
as the classical work on the subject in the English language
that it is substantially reproduced. Here and there points
of special or biographical interest are drawn attention to
in the shape of footnotes, but any reader interested in the
subject would do well to consult, with this article, the work
of R. R. von Toply, Studien zur Geschichte der Anatomie im
Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1898). In addition to this Professor
A. Macalister has published a series of articles, under
the head of ``Archaeologia Anatomica,'' in the Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology. These are written from a structural
rather than a biblioraphical point of view, and will be found
under the following headings: ``Atlas and Epistropheus,''
J. Anat. vol. xxxiii. p. 204; ``Veins of Forearm,'' vol.
xxxiii. p. 343; ``Poupart's Ligament,'' vol. xxxiii. p.
493; ``Tendo-Achillis,'' vol. xxxiii. p. 676; ``Parotid,''
vol. xxxv. p. 117; ``Trochanter,'' vol. xxxv. p. 269.
2The oldest anatomical treatise extant is an Egyptian papyrus
probably written sixteen centuries before our era. It shows
that the heart, vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, ureters and
bladder were recognized, and that the blood-vessels were known
to come from the heart. Other vessels are described, some
carrying air, some mucus, while two to the right ear are said to
carry the breath of life, and two to the left ear the breath of
death. See A. Macalister, ``Archaeologia Anatomica,'' J. Anat.
and Phys. vol. xxxii. p. 775. But see also the article OMEN.
3 An interesting article on the character and work of the
Maidstone surgeon, John Halle, by E. Barclay Smith, will
be found in the J. Anat. and Phys. vol. xxxiv. p. 275.
4 It has been pointed out by Dr J. F. Payne that Vicary's
work is merely an abridged copy of an unpublished English
anatomical treatise of the 14th century. The name of the
author is unknown, but internal evidence shows that he was
a London surgeon. The manuscript was written in English in
1392. See British Medical Journal, January 25, 1896.
5 The passage of Servetus is so interesting that our readers
may feel some curiosity in perusing it in the language of
the author; and it is not unimportant to remark that Servetus
appears to have been led to think of the course of the blood
by the desire of explaining the manner in which the animal
spirits were supposed to be generated:-- ``Vitalis spiritus
in sinistro cordis ventriculo suam originem habet, juvantibus
maxime pulmonibus ad ipsius perfectionem. Est spiritus tenuis,
caloris vi elaboratus, flavo colore, ignea potentia, ut sit quasi
ex puriore sanguine lucens, vapor substantiam continens aquae,
aeris, et ignis. Generatur ex facta in pulmone commixtione
inspirati aeris cum elaborato subtili sanguine, quem dexter
ventriculus sinistro communicat. Fit autem communicatio
haec, non per parietem cordis medium, ut vulgo creditur, sed
magno artificio a dextro cordis ventrioulo, longo per pulmones
ductu agitatur sanguis subtilis; a pulmonibus praeparatur,
flavus efficitur, et a vena arteriosa in arteriam venosam
transfunditur. Deinde in ipsa arteria venosa, inspirato aeri
miscetur et exspiratione a fuligine expurgatur; aique ita
tandem a sinistro cordis ventriculo totum mixtum per diastolen
attrahitur, apta supellex, ut fiat spiritus vitalis. Quod ita
per pulmones fiat communicatio et praeparatio, docet conjunctio
varia, et communicatio venae arteriosae cum arteria venosa in
pulmonibus. Confirmat hoc magnitudo insignis venae arteriosae,
quae nec talis nec tanta esset facta, nec tantam a corde ipso
vim purissimi sanguinis in pulmones emitteret, ob solum eorum
nutrimentum; nec cor pulmonibus hac ratione serviret, cum
praesertim antea in embryone solerent pulmones ipsi aliunde
nutriri, ob membranulas illas seu valvulas cordis, usque ad
horum nativitatem; ut docet Galenus, &c. Itaque ille spiritus
a sinistro cordis ventriculo arterias totius corporis deinde
transfunditur, ita ut qui tenuior est, superiora petit, ubi
magis elaboratur, praecipue in plexu retiformi, sub basi
cerebri sito, ubi ex vitali fieri incipit animalis, ad propriam
rationalis animae rationem accedens.''-- De Trinitate, lib. v.
6 Highmore was a physician practising at Sherborne all his life (1613-1685).
7 Glisson was for forty years professor of physic at Cambridge.
8 Wharton was a graduate both of Oxford and
Cambridge, and physician to St Thomas's Hospital.
9 Willis was Sedleian professor of natural philosophy
in Oxford in 1660. Later he practised in London.
10 Tyson was a graduate both of Oxford and Cambridge.
He was reader of anatomy at Surgeons' Hall, London.
11 Collins was an M. D. of Padua, Oxford and
Cambridge. He was physician in ordinary to Charles II.
12 Havers was a London physician, and died in 1702.
13 Robert Nesbitt (d. 1761) studied at
Leiden and practised as a physician in London.
14 Humphrey Ridley (1653-1708) was a London physician who studied at Leiden.
15 Bidloo was a Dutch anatomist and Cowper a London surgeon.
16 Hewson was a partner with William Hunter
in the Windmill Street School of Anatomy.
17 Cruikshank followed W. Hunter as lecturer at the Windmill Street school.
18 Scarpa was professor of anatomy at Modena and Pavia.
ANATTO (possibly a native American name, with many
variants such as annatto, arnotto), a colouring matter
produced from the seeds of Bixa orellana (natural order
Flacourtiaceae), a small tree which grows in Central and
South America. The seeds are surrounded with a thin coating
of a waxy pulp, which is separated from them by washing in
water, passing the liquid through a sieve and allowing the
suspended pulp to deposit. The water is then drained away
and the paste dried, till it is a thick, stiff, unctuous
mass. In this state it has a dark orange-red colour and is
known as ``roll'' or ``flag'' arnotto, according to the form
in which it is put up, but when further dried it is called
``cake'' arnotto. Arnotto is much used by South American
Indians for painting their bodies; among civilized communities
its principal use is for colouring butter, cheese and
varnishes. It yields a fugitive bright orange colour, and
is to some extent used alone, or in conjunction with other
dyes, in the dyeing of silks and in calico printing. It
contains a yellow colouring matter, bixin, C16H26O2.
ANAXAGORAS, Greek philosopher, was born probably about
the year 500 B.C. (Apollodorus ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 7.)
At his native town of Clazomenae in Asia Minor, he had, it
appears, some amount of property and prospects of political
influence, both of which he surrendered, from a fear that
they would hinder his search after knowledge. Nothing is
known of his teachers; there is no reason for the theory
that he studied under Hermotimus of Clazomenae, the ancient
miracle-worker. In early manhood (c. 464-462 B.C.) he
went to Athens, which was rapidly becoming the headquarters of
Greek culture. There he is said to have remained for thirty
years. Pericles learned to love and admire him and the poet
Euripides derived from him an enthusiasm for science and
humanity. Some authorities assert that even Socrates was
among his disciples. His influence was due partly to his
astronomical and mathematical eminence, but still more to the
ascetic dignity of his nature and his superiority to ordinary
weaknesses--traits which legend has embalmed. It was he
who brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry
from Ionia to Athens. His observations of the celestial
bodies led him to form new theories of the universal order,
and brought him into collision with the popular faith. He
attempted, not without success, to give a scientific account of
eclipses, meteors, rainbows and the sun, which he described
as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnesus;
the heavenly bodies were masses of stone torn from the earth
and ignited by rapid rotation. The ignorant polytheism of
the time could not tolerate such explanation, and the enemies
of Pericles used the superstitions of their countrymen
as a means of attacking him in the person of his friend.
Anaxagoras was arrested on a charge of contravening the
established dogmas of religion (some say the charge was one
of Medism), and it required all the eloquence of Pericles
to secure his acquittal. Even so he was forced to retire
from Athens to Lampsacus (434-433 B.C. ), where he died
about 428 B.C., honoured and respected by the whole city.
It is difficult to present the cosmical theory of Anaxagoras
in an intelligible scheme. All things have existed in
a sort of way from the beginning. But originally they
existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves,
endless in number and inextricably combined throughout the
universe. All things existed in this mass, but in a confused
and indistinguishable form. There were the seeds (spermata)
or miniatures of corn and flesh and gold in the primitive
mixture; but these parts, of like nature with their wholes
(the omoiomere of Aristotle), had to be eliminated from
the complex mass before they could receive a definite name and
character. The existing species of things having thus been
transferred, with all their specialities, to the prehistoric
stage, they were multiplied endlessly in number, by reducing
their size through continued subdivision; at the same time
each one thing is so indissolubly connected with every
other that the keenest analysis can never completely sever
them. The work of arrangement, the segregation of like
from unlike and the summation of the omoiomere into
totals of the same name, was the work of Mind or Reason;
panta chremata en omou . eita nous elthon auta
diekosmese. This peculiar thing, called Mind (nous),
was no less illimitable than the chaotic mass, but, unlike
the Intelligence of Heraclitus (q.v.), it stood pure and
independent (mounos ef eoutou), a thing of finer
texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the
same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and
power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life.
Its first appearance, and the only manifestation of it which
Anaxagoras describes, is Motion. It originated a rotatory
movement in the mass (a movement far exceeding the most rapid
in the world as we know it), which, arising in one corner or
point, gradually extended till it gave distinctness and reality
to the aggregates of like parts. But even after it has done
its best, the original intermixture of things is not wholly
overcome. No one thing in the world is ever abruptly
separated, as by the blow of an axe, from the rest of things.
The name given to it signifies merely that in that congeries
of fragments the particular ``seed'' is preponderant. Every
a of this present universe is only a by a majority, and
is also in lesser number b, c, d. It is noteworthy that
Aristotle accuses Anaxagoras of failing to differentiate
between nous and psuche, while Socrates (Plato, Phaedo,
98 B) objects that his nous is merely a deus ex machina
to Which he refuses to attribute design and knowledge.
Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the stages in
the process from original chaos to present arrangements.
The division into cold mist and warm ether first broke the
spell of confusion. With increasing cold, the former gave
rise to water, earth and stones. The seeds of life which
continued floating in the air were carried down with the
rains and produced vegetation. Animals, including man,
sprang from the warm and moist clay. If these things be
so, then the evidence of the senses must be held in slight
esteem. We seem to see things coming into being and passing
from it; but reflection tells us that decease and growth
only mean a new aggregation (sugkrisis) and disruption
(diakrisis.) Thus Anaxagoras distrusted the senses, and
gave the preference to the conclusions of reflection. Thus he
maintained that there must be blackness as well as whiteness
in snow; how otherwise could it be turned into dark water?
Anaxagoras marks a turning-point in the history of philosophy.
With him speculation passed from the colonies of Greece to
settle at Athens. By the theory of minute constituents of
things, and his emphasis on mechanical processes in the
formation of order, he paved the way for the atomic theory.
By his enunciation of the order that comes from reason, on
the other hand, he suggested, though he seems not to have
stated explicitly, the theory that nature is the work of
design. The conception of reason in the world passed
from him to Aristotle, to whom it seemed the dawn of sober
thought after a night of disordered dreams. From Aristotle
it descended to his commentators, and under the influence
of Averroes became the engrossing topic of speculation.
AUTHORITIES.--The fragments of Anaxagoras have been collected
by E. Schaubach (Leipzig, 1827), and W. Schorn (Bonn, 1829);
see also F. W. A. Mullach, Fragmenta Philos. Graec. i.
243-252; A. Fairbanks, The First Philosophers of Greece
(1898). For criticism see, T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng.
trans., L. Magnus, 1901), bk. ii. chap. 4; E. Bersot, De
controversis quibusdam Anaxagorae doctrinis (Paris, 1844); E.
Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen (Eng. trans., S. F.
Alleyne, 2 vols., London, 1881); J. M. Robertson, Short
History of Freethought (London, 1906); W. Windelband,
History of Philosophy (Eng. trans., J. H. Tufts, 1893);
J. I. Beare, Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition
(1906); L. Parmentier, Euripide et Anaxagore (1892); F.
Lortzing, ``Bericht uber die griechischen Philosophen
vor Sokrates'' (for the years 1876-1897) in Bursian's
Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft, cxvi. (1904), with references
to important articles in periodicals. (W. W.; J. M. M.)
ANAXARCHUS (c. 340 B.C. a Greek philosopher of the
school of Democritus, was born at Abdera. He was the
companion and friend of Alexander in his Asiatic campaigns.
He checked the vainglory of Alexander, when he aspired to
the honours of divinity, by pointing to his wounded finger,
saying, ``See the blood of a mortal, not of a god.'' The story
that at Bactra in 327 B.C. in a public speech he advised
all to worship Alexander as a god even during his lifetime,
is with greater probability attributed to the Sicilian
Cleon. It is said that Nicocreon, tyrant of Cyprus, commanded
him to be pounded to death in a mortar, and that he endured
this torture with fortitude; but the story is doubtful,
having no earlier authority than Cicero. His philosophical
doctrines are not known, though some have inferred from the
epithet eudaimonikos (``fortunate''), usually applied
to him, that he held the end of life to be eudaimonia.
ANAXILAUS, of Larissa, a physician and Pythagorean philosopher,
who was banished from Rome by Augustus, B.C. 28, on the charge
of practising the magic art. This accusation appears to have
originated in his superior skill in natural philosophy, by
which he produced effects that the ignorant attributed to magic.
Euseb., Chron. ad Olymp. clxxxviii.; St Iren. i. 13;
Pliny xix. 4, xxv. 95, xxviii. 49, xxxii. 52, xxxv. 50.
ANAXIMANDER, the second of the physical philosophers of
Ionia, was a citizen of Miletus and a companion or pupil of
Thales. Little is known of his life. Aelian makes him the
leader of the Milesian colony to Amphipolis, and hence some
have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. The computations
of Apollodorus have fixed his birth in 611, and his death
shortly after 547 B.C. Tradition, probably correct in its
general estimate, represents him as a successful student of
astronomy and geography, and as one of the pioneers of exact
science among the Greeks. He taught, if he did not discover,
the obliquity of the ecliptic, is said to have introduced
into Greece the gnomon (for determining the solstices) and
the sundial, and to have invented some kind of geographical
map. But his reputation is due mainly to his work on nature,
few words of which remain. From these fragments we learn
that the beginning or first principle (arche, a word
which, it is said, he was the first to use) was an endless,
unlimited mass (apeiron), subject to neither old age nor
decay, and perpetually yielding fresh materials for the
series of beings which issued from it. He never defined
this principle precisely, and it has generally (e.g. by
Aristotle and Augustine) been understood as a sort of primal
chaos. It embraced everything, and directed the movement
of things, by which there grew up a host of shapes and
differences. Out of the vague and limitless body there
sprung a central mass,--this earth of ours, cylindrical in
shape, poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire,
which had originally clung to it like the bark round a
tree, until their continuity was severed, and they parted
into several wheel-shaped and fire-filled bubbles of
air. Man himself and the animals had come into being by like
transmutations. Mankind was supposed by Anaximander to
have sprung from some other species of animals, probably
aquatic. But as the measureless and endless had been the
prime cause of the motion into separate existences and
individual forms, so also, according to the just award of
destiny, these forms would at an appointed season suffer the
vengeance due to their earlier act of separation, and return
into the vague immensity whence they had issued. Thus the
world, and all definite existences contained in it, would lose
their independence and disappear in the ``indeterminate.''
The blazing orbs, which have drawn off from the cold earth and
water, are the temporary gods of the world, clustering round the
earth, which, to the ancient thinker, is the central figure.
See Histories of the Ionian School by Ritten, Mallet;
Schleiercher, ``Dissert. sur la philosophie d'Anaximandre,''
in the M.emoires de l'acad. des sciences de Berlin (1815);
J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (Lond. 1892);. A. W.
Benn, Greek Philosophers (Lond. 1883 foll.); A. Fairbanks,
First Philosophers of Greece (Lond. 1898); Ritter and
Preller, Historia Phil. sec. sec. 17-22; Mullach, Fragmenta
Phil. Graec. i. 237-240, and IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY.
ANAXIMENES, of Lampsacus (fl. 380-320 B.C.), Greek
rhetorician and historian, was a favourite of Alexander the
Great, whom he accompanied in his Persian campaigns. He
wrote histories of Greece and of Philip, and an epic on
Alexander (fragments in Muller, Scriptores Rerum Alexandri
Magni.) As a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of
Isocrates and his school. The Rhetorica ad Alexandrum,
usually included among the works of Aristotle, is now
generally admitted to be by Anaximenes, although some consider
it a much later production (edition by Spengel, 1847).
See P. Wendland, Anax. von Lampsakos (1905); also RHETORIC.
ANAXIMENES, of Miletus, Greek philosopher in the latter
half of the 6th century, was probably a younger contemporary
of Anaximander, whose pupil or friend he is said to have
been. He held that the air, with its variety of contents, its
universal presence, its vague associations in popular fancy
with the phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that
exists. Everything is air at different degrees of density, and
under the influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which
contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of
existence. The process is gradual, and takes place in two
directions, as heat or cold predominates. In this way was
formed a broad disk of earth, floating on the circumambient air.
Similar condensations produced the sun and stars; and the flaming
state of these bodies is due to the velocity of their motions.
See Schmidt, Dissertatio de Anaximensis psychologia (Jena, 1869);
Ritter and Preller, Historia Phil. sec. sec. 23-27; A. Fairbanks,
First Philosophers of Greece (1898); Mullach, Fragmenta Phil.
Graec. i. 241-243; also IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY; EVOLUTION.
ANAZARBUS (med. Ain Zarba; mod. Navarza.) an ancient
Cilician city, situated in the Aleian plain about 10
m. W. of the main stream of the Pyramus (Jihun) and near its
tributary the Sempas Su. A lofty isolated ridge formed its
acropolis. Though some of the masonry in the ruins is
certainly pre-Roman, Suidas's identification of it with
Cyinda, famous as a treasure city in the wars of Eumenes of
Cardia, cannot be accepted in the face of Strabo's express
location of Cyinda in western Cilicia. Under the early
Roman empire the place was known as Caesarea, and was
the metropolis of Cilicia Secunda. Rebuilt by the emperor
Justin after an earthquake, it became Justinopolis (A.D.
525); but the old native name persisted, and when Thoros
I., king of Lesser Armenia, made it his capital early in the
12th century, it was known as Anazarva. Its great natural
strength and situation, not far from the mouth of the Sis
pass, and near the great road which debouched from the
Cilician gates, made Anazarbus play a considerable part in the
struggles between the Byzantine empire and the early Moslem
invaders. It had been rebuilt by Harun al-Rashid in 796
A.D., refortified at great expense by Saif addaula, the
Hamdanid (10th century) and Saiked, and ruined by the crusaders.
The present wall of the lower city is of late construction, probably
Armenian. It encloses a mass of ruins conspicuous in which
are a fine triumphal arch, the colonnades of two streets, a
gymnasium, &c. A stadium and a theatre lie outside on the south.
The remains of the acropolis fortifications are very interesting,
including roads and ditches hewn in the rock; but beyond ruins
of two churches and a fine tower built by Thoros I. there are
no notable structures in the upper town. For picturesqueness
the site is not equalled in Cilicia, and it is worth while to
trace the three fine aqueducts to their sources. (D. G. H.)
ANBAR, originally called FIRUZ SHAPUR, or PERISAPORA, a
town founded about A.D. 350 by Shapur (Sapor) II. Sassanid,
king of Persia, on the east bank of the Euphrates, just
south of the Nahr Isa, or Sakhlawieh canal, the northernmost
of the canals connecting that river with the Tigris, in
lat. 33 deg. 22' N., long. 43 deg. 49' E. It was captured and
destroyed by the emperor Julian in A.D. 363, but speedily
rebuilt. It became a refuge for the Christian and Jewish
colonies of that region, and there are said to have been
90,000 Jews in the place at the time of its capture by Ali
in 657. The Arabs changed the name of the town to Anbar
(``granaries''). Abu,l-'Abbas as-Saffah, the founder
of the Abbasid caliphate, made it his capital, and such it
remained until the founding of Bagdad in 762. It continued
to be a place of much importance throughout the Abbasid
period. It is now entirely deserted. The site is occupied
only by ruin mounds, as yet unexplored. Their great extent
indicates the former importance of the city. (J. P. PE.)
ANCACHS, a coast province of central Peru, lying between
the departments of Lima and Libertad, and W. of the Maranon
river. Area, 16,562 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 428,703. The department
was created in 1835, and received its present name in 1839,
and its last accession of territory in 1861. Lying partly on
the arid coast, partly in the high Cordilleras and partly in
the valley of the Maranon, it has every variety of climate and
productions. Rice, cotton, sugar-cane, yucas (Manihot aipi)
and tropical fruits are produced in the irrigated valleys of
the coast, and wheat, Indian corn, barley, potatoes, coffee,
coca, &c., in the upland regions. Cattle and sheep are also
raised for the coast markets. Mining is likewise an important
industry. The capital, Huaraz (est. pop. 8000 in 1896),
on the Rio Santa or Huaraz, is a large mining centre in the
sierras, 9931 ft. above sea-level, from which a railway
runs to the small seaports of Santa and Chimbote, 172 m.
distant. Other noteworthy towns are Caraz (6000) and Carhuaz
(5000) in the sierra region, and Huarmey (1500) on the coast.
ANCAEUS, in Greek legend, son of Zeus or Poseidon, king of
the Leleges of Samos. In the Argonautic expedition, after
the death of Tiphys, helmsman of the ``Argo,'' he took his
place. It is said that, while planting a vineyard, he was
told by a soothsayer that he would never drink of its wine.
As soon as the grapes were ripe, he squeezed the juice into a
cup, and, raising it to his lips, mocked the seer, who retorted
with the words, Polla metaxu pelei kulikos kai cheileos
akrou (``there is many a slip between the cup and the
lip''). At that moment it was announced that a wild boar
was ravaging the land. Ancaeus set down the cup, leaving
the wine untasted, hurried out, and was killed by the boar.
Apollonius Rhodius, i. 188 (and Scholiast), ii. 867-900.
ANCASTER AND KESTEVEN, DUKE OF, an English title borne by
the well-known Lincolnshire family of Bertie from 1715 to 1809.
ROBERT BERTIE (1660-1723), son and heir of Robert, third
earl of Lindsey (d. 1701), who succeeded his father as lord
great chamberlain of England, was created marquess of Lindsey
in 1706, being made duke of Ancaster and Kesteven in July
1715. His eldest surviving son, PEREGRINE (1686-1742),
who had been a member of parliament for Lincolnshire from
1708 to 1714, succeeded to the dukedom and also to the
lord-lieutenancy of Lincolnshire, which had been held by his
father. His son and successor, PEREGRINE (1714-1778),
who was also lord great chamberlain and lord-lieutenant of
Lincolnshire, attained the rank of general in the British
army. The fourth duke was ROBERT (1756-1779), son of the
third duke, who died in July 1779, when his barony of Willoughby
de Eresby and the hereditary office of lord great chamberlain
fell into abeyance until 1780. The dukedom, however, and
other honours came to his uncle BROWNLOW (1729-1809), on
whose death in February 1809 the dukedom of Ancaster and
Kesteven became extinct; but the earldom of Lindsey descended
to a distant kinsman, Albemarle Bertie (1744-1818). After a
second period of abeyance the barony of Willoughby de Eresby
was revived in 1871 in favour of Clementina Elizabeth (d.
1888), a descendant of the Berties, who was the widow of Gilbert
John Heathcote, 1st Baron Aveland (d. 1867). Her son and
successor, GILBERT HENRY HEATHCOTE-DRUMMOND-WILLOUGHBY (b.
1830), 23rd Baron Willoughby de Eresby, and joint hereditary
lord great chamberlain, was created earl of Ancaster in 1898.
ANCELOT, JACQUES ARSENE FRANCOIS POLYCARPE (1794-1854),
French dramatist and litterateur, was born at Havre,
on the 9th of February 1794. He became a clerk in the
admiralty, and retained his position until the revolution of
1830. In 1816 his play Warwick was accepted by the Theatre
Francais, but never produced, and three years later a five-act
tragedy, Louis IX., was staged. Three editions of the play
were speedily exhausted; it had a run of fifty representations,
and brought him a pension of 2000 francs from Louis XVIII.
His next work, Le Maire du palais, was played in 1825
with less success; but for it he received the cross of the
legion of honour. In 1824 he produced Fiesque, a clever
adaptation of Schiller's Fiesco. In 1828 appeared Olga, ou
l'orpheline russe, the plot of which had been inspired by a
voyage he made to Russia in 1826. About the same period he
produced in succession Marie de Brabant (1825), a poem
in six cantos; L'Homme du monde (1827), a novel in four
volumes, afterwards dramatized with success; and in 1829 a
play, Elisabeth d'Angleterre. By the revolution of July
1830 he lost at once his royal pension and his office as
librarian at Meudon; and he was chiefly employed during the
next ten years in writing vaudevilles and light dramas and
comedies. A tragedy, Maria Padilla (1838), gained him
admission to the French Academy in 1841. Ancelot was sent by
the French government in 1849 to Turin, Florence, Brussels and
other capitals, to negotiate on the subject of international
copyright; and the treaties which were concluded soon after were
the result, in a great measure, of his tact and intelligence.
ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, a general name for the cult of deceased
parents and forefathers. Aristotle in his Ethics stigmatizes
as ``extremely unloving'' (lian afilon) the denial that
ancestors are interested in or affected by the fortunes of
their descendants; and in effect ancestor-worship is the
staple of most religions, ancient or modern, civilized or
savage. The ancient Jews were a striking exception; for
though the frequent mention of ancestral graves on hilltops
or in caves, and in connexion with sacred trees and pillars,
and the resemblance of the ``elohim'' in Exod. xxi. 4-6 to
household gods, may suggest that cults of the dead preceded
that of Yahweh, nevertheless in the classical age of their
religion (see HEBREW RELIGION) as reflected in the Old
Testament, ancestor-worship has already vanished. ``The Semitic
nomads,'' remarks Renan in his History of Israel (tome 1,
p. 50), ``were the religious race par excellence, because
in fact they were the least superstitious of the families of
mankind, the least duped by the dream of a beyond, by the
phantasmagory of a double or a shadow surviving in the nether
regions. . . . They suppressed the chimeras which went with
belief in a complete survival after death, chimeras which
were homicidal at the time, in so far as they robbed man of
the true notion of death and led him to multiply murders.''
Renan here refers to the burial rite of an ancient Scythian
king (as described by Herodotus, iv. 71), at whose tomb were
strangled his concubine, cup-bearer, cook, groom, lackey,
envoy, and several of his horses. Such cruel customs were,
of course, and still are associated in many lands with the
cult of the dead; but, on the other hand, there are gentler
and more beneficial aspects observable to-day in China and
Japan. There the mighty dead are present with the living,
protect them and their houses and crops, are their strength
in battle, and teach their hands to war and their fingers to
fight. In the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-5 the greatest
incentive to deeds of patriotic valour was for Japanese
soldiers the belief that the spirits of their ancestors were
watching them; and in China it is not the man himself that is
ennobled for his philanthropic virtues or learning, but his
ancestor. No more solemn duty weighs upon the Chinaman than that
of tending the spirits of his dead forefathers. Confucius, it
is recorded, sacrificed to the dead, as if they were present,
and to the spirits, as if they were there. In view of such
Chinese sacrifices the names of the dead are inscribed on
wooden plaques called spirit-tablets, into which the spirits
are during the ceremony supposed to enter, having quitted
the very heaven and presence of God in order to commune with
posterity. Twice a year, in spring and autumn,1 a Chinese
ruler goes in state to the imperial college in Pekin, and
presents the appointed offerings before the spirit-tablets of
Confucius and of the worthies who have been associated with
him in his temples. He greets the sage's spirit with this
prayer:-- ``This year, in this month, on this day, I, the
emperor, offer sacrifice to the philosopher K'ung, the ancient
teacher, the perfect sage, and say, O teacher, in virtue equal
to heaven and earth. . . Now in this second month of spring,
in reverent observance of the old statutes, with victims,
silks, spirits, and fruits, I offer sacrifice to thee.''
In ancient Rome painted wax images of ancestors who had served
the state in its highest offices were preserved in the atria
or halls of their descendants, inscribed, like the Chinese
tablets, with titles recording their dignity and exploits.
Whether the departed spirits tenanted them according to the
Chinese belief is not recorded; though it probably was so, for
at funerals they might be carried, like the images of the gods
in Lectisternia (see IMAGE WORSHIP), on couches before the
corpse. Oftener, however, they were mere masques worn at
funerals by men who personated the ancestors and wore their
robes of office. Perhaps the vulgar regarded these men as
temporary reincarnations of those whom they thus represented.
The word Manes signified the friendly ancestral ghosts of a
Roman household. To them, under the name of Lares, it was
the solemn preoccupation of male descendants to offer food and
sacrifice and to keep alight the hearth fire which cooked the
offerings. Small waxen images of the Manes called Lares,
clothed in dogskin, and on feast days crowned with garlands,
stood round the family hearth of which they were the unseen
guardians (but see LARES.) To lack such care and tendance
was--along with want of regular burial--the most dreadful fate
that could overtake an ancient; and a Roman, like a Hindu, in
case he was childless, adopted a male child whose duty it would
be, as if his own son, to continue after his death the family
rites or sacra. On this side the ancestor-worship of the
Aryans has been productive of the most important institutions
of adoption and will or testament. Sir Henry Maine (Ancient
Law, ch. v.) has justly observed that ``the history of political
ideas begins with the assumption that kinship in blood is the
sole possible ground of community in political functions,''
and that in early commonwealths ``citizens considered all
the groups in which they claimed membership to be founded
on common lineage.'' A man only shared in house, tribe and
state, so far as he was descended from particular ancestors
and eponymous heroes, and due cult of these illustrious dead
was the condition of his enjoying any rights or inheriting
any property. Yet if society was to grow, men of alien
descent had to be admitted into the original brotherhood and
amalgamated therewith. ``Adverting to Rome singly,'' adds
the same author, ``we perceive that the primary group, the
family, was being constantly adulterated by the practice of
adoption.'' Thus transition was made possible from an agnatic
society based on blood ties to one based on contiguity.
In the worship of the Lares the head of a Roman household
commemorated and reinforced the blood tie which made one flesh
of all its members living and dead. The gens in turn was
regarded as an expansion of the family, as was the state of
the gens; and members of these larger units by worship of
common ancestors--usually mythical--kept alive the feeling
that they were a single organic whole animated by a common soul
and joined in consanguinity. Outcasts alone, the offspring
of irregular unions, could be ignorant of the blood which ran
in their veins, of the unseen ancestors to be fed and tended
in family and gentile rites.2 Such considerations help us
to understand the enormous importance attached in ancient
societies to the right of intermarriage, as also to grasp
the origin of wills and testaments. For a will was to begin
with but a mode of indicating (not necessarily in writing)
on whom devolved the duty of conducting a parent's funeral,
and together with that duty the right of inheriting his
property. The due performance of funeral rites re-created the
blood tie and renewed the kinship of living and dead at the
moment when death seemed specially to endanger it by removal
of that representative of the household whose special duty
it had been to keep up the family sacra. In Hindostan, as
Maine remarks (op. cit. ch. vi.), we have a parallel to the
Roman system; for there ``the right to inherit a dead man's
property is exactly co-extensive with the duty of performing his
obsequies. If the rites are not properly performed or not
performed by the proper person, no relation is considered as
established between the deceased and anybody surviving him;
the law of succession does not apply, and nobody can inherit
the property. Every great event in the life of a Hindu
seems to be regarded as leading up to and bearing on these
solemnities. If he marries, it is to have children who
may celebrate them after his death; if he has no children,
he lies under the strongest obligation to adopt them from
another family, `with a view,' writes the Hindu doctor, `to
the funeral cake, the water and the solemn sacrifice.'''
``May there be born in our lineage,'' so the Indian Manes are
supposed to say, ``a man to offer to us, on the thirteenth
day of the moon, rice boiled in milk, honey and ghee.''3
It is then in connexion with the history of inheritance and
adoption, and of the gradual evolution from societies held
together only by blood-kinship to societies consolidated
on other, bases, especially on that of local contiguity,
that ancestor-worship chiefly calls for investigation.
We must now pass on to other aspects of it less important for
the student of ancient law, but interesting to the folklorist.
In ancient Rome the Di manes, or as we should say the
blessed dead, who reposed in their necropolis outside the
walls, were specially commemorated on the dies parentales
or days of placating them (placandis Manibus.) These
began on the 13th of February and ended on the 22nd with the
Caristia or feast of Cara Cognatio. The family have on
the preceding days solemnly visited the grave, and offered
to the shades gifts of water, wine, milk, honey, oil, and
the blood of black victims; they have decked the tomb with
flowers, have renewed the feast and farewell of the funeral,
and have prayed to the ancestors to watch over their welfare.
Now the survivors return home and hold a love-feast, in which
all quarrels are healed, all trespasses forgiven. The Lares
are brought out to preside over this solemn feast, and for the
occasion are incincti or clothed in tunics girt at the loins.
It is doubtful whether we should dignify by the name of
ancestor-worship the older Roman festival of the Lemuria, which
was held on the 9th, 11th and 13th of May. For the lemures
were, like our unlaid ghosts, unburied, mischievous or inimical
spirits, and these three days were nefasti or unlucky,
because their malign influence was abroad. The ghosts had to
be driven out of the house, and Ovid (Fasti, v. 432) relates
how the head of the family arose at midnight, and with feet
unfettered by shoon or sandals, and with washen hands traversed
his house beckoning against the ghosts with fingers joined to
thumb. Nine times with averted glance he spat a black bean out
of his mouth and cried: ``With these I redeem me and mine.''
The ghosts followed and picked up, or perhaps entered into the
beans. Then he washed afresh, and rattled his brass vessels,
and nine times over bade them begone with the polite formula,
Manes exite paterni, ``Go forth, O paternal manes.''
The gesture described was probably the same as that with
which a Christian priest averts demonic influences from the
heads of his congregation in the act of blessing them. The
many hands of Zeus Sabazios turned up in ancient excavations
observe a similar gesture. All over the earth we meet with
such periodically recurrent ceremonies of expelling demons and
ghosts, who usually are given a meal before being hunted back
into their graves. But an account of such ceremonies belongs
rather to demonology than to the history of the worship of
Manes, which are peaceful, well-conducted and beneficent
beings, endowed and, so to speak on the foundation, like
the Christian souls for whose masses money has been left.
Ancestor-worship has its parallels in Christian cults of the
dead and of the saints; it must be remembered, however, that
a saint is not as a rule an ancestor, and that his cult is
not based upon family feeling and love of kinsmen, nor tends
to stimulate and encourage the same. Such cults have never
prevented those who participated in them from fighting one
another. Ancestor-worship on this side is also in strong
contrast with the teaching of the Gospel, for it is an
apotheosis of family affections and supplies a real cement
wherewith to bind society together; whereas the Christian
Messiah, taught that, ``If any cometh to me, and hateth not
his father and his mother, and his wife and his children,
and his brethren and his sister, yea, and his own life also,
he cannot be my disciple.'' To the ordinary good citizen of
antiquity, whose religion was the consecration of family
ties, such a precept was no less scandalous than it is to a
Chinaman or Hindu of to-day. Was not the duty of following
the Messiah to supersede even that of burying one's parents,
the most sacred of all ancient obligations? The Church when
it had once conquered the world allowed such precepts to
lapse and fall into the background, and no one save monks or
Manichaean heretics remembered them any more; indeed modern
divines affect to believe that marriage rites and family ties
were the peculiar concern of the Church from the very first;
and few moderns will fail to sympathize with the misgivings
of the barbarian chief who, having been converted and being
about to receive Christian baptism, paused as he stepped
down into the font, and asked the priests if in the heaven
to which their rites admitted him he would meet and converse
with his pagan ancestors. On being assured that he would not,
he stepped out again and declined their methods of salvation.
In the above paragraphs we have drawn examples only from
races organized on a patriarchal basis among whom the headship
passes from father to son. But many primitive societies do
not trace descent through males and yet may be said to worship
ancestors. The aborigines of Australia furnish an example.
The Aruntas among them are said to have no idea of paternity,
but believe that local spirits of tree, rock or stream enter
women as they pass by their haunts. In doing so they drop
a wooden soul-token called a Churinga. This the elders of
the tribe pick up or pretend to find, and carefully store
up in a cleft of the hills or in a cave which no woman may
approach. The souls of members of the tribe who have died
survive in these slips of wood, which are treasured up for long
generations and repaired if they decay. They are carried into
battle to assist the tribe, are regularly anointed, fondled
and invoked; for it is believed that the souls present in
them are powerful to work weal and woe to friend and enemy
respectively. They thus resemble the Chinese spirit tablet.
Reference has been made above to the possibility that the
Roman imago of an ancestor actually embodied his ghost,
at least on solemn occasions. The custom of providing a
material abode or nidus for the ghost is found all over
the earth; e.g. in New Ireland a carved chalk figure of the
deceased, indicating the sex, is procured, and entrusted
to the chief of a village, who sets it up in a funeral
hut in the middle of a large taboo house adorned with
plants. The survivors believe that the ghostly ogre, being
so well provided for, will abstain from haunting them.
The Romans, as we remarked above, distinguished between the
Lemures or wandering mischievous ghosts and the Manes snugly
interred and tended in the, cemetery which was part of every
Italian settlement. The distinction, however, is one for which
survivors alone are responsible and not one inherent in the
nature of ghosts. No race at all, it would seem, except the
Jews, has ever been able to regard a man's death as the end
of him; and except in the higher forms of Christianity the
dead are everywhere supposed to need the same sort of food,
equipment, tenement and gear which they enjoyed in life, and to
molest the living unless they obtain it. It may be affection,
or it may be fear, which prompts the survivor to feed and tend
his dead; in general no doubt it is a mixture of both feelings.
In Africa and other savage countries a third motive sometimes
operates, namely the desire to consult the dead--as Odysseus,
anxious about his return home, was constrained to do--or to use
them against the living; for negro magicians are reputed even
to murder remarkable individuals in order to possess themselves
of their power and to be able to use them as familiar spirits.
The question has often been raised, what is the relation of
private cults of ancestors to public religion? Do men after
death become gods? Euhemerus of Messenia tried of old to
rationalize the Greek myths by supposing that the Olympian
gods were deified men. Such a theory, like its modern rival
of the sun-myth, may of course be pushed till it becomes
absurd; yet in India critical observers, like Sir Alfred C.
Lyall, attest innumerable examples of the gradual elevation
into gods of human beings, the process even beginning in their
lifetime. There a man wins local fame as an ascetic with
abnormal powers, or a wife, because Alcestis-like she
sacrificed herself for her husband and immolated herself on his
pyre. Miracles occur at their shrines, and the surviving
relatives who guard them wax rich off the offerings brought.
``In the course of a very few years, as the recollection
of the man's personality becomes misty, his origin grows
mysterious, his career takes a legendary hue, his birth and
death were both supernatural; in the next generation the names
of the elder gods get introduced into the story, and so the
marvellous tradition works itself into a myth, until nothing
but a personal incarnation can account for such a series of
prodigies. The man was an Avatar of Vishnu or Siva; his
supreme apotheosis is now complete, and the Brahmins feel warranted
in providing for him a niche in the orthodox pantheon.''4
AUTHORITIES.--H. S. Maine, Ancient Law (London, 1906);
E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (London, 1903); and article
on the ``Matriarchal Family System,'' in the Nineteenth
Century, xl. 81 (1896); de Coulanges, La Cite antique
(17th ed., 1900); L. Andre, Le Culte des morts chez
les Hebreux (1895); C. Gruneisen, Der Ahnenkultus und
die Urreligion Israels (Halle, 1900); Grant Allen, The
Evolution of the Idea of God (London, 1897); F. B. Jevons,
Introduction to the History of Religion (London, 1896); Sir
A. C. Lyall, Asiatic Studies (London, 1899 and 1907); D. G.
Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples (New York, 1897); H.
Oldenberg, Die religion des Veda (Berlin, 1894). (F. C. C.)
1 Prof. J. Legge, in Religious Systems of the World, London, 1892, p. 72.
2 Livy iv. 2:--``Quam enim aliam vim connubia promiscua habere,
nisi ut ferarum prope ritu vulgentur concubitus plebis Patrumque?
ut qui natus sit, ignoret, cujus sanguinis, quorum sacrorum sit.''
3 E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. p. 119.
4 A. C. Lyall, Asiatic Studies (reprinted
by Watts and Co., London, 1907), p. 19.
ANCHISES, in Greek legend, Trojan hero, son of Capys and
Themis, grandson (according to Hyginus, son) of Assaracus,
connected on both sides with the royal family of Troy, was
king of Dardanus on Mt. Ida. Here Aphrodite met him and,
enamoured of his beauty, bore him Aeneas. For revealing the
name of the child's mother, in spite of the warnings of the
goddess, he was killed or struck blind by lightning (Hyginus,
Fab. 94). In the more recent legend, adopted by Virgil in
the Aeneid, he was conveyed out of Troy on the shoulders
of his son Aeneas, whose wanderings he followed as far as
Sicily, where he died and was buried on Mt. Eryx. On the other
hand, there was a grave on Mt. Ida at Troy pointed out as
his. From the name Assaracus, from the intercourse between
the Phoenicians and the early inhabitants of the Troad, and
from the connexion of Aphrodite, the protecting goddess of the
Phoenicians, with Anchises, it has been inferred that his family
was originally of Assyrian origin. His flight on the shoulders
of Aeneas is frequently represented on engraved gems of the
Roman period; and his visit from Aphrodite is rendered in a
beautiful bronze relief, engraved in Millingen's Unedited Gems.
ANCHOR (from the Greek agkura, which Vossius considers
is from ogke, a crook or hook), an instrument of iron
or other heavy material used for holding ships or boats in
any locality required, and preventing them from drifting by
winds, tides, currents or other causes. This is done by the
anchor, after it is let go from the ship by means of the cable,
fixing itself in the ground and there holding the vessel fast.
The word ``anchor'' is also used figuratively for anything which
gives security, or for any ornament or appendage which takes
the same form. Owing to a vessel's safety depending upon the
anchor, it is obviously an appliance of great importance, and
too much care cannot be expended on its manufacture and proper
construction. The most ancient anchors consisted of large
stones, baskets full of stones, sacks filled with sand, or
logs of wood loaded with lead. Of this kind were the anchors
of the ancient Greeks, which, according to Apollonius Rhodius
and Stephen of Byzantium, were formed of stone; and Athenaeus
states that they were sometimes made of wood. Such anchors
held the vessel merely by their weight and by the friction
along the bottom. Iron was afterwards introduced for the
construction of anchors, and an improvement was made by
forming them with teeth or ``flukes'' to fasten themselves
into the bottom; whence the words odontes and dentes
are frequently taken for anchors in the Greek and Latin
poets. The invention of the teeth is ascribed by Pliny to
the Tuscans; but Pausanias gives the credit to Midas, king of
Phrygia. Originally there was only one fluke or tooth, whence
anchors were called eterostomoi; but a second was added,
according to Pliny, by Eupalamus, or, according to Strabo,
by Anacharsis, the Scythian philosopher. The anchors with
two teeth were called amfiboloi or amfistomoi, and
from ancient monuments appear to have resembled generally
those used in modern days, except that the stock is absent
from them all. Every ship had several anchors; the largest,
FIG. 1.--Rodger's Anchor. FIG. 2.--lmproved Martin Anchor.
corresponding to our sheet anchor, was only used in extreme danger,
and was hence peculiarly termed iera or sacra, whence the
proverb sacram anchoram solvere, as flying to the last refuge.
Until the beginning of the 19th century anchors were of
imperfect manufacture, the means of effecting good and efficient
welding being absent and the iron poor, whilst the arms,
being straight, generally parted at the crown, when weighing
from good holding-ground. A clerk in Plymouth Yard, named
Pering, in the early part of that century (1813) introduced
curved arms; and after 1852 the Admiralty anchor, under the
direction of the Board, was supplied to H.M. ships, followed
by Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) Rodger's anchor (fig.
1). This marked a great departure from the form of previous
anchors. The arms, de, df were formed in one piece, and were
pivoted at the crown d on a bolt passing through the forked
shank ab. The points or pees e, f, to the palms g were
blunt. This anchor had an excellent reputation amongst
nautical men of that period, and by the committee on anchors,
appointed by the admiralty in 1852, it was placed second
only to the anchor of Trotman. Later came the self-canting
anchor, which, passing through successive improvements,
became the improved Martin anchor (fig. 2) made of forged
iron. A projection in the centre of the arms works in a recess
at the hub of the shank: the vacancies outside the shank are
filled by blocks bolted through on each side, and are flush
with the side plates, which keep the flukes in position.
FIG. 3.--Improved Martin-Adelphi Anchor.
The introduction of cast steel in 1894 led to the improved
Martin-Adelphi pattern (fig. 3), in which the crown and arms
are cast in one, and, with the stock, are made of cast steel,
the shank remaining of forged iron. A projection in the crown
works in a recess (right, fig. 3), and is secured in its place
by a forged steel pin, fitted with a nut and washer, which
passes through the crown and the heel of the shank. All the
above anchors were provided with a stock (fig. 1, hk), the
use of which is to ``cant'' the anchor. If it falls on the
ground, resting on one arm and one stock, when a strain is
brought on the cable, the stock cants the anchor, causing the
arms to lie at a downward angle to the holding ground; and the
pees enter and bury themselves below the surface of the soil.
To stow a stocked anchor on the forecastle, it is hove up close
to the forefoot, and by means of a ground chain (secured to a
balancing or gravity band on the anchor), which is joined to a
catting chain rove through a cat davit, the anchor is hove up
FIG. 4.--Anchor Crane.