Indies, but in England as well. A remonstrance was sent to Rodney by the
merchants of St. Kitt's, who claimed that a large quantity of their
goods had been seized. Some of these were insured in England, and they
considered their Excellencies responsible for their losses, for which
they would seek redress by all the means in their power. It was
impossible, they said, for many of them to be more utterly ruined than
they then were, and they asked that certificates in reference to their
property should be sent to England, in demanding which they were
claiming a right rather than a favour. In reply, Rodney said he was
surprised that gentlemen who called themselves subjects and merchants of
Great Britain, should, when it was in their power to lodge their effects
in the British islands to windward, under the protection of British
laws, send them to leeward to St. Eustatius, where, in the eyes of
reason and common sense, they could only be lodged to supply their
king's and country's enemies. The island, he continued, was
Dutch--everything in it was Dutch--all was under the Dutch flag. As
Dutch it should be treated, and this was his firm resolution as a
British admiral, who had no view whatever but to do his duty to his king
and country.
Two merchants from St. Eustatius went to London, where they were
examined by the Attorney and Solicitor-Generals. They clamoured for
justice, and got it, for one of them was committed on a charge of high
treason for corresponding with the American agent at Amsterdam, and for
furnishing the Americans with military stores and ammunition. Several
attempts were made to injure Rodney with the king, but the blow on the
enemy was so severe that His Majesty would not listen to the detractors.
It is said that a cry of rage went up from the French and American
colonies, and that Rodney gloried in his triumph. He was undoubtedly
inclined to ride rough-shod over everybody and everything, but as long
as he was successful, only the enemy complained.
But the trouble was not yet over, for the merchants of St. Kitt's sent
lawyers to file their claims in the Admiralty Courts. Then St. Eustatius
was recaptured for Holland by the French, and the tide turned against
the admiral. Now was the time to attack him, and his enemies took
advantage of it. The mob that threw up their caps and shouted for joy at
the glorious news of the capture, now lifted their hands in horror at
Rodney's misdeeds. Even his friend Hood was guilty of the meanness of
charging his comrade with carrying off vast sums of money, and never
accounting for them. Rodney was recalled to England, where he arrived
on the 19th of September, 1781, in ill-health, and rather downspirited.
In December Burke moved the House of Commons for a committee to inquire
into the affair, but although he pressed the motion with all his powers
of oratory it was rejected.
Meanwhile the French were turning the tables upon the late victors and
having their revenge for the disasters which had fallen upon them. This
led to Rodney being again consulted, with the result that on the 19th of
February, 1782, he arrived in Barbados with twelve ships of the line.
This was the most critical period during the whole war. On the 19th of
October previous, Lord Cornwallis had surrendered to the Americans at
Yorktown, and this disaster was followed not only by the loss of the
West Indian captures, but of the British colonies of St. Kitt's, Nevis,
Montserrat, Dominica, and St. Vincent. It was by the special request of
the king that Rodney had been again sent out, and before his departure
he declared that either the French admiral or himself should be
captured. Lord Sandwich, to impress him the more, on the eve of his
departure said: "The fate of this Empire is in your hands, and I have no
wish that it should be in those of any other."
Meanwhile the Count de Grasse was at Martinique, preparing a large fleet
for the final reduction of the British by conquering Jamaica. He was
expecting large reinforcements of French vessels and troops, which
Rodney tried unsuccessfully to cut off. On the 8th of April the French
were reported as having sailed for Hispaniola, where they were to be
joined by a Spanish contingent, and Rodney at once sailed in pursuit.
The result was that, at last, on the 12th, a decisive victory was gained
off Dominica. Admiral de Grasse was captured, many of his fleet
destroyed, and the whole expedition broken up. The British West Indies
were thus saved, and the people of Jamaica erected a statue to the
gallant admiral. Rodney, in concluding his despatch giving the account,
said it was his most ardent wish that the British flag should for ever
float in every part of the globe, and there is no doubt that this
triumph conduced to such an end. It stands prominently forth as the
greatest sea fight of the age, and was only eclipsed by those of Nelson,
who we may state received much of his naval training in the West Indies.
In January, 1783, peace was again restored. Great Britain lost her
American colonies, restored those she had taken from France and Holland,
and got back her own, except the island of Tobago, which was ceded to
France. From Spain she got the right to cut logwood between the rivers
Hondo and Belize, on the understanding that all other places on the
coasts of Central America should be abandoned, and that no forts be
erected on the concession.
For ten years there was peace, and during that time the planting
colonies were developed to a wonderful extent, while those dependent on
the contraband traffic became much depressed. The English settlements
increased in value so much, that in 1788 they were calculated to have
under cultivation two million and a half acres, with five hundred and
sixty thousand slaves. These were the palmy days of the slave-trade,
when the importations leapt up year after year, with a corresponding
increase in the export of produce. The property was valued at over
eighty-six millions sterling, Jamaica coming first, but nearly every
other island flourishing to an extent hardly credible to those who have
only seen them after their downfall.
What Jamaica was to the English, the western portion of Hispaniola
became to the French, and even Spain increased her productions, now that
things had become settled, and treasure seeking less remunerative.
Altogether, the period from this time, to the end of the century, may be
considered as the planter's best days, and the "good old times" of which
we hear so much but find it so difficult to precisely indicate.
On the 1st of February, 1793, peace was again broken by the French
Convention, the declaration of war being made against England and
Holland. Thus began that struggle which seemed interminable at the time,
and which actually lasted twenty-two years. As usual the West Indies
suffered, but this time they were not quite so much the scene of
contention as they had been formerly. Tobago was captured from the
French on the 15th of April, but during the remainder of the year little
was done. In January, 1794, however, Admiral Sir John Jervis arrived at
Barbados, and in the following month took Martinique after a severe
struggle. Then he went on to St. Lucia, which also surrendered, and
before the end of April Guadeloupe fell. Then came reverses; a French
fleet arrived, and all were recaptured.
Meanwhile France had invaded Holland, and established a sister republic
on her own lines, rendering it necessary for the Stadtholder, the Prince
of Orange, to fly off to England. From Kew, where the king had given him
a residence, he wrote letters to all the Dutch colonies, asking the
authorities to place them in the hands of the British, and treat people
of that nationality as friends and allies. With these despatches British
fleets were sent to all the possessions of Holland, but only one or two
obeyed the command, the result being that the others had to be taken by
force, until hardly a Dutch colony existed in any part of the world.
In October, 1796, Spain joined France on the ground that the British, in
their operations against the enemy, had injured her in several ways. One
of the reasons given was so absurd that we can hardly conceive it to
have been put forth seriously. Great Britain had captured Demerara, and
this put her in a situation to possess positions of greater importance.
Spain, however, got nothing by her taking up the quarrel, for her trade
was absolutely swept from the seas, and communication with America
almost cut off. This state of things became so troublesome that for the
first time in her history neutral vessels were permitted to trade in her
American colonies. She also lost the island of Trinidad, which had
remained in her possession since the days of Ralegh.
Soon the whole of the West Indies and Spanish Main were virtually under
the control of Great Britain, little opportunity being given to her
enemies of crossing the Atlantic. No longer could the Caribbean Sea be
the scene of the great struggle--the forces of the combatants were
wanted nearer home. Now again came the harvest of the little island of
St. Thomas, until Denmark was also numbered among the enemies of the
"Queen of the Seas." Then the United States came to get her pickings as
a neutral, which gave such an impetus to her ship-building and commerce,
that later the seamen trained under such auspices became formidable
rivals to the British.
The colonists did not altogether dislike this great war. True, freights
and insurances were very high, but then the prices of produce were high
also. There was a spice of danger in every voyage, but after all the
risk was not so very great until the vessels came into the Channel. Then
there was a convoy to protect them, and they might even get prize money
by capturing traders of the enemy. Every vessel went armed, and many a
privateer of the enemy got severely beaten by a gallant body of merchant
seamen and passengers. This was a glorious time for the British navy,
but the fleets in the West Indies had little to do after the beginning
of the war. There was a great disturbance on the island of Hispaniola, a
riot in Grenada, troubles in the French islands, and a few skirmishes
here and there, but nothing of much consequence to the British.
There were many small difficulties of course, and the navigation laws
had to be relaxed generally in favour of neutrals, as otherwise
provisions would have been scarce. The Dutch were not altogether
displeased with British rule, for Curacao, which had not been conquered,
was captured from its French garrison in 1800, at the request of the
inhabitants, whose trade had been entirely stopped. Then the Spanish
colonies came to an arrangement by which much of their produce went
through British hands, and this prevented the neutrals from getting
everything.
In 1802 the peace of Amiens gave France a rest for about ten months,
when she got back her own and the Dutch colonies, leaving Trinidad as an
addition to those of Great Britain. Hardly, however, had they taken
possession, when the treaty was broken, and the British were again in
their midst. A great deal of the work which had been undone by the peace
had now to be undertaken afresh, but it was ultimately accomplished, so
that things went on much the same as before.
The year 1805 was notable for Nelson's trip across the Atlantic in
search of the French fleet, which however fled before him and got back
to Europe. The same year also saw the heroic defence of "H.M.S." Diamond
Rock, which however was not a ship, but an improvised fortress, which
after a long struggle was obliged to capitulate. Hundreds of gallant
exploits were performed in the West Indies by both English and French,
and thus the war went on year after year, until it became something to
be calculated for in commercial transactions. People began to look upon
it almost as a natural state of things, and fathers told their children
that they had peace on one occasion long ago for as many as ten years.
The British had undoubtedly become very arrogant. Their position on the
sea was so supreme that they did much as they pleased with the few
neutrals. This sort of thing did not suit the North American traders,
who were Englishmen also, and like their forefathers resented any
interference whatever. It resulted, therefore, that the United States
declared war in January, 1813, and made the planters understand what
took place "when Greek met Greek." Almost immediately every colony was
pestered and worried by a number of fast-sailing schooners, as dangerous
in a sense as had once been the fly-boats of the buccaneers. The heavy
sugar boats going from plantation to port were captured in great
numbers, and some of the harbours actually blockaded by the "Saucy
Jack," the "Hornet," and other audacious Yankee craft with names as
suggestive of their characters. Then, indeed, the West Indies were
roused from their apathy--war was actually at their doors. However,
peace came at last, and after 1815 it might be expected that the islands
would go on prospering and to prosper.
Such, however, was not the case. In 1807 a great difficulty had come
upon them by the abolition of the slave-trade, which at once put a stop
to all extensions, either in the way of new plantations or of the
acreage under cultivation. This was the first great check, and with the
fall in prices, which ensued when Britain became the consignee of almost
every settlement, caused a cry of "Ruin!" to arise, which has continued
with short intermissions down to the present day.
[Illustration]
XII.
DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA.
Before the abolition of the slave-trade had affected the British islands
the French colonies were distracted by the results of their great
revolution. Hispaniola, or rather that portion now known as Hayti, had
become, as we before said, the most important colony; we must now give
the story of its downfall. If this had happened by the fortune of war it
would perhaps not have been so deplorable, but to be utterly ruined as
it was, until even now, after the lapse of a century, it is behind its
neighbours, is very sad.
But, in the struggle for existence the straining after liberty has to be
reckoned with, and although the process causes intense suffering to both
lord and serf--master and slave--the fight is sure to come at some time
or other. Miss Martineau uses the title, "The hour and the man," for her
romance of the liberation of this once flourishing island. The hour had
come, but we are afraid _the man_ has not yet appeared on Hispaniola.
When the French people took the government from the hands of their king
and summoned the States General, revolutionary ideas had already come
to a head, and the matter of slavery received much consideration. In all
the colonies were numbers of free coloured persons, who had been
manumitted by their fathers, and in many cases sent to Europe for their
education. In Paris they were brought into communication with a kind of
anti-slavery society, called _L'Amis des noirs_, before which they had
opportunities of ventilating their grievances. These consisted of civil
disabilities which kept mulattoes in the background, and prevented their
taking what they believed to be their proper positions in society. The
time was fitted for such an agitation, the people were there, and it was
only to be expected that their complaints would come in the long
catalogue of charges against the aristocrats, among whom were included
the West Indian planters. However, although there was little sympathy
with the colonists, nothing particular was done as yet, except the issue
of the celebrated declaration that all men were born, and continued to
be, free and equal as to their political rights. It might be said,
perhaps, that this alone gave freedom to the slave and civil equality to
the mulatto, but as it did not specially apply to them, little trouble
ensued. The planters, however, were sufficiently acute to see the
logical outcome of the declaration, and were correspondingly troubled,
as they felt that if published among the negroes it might convert them
into implacable enemies, and bring on dangerous insurrections. They were
soon pacified, however, by orders to convene provincial assemblies, and
send representatives to Paris: this they thought would prevent
mischief, as their interests could be made known and promoted in
France.
[Illustration: VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA.
(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
The free coloured people soon heard the news, and at once began to claim
their rights as citizens, which the planters were by no means prepared
to grant. On this refusal they began to arm themselves, and make
demonstrations in various parts of Hayti, but at first were easily put
down by the authorities. As yet there was little ill-feeling; the
demonstrations were only alarming from their significance and their
possible consequences. It followed, therefore, that little was done
beyond a demand for submission, the mulattoes being allowed to disperse
on promising to keep the peace. A few whites, however, who had been
leaders in the agitation, were severely punished, and when a certain
Mons. Dubois not only advocated the claims of the coloured people, but
the slaves as well, he was banished from the colony.
Mons. de Beaudierre, a _ci-devant_ magistrate, also helped to add to the
trouble. He was enamoured of a coloured woman, who owned a valuable
plantation, and wanted to marry her, but at the same time wished to see
her free from all civil disabilities. Accordingly he drew up a memorial
to the committee of his section, claiming for the mulattoes the full
benefit of the national declaration of rights. This roused the
authorities, who at once arrested him, but so strong was the feeling of
the whites that they took the prisoner from gaol and put him to death.
The agitation in Hayti as well as in Martinique led to petitions and
remonstrances to the National Assembly, and on the 8th of March, 1790,
the majority voted that it was never intended to comprehend the internal
government of the colonies in the constitution of the mother country, or
to subject them to laws incompatible with their local conditions. They
therefore authorised the inhabitants of each colony to signify their
wishes, and promised that, as long as the plans suggested were
conformable to the mutual interests of the colonies and the metropolis,
they would not cause any innovations.
This of course raised a clamour among the friends of the blacks and
mulattoes, who considered it as sanctioning the slave-trade, which they
wanted to put down. In Hayti the General Assembly met and made some
radical changes, which were opposed by many of the old colonists, and
this brought discord among the whites. The Governor dissolved the
Assembly, but this only brought more trouble, for the subordinate
Western body took the part of the General Assembly, and went so far that
the Governor tried to suppress it by force. But the members put
themselves under the protection of the national guard who resisted the
troops sent against them, and after a short skirmish drove them off.
Thus all authority was put at defiance by the whites, when if they
wanted to keep down the coloured and black people, it was of the
greatest consequence that union should exist. The General Convention
called the colony to arms, but, before actually commencing hostilities,
they resolved to proceed to France, and lay the whole matter before the
Convention. Accordingly to the number of eighty-five they sailed on the
8th of August, 1790, the authorities also agreeing to await the result.
Among the coloured residents in France was a young man named James Oge,
the son of a mulatto woman by a white man, whose mother owned a coffee
plantation. He was a regular attendant at the meetings of the friends of
the blacks, where, under such men as Lafayette and Robespierre, he had
been initiated into the doctrine of the equal rights of men. On hearing
of the vote of non-interference with the colonies, Oge, maddened by the
thought that the civil disabilities of people of his colour would be
continued, resolved to go himself to Hayti. He was confident that the
people there would join him, and going out by way of the United States
he obtained there a good supply of arms, with which he arrived in
October of the same year.
Six weeks after his arrival he wrote to the Governor, demanding that all
the privileges of the whites should be extended to every other person,
without distinction. As representing the coloured people he made this
request, and if their wrongs were not at once redressed, he said, they
were prepared to take up arms. He had already been joined by his two
brothers, and they were busy calling upon their friends to insist,
assuring them that France approved of their claim. But with all his
efforts he could get but few followers, the same difficulty cropping up
here as in most of the slave insurrections--a want of the power of
combination under one of their own race. However, he at last got
together two hundred, and, receiving no answer from the Governor, they
commenced a series of raids on the plantations. Oge cautioned them
against bloodshed, but the first white man that fell into their hands
was murdered, and others soon met with the same fate. Even mulattoes,
who refused to join the insurgents, were treated the same way; one man
who pointed to his wife and six children, as a reason for his refusal,
being murdered with them.
The Governor now sent out a body of troops and militia to suppress the
revolt, with the result that Oge was defeated, and obliged to take
refuge with the remnant of his followers in the Spanish colony of St.
Domingo. The whites were now roused, and began to cry out for vengeance
upon the coloured people in general, whether they had sympathised with
Oge or not. In self-defence they had to take up arms in several places,
but by conciliation on the part of the authorities a general
insurrection was averted for the time. A new Governor now arrived, and
one of his first acts was to demand the extradition of Oge by the
Spaniards, which, being done, he was executed by breaking alive upon the
wheel. In his last confession he is said to have stated that a plot was
then hatching for the destruction of all the whites, but little notice
was taken of this information. The whites believed that now the leader
was dead things would go on in the old way, but, unfortunately for them,
they were mistaken.
Meanwhile the delegates had arrived in France, where they were
honourably received. After an interview with a Committee of the
Convention, however, they were informed that their decrees were
reversed, the Haytian Assembly dissolved, and they themselves under
arrest. This, when the news reached the colony, put the whites into a
state of consternation, and for awhile it appeared as if Hayti would be
the scene of a civil war. Captain Mauduit, who had led the force against
the assembly, was murdered by his own troops, and preparations were made
to resist the authorities.
The planters thought these arbitrary measures of France very oppressive,
but they had yet to learn how far the revolutionists might go. In May,
1791, the matter of equal rights for the coloured people came up before
the National Convention, and their claim was strongly advocated by
Robespierre and others. It was now that the words, "Perish the colonies
rather than sacrifice one of our principles," were uttered by that
bloodthirsty revolutionist, to afterwards become a stock quotation of
the extremist in every country. The result of the discussion was the
decree of May the 15th, that the people of colour resident in the French
colonies, and born of free parents, should be allowed all the privileges
of French citizens; to have votes, and be eligible for election to the
parochial and colonial assemblies.
This brought on a crisis in Hayti. The coloured people were determined
to obtain their rights, and the planters equally resolved that they
should remain as before. The Governor was so much alarmed that he at
once sent to France for further assistance, at the same time asking for
the suspension of the obnoxious decree. Hearing of this, the mulattoes
began to assemble and take up arms, and the Governor hardly dared to
take action pending the result of his application.
On the morning of the 23rd of August, 1791, the people of Cape Francois
were alarmed by reports that the slaves in the neighbourhood were in
open revolt, plundering the plantations and murdering the whites. The
disturbance had commenced with the hewing in pieces of a young white
apprentice on Pin. Noe, which murder was followed by a general massacre
of every white man, except the surgeon, who was spared that he might
become useful. From one estate to another the revolt spread, until the
whole neighbourhood was a scene of murder, fire, and rapine. The white
townspeople put their women and children on board the ships, and then
united for a stubborn defence, but the coloured men wanted to remain
neutral. This roused such a strong feeling that even at that critical
time the whites had to be prevented by the authorities from murdering
the mulattoes. By thus protecting the mulattoes their good-will was
gained, and they volunteered to go out against the rebels.