Australia_, pp. 415, 423, etc.
[800] Rivers, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute_, xxxix; _Man_, viii.
[801] Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 39.
[802] E. F. im Thurn, _Indians of Guiana_, p. 184.
[803] For the Mandingos of Senegambia see _Revue
d'ethnographie_, v, 81, cited in Frazer's _Totemism and
Exogamy_, ii, 544.
[804] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 95.
[805] Swanton, _Tlingit Myths_, and _Jesup North Pacific
Expedition_, v, 231; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, pp. 323, 336 f.
[806] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
679; in the Louisiade group belief in direct descent is said
to exist (p. 743).
[807] Cf. the remarks of Boas in the Introduction to Teit's
_Thompson River Indians_.
[808] On the other hand, the Kurnai, who are not totemic,
refrain, apparently, from eating their sex-patrons.
[809] This report was made in 1841, before the natives had
come in contact with the whites.
[810] In the Banks Islands the restrictions of eating relate
to the patrons of individual persons; see _Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix, 165 f.
[811] Rivers, _The Todas_, Index, s.v. _Food, restriction
on_.
[812] Cf. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 239, note 169;
Franciscan Fathers, _Ethnologic Dictionary_ p. 507.
[813] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 77.
[814] Cf. A. M. Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and
the Lacandones_ (of Yucatan), and the literature given in
articles "America, South" and "Brazil" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[815] J. W. Fewkes is of opinion that the great Snake dance
(an economic function) was formerly conducted by the Snake
clan (_Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American
Ethnology_, p. 304).
[816] The choice of the object is determined by local
conditions that are not known to us. Sometimes, probably,
the object is the one most important for the welfare of the
community; sometimes it may have come from accident. See
below, § 554 ff.
[817] The artificial objects that are regarded, in a few
cases, as totems are probably of late origin, the product of
reflection, and thus differing from the old totems, which
arise in an unreflective time. However, the artificial
totems are doubtless sometimes looked on as powerful; in
some cases they may be little more than badges.
[818] This is Frazer's definition (in his _Totemism_ p. 1),
supplemented by the words "not worshiped." Cf., on the whole
subject, Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxviii, 144; F. Boas, in _American Journal of
Psychology_, xxi; A. A. Goldenweiser, "Totemism," in
_Journal of American Folklore_, xxiii (1910).
[819] For a preciser definition of totemism see below,
§ 520.
[820] The details are given in Frazer's _Totemism and
Exogamy_.
[821] Certain Arunta traditions appear to point to a time
when the totem was freely eaten. The bird-mates of the clans
may be regarded as secondary totems--perhaps a survival from
a time when a clan might have more than one totem.
[822] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_, pp. 173, 318.
[823] The clan-names may formerly have been totemic, but
data for the decision of this point are lacking.
[824] So Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 173.
[825] Cf. H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, pp. 1,
121 ff.; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, pp. 41 f., 45, 350, 454
ff.; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 28 ff.; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, i, 183
ff., 188 ff.
[826] C. G. Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New
Guinea_, chaps. xxxv, 1.
[827] Such a belief is said to exist in the Aru archipelago
(Papuan) west of New Guinea. There the family, and not the
clan, is the social unit; every family has its badge or
crest.
[828] Melanesia is here taken to include the Bismarck
Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, and adjacent islands)
and the islands lying to the eastward as far as the 180th
meridian of longitude, though in this area there is in some
places Polynesian influence.
[829] So Reverend George Brown, _Melanesians and
Polynesians_, p. 28.
[830] This usage is reported for Florida Island.
[831] On the question whether these gods are a development
out of totem animals see below, § 577.
[832] On the relation of this idea to Frazer's theory of
"conceptional totemism" see below, § 548.
[833] It might then seem that the deity was originally the
animal; see below, § 577.
[834] As to the significance of this fact cf. below, § 529
ff.
[835] W. H. Furness, 3d, _The Island of Stone-Money_.
[836] On the large theistic material of the Pelews see
Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, pp. 386, 428 ff., with
references to J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer" (in A.
Bastian's _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_).
[837] Cf. below, § 577.
[838] Exogamy is said to exist in the atoll Lua Niua, in the
Lord Howe group; the population is described as Polynesian
(Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 414 ff.); Dr.
Brown thinks it probable that exogamous classes formerly
existed in Samoa, to which place the Lua Niua people, he
holds, are ultimately to be traced.
[839] Certain septs (among the Telugus and others) are named
from inanimate (some times artificial) objects.
[840] The usages mentioned in article "Burma" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 24, do not
necessarily show totemism.
[841] The Iroquois stock occupied an immense territory,
partly in Canada, partly in the region now including the
states of New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas.
[842] Cf. Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 24
ff.
[843] The Wyandots, who were allied to the Iroquois, dwelt
in the district north of Lake Ontario.
[844] The Algonkins formerly ranged over a large territory
extending along the Atlantic coast as far south as North
Carolina and reaching westward to the Mississippi.
[845] It was from the Ojibwas that our word 'totem' was
taken.
[846] A similar rôle, somewhat vague, is assigned to two
supernatural beings in Australia (Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 388; cf. p. 246).
[847] Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 177 ff.
It was expiatory, and was accompanied by a moral
reconstruction of society, a new beginning, with old scores
wiped out. Cf. the Cherokee Green Corn dance (see article
"Cherokees" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_).
[848] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xviii. The Pawnee had a
fairly well-developed pantheon, and a civil government based
on rank (chiefs, warriors, priests, magicians). They lived
in endogamous villages; in every village there was a sacred
bundle, and all the people of the village were considered to
be descendants of the original owner of the bundle.
[849] Will and Spinden, _The Mandans_ (_Papers of the
Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_,
Harvard University, vol. iii, 1906), p. 129 ff.
[850] J. W. Fewkes, _The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi_
(reprint from _The American Anthropologist_, vol. xi, 1898),
with bibliography.
[851] Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology and
Archæology_, iv, and _Journal of American Folklore_, iv.
[852] The stocks or groups are, going from north to south:
the Déné or Athabascans (middle of Alaska and running east
and west); the Tlingit (Southern Alaska); the Haidas (Queen
Charlotte Islands and adjacent islands); the Tsimshians
(valleys of the Nass and Skeena rivers and adjacent
islands); the Kwakiutl (coast of British Columbia, from
Gardiner Channel to Cape Mudge, but not the west coast of
Vancouver Island); the Nootkas (west coast of Vancouver
Island); the Salish (eastern part of Vancouver Island, and
parts of British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, and Montana);
the Kootenay (near Kootenay Lake and adjoining parts of the
United States). See the authorities cited by Frazer in
_Totemism and Exogamy_.
[853] § 445 f.
[854] Cf. the divergent native accounts of the Melanesian
_buto_ (Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 31 ff.).
[855] In North America, in the Iroquois, Algonkin, Maskoki
(Creek), and Siouan stocks; in Central America and South
America; in Borneo and East Africa; and elsewhere.
[856] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ (Central
California), p. 223; id., _The Shasta_ (Northern California
and Oregon), p. 451; id., _The Chimariko Indians_ (west of
the Shasta, on Trinity River), p. 301; A. L. Kroeber,
article "California" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.
[857] Article "Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.
[858] Hollis, _The Masai_, Index, and _The Nandi_, p. 5 f.
[859] A hint of an earlier usage is given in a legend which
relates that totemic clans were ordained by a king to the
end that certain sorts of food might be taboo to certain
families, and thus animals might have a better chance to
multiply.
[860] See the volumes of A. B. Ellis on these countries
(chapters on "Gods" and on "Government").
[861] A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_, p.
314.
[862] On this point see below, § 522 ff.
[863] For the details see W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage
in Early Arabia_ (includes the Hebrews); Joseph Jacobs, "Are
there Totem-clans in the Old Testament?" (in _Archæological
Review_, vol. iii); A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (on the Greek
_genos_), and _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, i, 266 ff.; ii,
226; S. Reinach, _Cultes, mythes et religions_ (Greek and
Celtic); Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 68 ff.,
etc.; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 84 f.; G. L. Gomme,
"Totemism in Britain" (in _Archæological Review_, vol. iii);
N. W. Thomas, "La survivance du culte totémique des animaux
et les rites agraires dans le pays de Galles" (in _Revue de
l'histoire des religions_, vol. xxxviii).
[864] Names are omitted that appear to belong only to
individuals or to places.
[865] G. B. Gray, _Hebrew Proper Names_, p. 86 ff.
[866] Strabo, _Geographica_, xiii, 588.
[867] Herodotus, ii, 37, 42; Diodorus Siculus, _Bibliotheke
Historike_, i, 70.
[868] Lev. xi; Deut. xiv.
[869] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die griechischen
Sakralaltertümer_, p. 27.
[870] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 241 f.
[871] Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, v, 12.
[872] Herodotus, ii, 42.
[873] Pausanias, i, 24, 4. On the death of the god cf.
Frazer, _The Dying God_.
[874] Herodotus, ii, 39 ff., W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., additional note G; the Roman Lupercalia.
[875] Diodorus Siculus, i, 86 (Egypt); cf. Pliny, _Historia
Naturalis_, x, 4 f.
[876] W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_,
chap. viii (Semites).
[877] See above, §§ 441 ff., 466, and below, § 526; Frazer,
_Totemism and Exogamy_, Index, s.vv. _Animals_ and _Totems_.
[878] See above, § 443 ff.
[879] So, also, in Northeastern Asia, in the Japan
archipelago (the Ainu), and in low African tribes.
[880] Where sexual license before marriage prevails, young
girls are allowed to go to these houses.
[881] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_.
[882] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 60 ff.
[883] Mary Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 384, and
_Travels in West Africa_, p. 532 ff.; Ellis, _Yoruba_, p.
110.
[884] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, p. 164 ff.
[885] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 495 ff.
[886] Frazer, loc. cit. Cf. A. Lang, _Secret of the Totem_,
p. 138.
[887] _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi, i, 32 ff., 43
ff.
[888] So worship was offered to the Roman _genius_ (Horace,
_Carm._ iii, 17; _Epist._ i, 7, 94).
[889] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, p. 105; _Tshi_, p. 156;
_Yoruba_, chap. vii.
[890] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 78 f. So the [Greek: kourotrophos]
(Farnell, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tylor_).
[891] W. H. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_, p. 145, cited
by Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii, 442 f.
[892] The acquisition of a supernatural inspirer by a shaman
is analogous to this custom, but belongs in a somewhat
different category: see below, § 540.
[893] Miss Alice Fletcher, "Indian Ceremonies" (in _Report
of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_,
Harvard University, 1883).
[894] F. Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 393 f.
[895] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii, 450 ff.
[896] This process is similar to the gradual reduction of
the European independent barons to the position of royal
officers.
[897] See below, § 633 f.
[898] As, for example, by the Marathas of the Bombay
Presidency (Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 276 ff.).
[899] Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Prehistoric Times_,
2d ed., p. 598, and 6th ed., p. 610; id., _Origin of
Civilisation_ (1902), p. 275 ff.; and his _Marriage,
Totemism, and Religion_.
[900] Herbert Spencer, _Fortnightly Review_, 1870, and
_Principles of Sociology_ i, § 171.
[901] This view is provisionally indorsed by E. B. Tylor, in
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii.
[902] One such case is mentioned in Codrington's
_Melanesians_, p. 33.
[903] Frazer, _Golden Bough_ (1890), ii, 332 ff. This theory
has since been abandoned by Frazer (_Totemism and Exogamy_,
iv, 54 f.).
[904] Frazer, _Fortnightly Review_, July and September,
1905, pp. 154-172 (reprinted in _Totemism and Exogamy_, i);
_Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 89 ff.; iv, 57 ff.
[905] Rivers, "Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia" (in
_Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix
[1909], 172); Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 59 ff.
[906] This is the theory adopted by Frazer in his latest
work on the subject.
[907] The widespread belief that birth may be independent of
the union of the sexes does not, of course, carry with it an
explanation of totemism.
[908] Lippert, _Die Religionen der europäischen
Culturvölker_, p. 12; G. A. Wilken, "Het Animisme bij de
Volken van den Indischen Archipel," in _De Indische Gids_,
1884 (cf. Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxviii, 1899); G. M. Theal, _Records of
South-eastern Africa_, vii, and _History and Ethnography of
South Africa_, i. 90.
[909] F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History Of
Religion_, 1st ed., p. 101.
[910] F. M. Müller, _Anthropological Religion_, p. 121 ff.;
Pikler and Somló, _Ursprung des Totemismu_, p. 7 ff.; A. K.
Keane, _Ethnology_, p. 10; cf. G. M. Theal, _History and
Ethnography Of South Africa_, i, 17.
[911] A. C. Haddon, in _Report of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science_, 1902.
[912] A. Lang, _The Secret of the Totem_, chap. vi.
[913] Lists are given in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_.
[914] Lang, _The Secret of the Totem_, loc. cit.; Theal,
_History and Ethnography of South Africa_, i, 92.
[915] Cf. A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_, p. 154.
[916] Frazer, in _Fortnightly Review_, 1899 (this theory was
afterwards abandoned by him); B. Spencer, in _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxviii (1899).
[917] Cf. Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, v.
[918] Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, v.
[919] See below, § 577.
[920] Frazer, in his _Totemism_ (this view is now given up
by him); F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of
Religion_, Index; S. Reinach, _Cultes, mythes et religions_,
i, 86 ff.; Hahn, _Die Haustiere_, pp. 28 ff., 42, and his
_Demeter und Baubo_, p. 19 ff. (domestication of cattle and
use of milk as food connected with moon-cult). Cf. H. Ling
Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xvi,
102 ff.
[921] The totem belongs not to a tribe (Jevons,
_Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 114 f.) but to
a clan.
[922] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 19.
[923] W. E. Roth, quoted in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_,
i, 532.
[924] See above, § 529 ff.
[925] W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography_; Spencer
and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 226
ff.
[926] See below, § 635 ff.; cf. A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and
Religion_, ii, 197, etc.; S. Relnach, _Orpheus_ (Eng. tr.),
p. 81 ff.; Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 30 ff.
[927] Haddon, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tyler_, 183 ff.
[928] Rivers, in _Man_, viii (1908).
[929] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 31 ff. The
Bushman god Cagn, who has the form of a mantis, and the
Hindu monkey-god Hanuman seem to have no connection with
totemism.
[930] Cf. the remarks of Haddon, op. cit.
[931] So Zeus and other Greek gods.
[932] See below, § 1041 ff.
[933] See below, § 635.
[934] The moral perfection of the individual is an ideal
that has arisen out of social relations; it is demanded by
the deity because the moral standard of a deity is that of
his human society.
[935] In international relations this tendency appears in
the demand for arbitration.
[936] N. W. Thomas, article "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia
Britannica_, 11th ed.; Codrington, _The Melanesians_;
Thomson, _Story of New Zealand_; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et
totémisme à Madagascar_; Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_, p.
149 f.; J. G. Frazer, _Early History of the Kingship_;
Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (in _Anthropological
Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_).
[937] Cf. the Chickasa _hullo_, said to mean 'mysterious'
(Speck, in _Journal of American Folklore_, xx, 57).
[938] The danger from such objects is referred to a
supernatural presence, whose attitude toward human beings
may be doubtful; only, when the phenomenon observed is
thought to be nonnatural and is afflictive (as in the case
of death, for example), this attitude is judged to be
hostile.
[939] Purely economic and other social considerations are
sometimes combined with the mana conception.
[940] The physical unity produced by contact may be brought
about, according to savage philosophy, in other ways.
[941] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, i, 591; cf. E. S. Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_; Avesta, _Vendidad_, xv, 8.
[942] Article "Birth" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.
[943] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, ii, 345 ff.
[944] Lev. xii. In the modern Parsi usage a woman after
giving birth is secluded forty days.
[945] On the relation between birth customs and systems of
relationship (patrilineal and matrilineal) see the
references in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, ii, 636.
[946] Numb. xix, 11 ff. For the Mazdean rules see
Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, ii,
340 ff.
[947] Sanitary purposes may have entered into such customs.
[948] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
chap. xxiii, p. 138, etc.; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 145 f.; Kidd,
_The Essential Kafir_, p. 253.
[949] Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 160.
[950] Cicero, _De Legibus_, ii, 26 (Athens); _Roman_
_Digests_, xlvii, 12; _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, i,
13 (Phoenician); and so among many savage and
half-civilized peoples.
[951] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, chap. iii.
[952] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
140.
[953] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, i, 296, 302, 374, 618.
[954] Frazer, article "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_,
9th ed.
[955] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
466; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 52 ff.
[956] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 241; W. H.
Furness, 3d, _The Island of Stone-Money_, p. 38 f.
[957] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 399 ff.
[958] A physiological basis for this view seems to lie
outside the resources of savage observation, but prohibition
of intercourse just after childbirth may have a humanitarian
basis.
[959] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, pp. 68, 80,
200; Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
292; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, additional note
C.
[960] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 406 ff.; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, Index,
s.v. _Chastity_.
[961] See below, § 895 ff.; Westermarck, op. cit., i, 620
ff.
[962] Ezek. xliv, 19. The term "sanctify" of the English
Version means 'make ritually sacred,' not to be touched. Cf.
Shortland, _Southern Districts of New Zealand_, p. 293 f.;
Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 106 f.
[963] For Jewish rules see Lev. xxi. The onerous
restrictions on the Roman flamen dialis and his wife are
given in Frazer's _Golden Bough_ (see Index, s.v. _Flamen
dialis_) and the authorities cited by him.
[964] The prohibition of the products of the grapevine to
the Nazirite (Numb. vi, 3 f.) seems to have been originally
part of the attempt to follow the old pastoral life, in
contrast with the Canaanite agricultural life; later it
received a religious coloring. The prohibition might begin
at the moment of the child's conception (Judg. xiii, 4, 14).
[965] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 299 ff.
[966] Turner, _Samoa_.
[967] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.
[968] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. viii.
[969] Furness, _Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters_, p.
160 ff.
[970] C. S. Hurgronje, _The Achehnese_, p. 262 ff.
[971] T. C. Hodson, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxxvi.
[972] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215 ff.
[973] Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religion_, pp. 50, 96 ff.; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 106
ff.
[974] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 76 f.
[975] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii;
Frazer, op. cit., iii, 80.
[976] T. C. Hodson, "The Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam"
(in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi).
[977] Lev. xxiii; Numb. xxviii f.
[978] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Griechische Sakralaltertümer_,
p. 170.
[979] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 365 ff.
[980] Numb. xxviii, 26.
[981] The Thargelia; Harrison, op. cit., chap. iii.
[982] Mariner, _Tonga_, p. 483
[983] W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, iv, 388, etc.
[984] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 448 ff.
[985] Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, additional
note C.
[986] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 405 ff.
[987] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 288, 354.
[988] For details see Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, bk.
iii, chap. viii f.
[989] Hollis, _The Nandi_ p. 95 f.
[990] Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_ (in _Non-Christian Religious
Systems_), p. 140 f. Thus, as the author remarks, uposatha
is a weekly festival; and there is an approach to a true
seven-day week.
[991] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.
[992] Details of the week are given in the article
"Calendar" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, with references to authorities.
[993] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 79; Frazer, _Adonis Attis
Osiris_, pp. 370 ff., 375.
[994] See the noteworthy Yoruban rest day, the first day of
the five-day week (A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_).
[995] For the literature on the sabbath see Herzog-Hauck,
_Real-Encyklopädie_; Jastrow, in _American Journal of
Theology_ for 1898; Cheyne, _Encyclopædia Biblica_;
Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_; _Jewish Encyclopedia_;
F. Bohn, _Der Sabbat im Alten Testament_; Benzinger,
_Hebräische Archäologie_; Nowack, _Hebräsche Archäologie_;
C. H. Toy, "The Earliest Form of the Sabbath," in _Journal
of Biblical Literature_ for 1899 (in which, so far as
appears, the view that the Hebrew sabbath is a taboo day is
stated for the first time).
[996] Any taboo day might be the occasion of placative
ceremonies; but this is not a distinctive feature of the
day.
[997] T. G. Pinches, in _Proceedings of the Society of
Biblical Archæology_, xxvi, 51 ff.; Zimmern, in _Zeitschrift
der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, lviii, 199
ff., 458 ff.; J. Meinhold, _Sabbat und Woche im Alten
Testament_. There is no good reason to doubt that this
Babylonian term is formally identical with Hebrew _shabat_.
[998] 2 Kings iv, 23; Amos viii, 5; Isa. i, 13.
[999] Exod. xxiii, 6.
[1000] Deut. v, 12 ff.; Exod. xx, 8 ff.; the term 'holy'
here means set apart ritually, that is, taboo.
[1001] Ezek. xx, 12 f., 16, 20 f., 24; Isa. lviii, 13 f.;
cf. article "Sabbath" in _Jewish Encyclopedia_.
[1002] The Hebrew stem _shabat_ means 'to cease,' a
signification that accords well with the character of a
taboo day. But this sense has not been certainly found for
the Babylonian stem, and the original force of the term
_sabbath_ may be left undecided.
[1003] Exod. xxiii, 12.
[1004] Chabas, _Le calendrier des jours fastes et néfastes_;
Maspero, _Études égyptiennes_, i, 28 ff.; Wiedemann,
_Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, chap. x.
[1005] IV Rawlinson, plates, 32 f.; Jastrow, _Religion of
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 373 ff.
[1006] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 763 ff.
[1007] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 365 ff.; Fowler,
_Roman Festivals_, Index. The Romans, with their
thoroughness where public religion was concerned, divided
all the days of the year into the three classes, _dies
festi_ (festive, for worship), _dies profesti_ (for ordinary
business), and _dies intercisi_ (mixed, partly for religion,
partly for ordinary affairs).
[1008] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii,
29 (Burma).
[1009] J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, Index, s.v. _Luck_.
[1010] Many examples are given in Westermarck's _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xxxvii f.; cf. above,
§ 204 ff., on fasting.
[1011] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p.
630 ff.
[1012] E. A. Gait, article "Caste" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1013] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 321.
[1014] Taboo thus helps the growth of civil law (especially
of penal codes) by its collection of offenses, though only
on condition of retiring from the field. Cf. Frazer,
_Psyche's Task_, p. 17 ff.
[1015] Lev. xiv, 48-53.
[1016] Lev. xii.
[1017] So in many popular festivals; see Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_; Hopkins, _Religions of
India_, p. 453 ff.; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of
the Moral Ideas_, chap. xlii.
[1018] Examples are given in Crawley's _Mystic Rose_, pp.
223, 480 ff., chap. x ff.
[1019] Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_, 3d ed., p. 129
ff.; Hubert and Mauss, in _Année sociologique_, vii; Frazer,
_Early History of the Kingship_, lecture ii, especially p.
52 ff. (he defines taboo as "negative magic," magic, that
is, employed to avoid malefic influences); cf. Crawley, _The
Mystic Rose_, chap. ix, for the transmission of sex
characteristics.
[1020] Cf. R. R. Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (reply
to Frazer), in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tylor_.
[1021] Cf. Marett, op. cit.
[1022] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. viii; Alexander,
_Short History of the Hawaiian People_.
[1023] Shortland, _Maori Religion_.
[1024] Exod. xxiii, 10 f.
[1025] Livy, i, 31.
[1026] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215 ff.; George
Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 273 ff.
[1027] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
Index, s.v. _Taboo_.
[1028] H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British
North Borneo_, i, 98.
[1029] On _permontong_ see W. H. Furness, 3d, _Home Life of
the Borneo Head-hunters_, p. 160 ff.
[1030] Manu, v, 62.
[1031] Miss Alice Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 297 f.
[1032] Miss Mary Kingsley, _Travels_, Index.
[1033] T. C. Hodson, "Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam," in
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi (1906).
[1034] Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, Index.
[1035] Boas, in _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology_, and _Bulletin XV_, American Museum of
Natural History.
[1036] Lev. xii-xv.
[1037] Deut. xiv; Lev. xi; Diogenes Laertius, _Pythagoras_,
xvii.
[1038] On _tabu_ (or _tapu_) see E. Tregear,
_Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_; W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_, iv, 385.
[1039] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215.
[1040] A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_.
[1041] R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, p. 211.
[1042] The taboo sense proper is not found in [Greek: agios
(agos), enagês], and Latin _sacer_ which rather mean what is
accursed, detestable on account of wrong committed.
[1043] Sacred books "defile the hands."
[1044] Cf. articles "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_,
9th ed. (by Frazer) and 11th ed. (by Thomas).
[1045] The relation between totemism and man's attitude
toward beasts and plants is discussed above, §§ 524 ff., 564
ff.
[1046] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 167.
[1047] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_,
chap. xxii.
[1048] On the question whether a germinal sense of moral
obligation is found in the lower animals see above, § 12.
[1049] Naturally, the origin of all the particular taboos
escapes us; it depends in most cases on unknown conditions.
[1050] 1 Cor. xi, 27-30.
[1051] On the social organization of law cf. Darwin,
_Descent of Man_, p. 108; article "Aryan Religion" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1052] See above, § 240 ff.
[1053] In a cannibal community, for example, the gods will
be cannibal; see A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, new
ed., i, 6, 263 f.
[1054] Rawlinson, _History of Ancient Egypt_, i, 414 f.; ff.,
85, 506; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, pp. 46, 575; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, pp. 368, 502; ibid., p. 538 f.
[1055] They sometimes coalesce in functions with ghosts and
spirits.
[1056] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 19 ff.
[1057] L. Farrand, "Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians" in
_Jesup North Pacific Expedition_ (vol. ii of _Memoirs of the
American Museum of Natural History_), i, 14 ff.; Farrand and
Kahnweiler, "Traditions of the Quinault Indians," ibid.,
iii, 111; Boas, _Indianische Sagen_, p. 194 ff.; C.
Hill-Tout, articles in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, vols. xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvii.
[1058] Boas, Introduction to Teit's _Thompson River
Indians_, p. 16, and "Reports on the Indians of British
Columbia" in _Reports of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science_, vols. lix, lx, lxi, lxiv, lxv. A
tricksy character is ascribed to Loki in some of the Norse
stories (Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 263). Loki,
however, as he appears in the literature, is a highly
complex figure.
[1059] See Boas's Introduction in Teit's _Thompson River
Indians_.
[1060] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 263.
[1061] A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264 f.; Lang, _Myth,
Ritual, and Religion_, 1st ed., ii, 4 f.
[1062] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 123 ff.
[1063] W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 69 ff., 73 ff.
[1064] See Brinton, _Myth of the New World_ and _American
Hero-Myths_; _Journal of American Folklore_, passim. On the
'Hiawatha' myth see Hale, _Iroquois Book of Rites_, p. 180
ff., and Beauchamp, in _Journal of American Folklore_,
October, 1891.
[1065] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 28, 167, and
Index, s.v. _Qat_.
[1066] He is called also the "Big Raven," belonging under
this title in the cycle of raven myths of the North Pacific
Ocean (both in Asia and in America); see Jochelson, in
_Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi, i, 17 f.
[1067] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 98 f.; Callaway, _The
Amazulu_, p. 1 ff.; cf. the Japanese mythical emperor Jimmu
(Knox, _Development of Religion in Japan_, pp. 46, 63).
[1068] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.v.; Gen. iv; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.vv.;
Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.vv.
[1069] It is noteworthy that among the numerous ætiological
myths there seems to be no attempt to account for the origin
of language. Language was thought of as so simple and
natural a thing that no explanation of its beginnings was
necessary. Adam, in Gen. ii, is able, as a matter of course,
to give names to the animals. In early myths beasts have the
power of speech. In a Nandi folk-story (Hollis, _The Nandi_,
p. 113) what excites the wonder of the thunder and the
elephant is not man's capacity of speech, but the fact that
he can turn over when asleep without first getting up.
[1070] For female deities the title "grandmother" occurs
(Batchelor, _The Ainu_ [1901], p. 578). The devil's
grandmother figures in Teutonic folk-stories; see _Journal
of American Folklore_, xiii, 278 ff.; Frazer, _Golden
Bough_, 1st ed., i, 336.
[1071] Attempts to prove a primitive monotheism usually fail
to take this distinction into account.
[1072] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p.
488 ff.
[1073] Boas, Introduction to Teit's _Thompson River
Indians_, p. 7.
[1074] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, p. 1 ff.
[1075] Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 101 ff.
[1076] A. B. Ellis, _Tshi_, chaps. v-vii; _E[´w]e_, chap. v;
_Yoruba_, chap. iii. Cf. C. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_
(South Nigeria), p. 282 ff.
[1077] W. Crooke, _The Popular Religion and Folklore of
Northern India_ (1907), chap. ii.
[1078] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 537 f.
[1079] Rivers, _The Todas_, chap. xix.
[1080] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 35 ff.
[1081] Jochelson, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi,
i, 36-43.
[1082] Aston, _Shinto_, Index, s.v. _Kami_; Knox, _Religion
in Japan_, p. 27 ff.
[1083] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 255; cf. ii, 337.
[1084] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xix; Matthews, _Navaho
Legends_, p. 34 f.
[1085] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 532.
[1086] Spence, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, ii, 835.
[1087] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_ (Dahomi), p. 104.
[1088] On the ascription of divinity to men in great
civilized religious systems see above, § 351 ff.
[1089] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 120 ff.; Ed.
Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 31 ff.;
Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 109;
Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 21 f., 39.
[1090] Cf. W. von Baudissin, _Studien zur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte_, i, 28 f.
[1091] R. Smend, _Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte_, p.
33 f. In regard to the original home of Yahweh and the
diffusion of his cult among other peoples than the Hebrews
exact information is lacking.
[1092] Pietschmann, _Phönizier_, pp. 170 f., 182 ff.
[1093] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i,
664.
[1094] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.vv.; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_; "Eshmun" in
_Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_.
[1095] See, for example, Pausanias, i, 37, 3 (Zeus
Meilichios); ii, 19, 3 (Apollo Lykios); iii, 13, 2 (Kore
Soteira--Persephone, the protectress); v, 25, 6 f.
(Heracles); viii, 12, 1 (Zeus Charmon).
[1096] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, p. 15 ff.; Bloomfield,
_Religion of the Veda_, p. 90.
[1097] Sir C. R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, p. 104.
[1098] L. Spence, _The Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and
Peru_, p. 24 f.
[1099] See above, § 647.
[1100] Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Heros," col. 2473 ff.
[1101] _Works and Days_, 155 ff.
[1102] He appears to be usually beneficent; but, like all
the dead, he might sometimes be maleficent.
[1103] But these origins, going far back into prehistoric
times, are obscure.
[1104] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 132.
[1105] Tregear, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xix, 97 ff.; Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p.
164.
[1106] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.
[1107] E. H. Gomes, _Southern Departments of Borneo_.
[1108] Skeat, _Malay Magic_, chap. iv; Skeat and Blagden,
_Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_, ii, 245 ff.
[1109] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.; Crooke,
_Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, i, chap.
ii.
[1110] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264. The related Nandi
worship the sun (Asista) mainly, but have also a thunder-god
(Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 40 f.).
[1111] Hollis, op. cit., p. 279.
[1112] With them, as everywhere else, there is occasional
discrimination in the functions of magicians, different men
healing or inflicting different sicknesses; cf. article
"Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1113] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, chap. v; _Tshi_, chap. v;
_Yoruba_, p. 45.
[1114] Jochelson, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi,
i, 33 ff., 27 ff.
[1115] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. li.
[1116] Herodotus, iv, 94.
[1117] Demetrius Klementz, article "Buriats" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1118] Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 65 ff.; Dorsey, _The Skidi
Pawnee_, p. xviii ff. On gods of air and winds see J. H.
Keane, in article "Air and Gods of the Air" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1119] Hastings, op. cit., i, 382 ff., and ii, 837.
[1120] Brinton, _American Hero-Myths_, chap. iv; A. M.
Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones_
(of Yucatan), pp. 80, 93 ff.; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races
of the Pacific States of North America_, ii, chap. xx ff.
[1121] J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen
Urreligionen_, p. 577 ff.; Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and
Religion_, chap. xiv; L. Spence, _Mythologies of Ancient
Mexico and Peru_; E. Seler, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_. For
earlier authorities see Winsor, _Narrative and Critical
History Of America_, vol. i, chaps. iii, iv.
[1122] J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen
Urreligionen_, p. 313 ff.; Prescott, _Peru_, i, 91 ff.; C.
R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, chap. viii; and see
preceding note.
[1123] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, ii, 81, note 2; p.
82, notes 1 and 2.
[1124] Usener, _Götternamen_ p. 122 ff.; L. R. Farnell, "The
Place of the 'Sonder-Götter' in Greek Polytheism" (in
_Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_).
[1125] Farnell, op. cit.; cf. T. R. Glover, _Conflict of
Religions in the Early Roman Empire_, p. 12.
[1126] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v.
[1127] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, vii, 22; cf. bks. vi,
vii, passim.
[1128] Cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, pp. 15, 145 ff.
[1129] Judg. viii, 33.
[1130] The name occurs only once, in 2 Kings, i, 2. It is
incorrectly adopted in the English Version of the New
Testament.
[1131] Found only in the Synoptic Gospels, Mk. iii, 22;
Matt. x, 25; xii, 24, 27; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19.
[1132] Isa. lxiii, 15.
[1133] On these Semitic titles see articles "Baal" and
"Baalzebub" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_; article "Beelzebul" in Cheyne, _Encyclopædia
Biblica_; various articles in Brown, Driver, Briggs, _Hebrew
and English Lexicons_.
[1134] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. x; Furness, _Home life
of the Borneo Head-hunters_, p. 64 f.; Hopkins, _Religions
of India_, p. 530, note 2; De Groot, _Religion of the
Chinese_, p. 129 f.
[1135] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 18 f.; Nassau, _Fetichism in West
Africa_, pp. 67, 163 ff.
[1136] On "manitu" see _Handbook of American Indians_, s.v.
(and cf. article "Wakonda"); W. Jones, in _Journal of
American Folklore_, xviii, 183 ff. On "nagual" see Bancroft,
_Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_, iii,
458; Brinton, in _Journal of American Folklore_, viii, 249.
[1137] _Journal of American Folklore_, viii, 115.
[1138] Cf. M. H. Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 132 f.
[1139] Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 2, col. 1616.
[1140] Cf. article "Daimon" in Roscher, op. cit.
[1141] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 91 ff.;
Dan. x, 20; xi, 1; xii, 1; Matt. xviii, 10.
[1142] Examples are given above, § 255 f.
[1143] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. x.
[1144] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 150 f., 158 f.,
168 f.; Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 7, 52.
[1145] Here again a distinction must be made between animals
simply sacred and those that are specifically totemic.
[1146] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 248 f., 253 ff.
[1147] Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, chaps. xii f.
[1148] So the Samoan Tangaloa (Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
3d ed., ii, 344 f.).
[1149] St. John, _The Far East_, i, 180.
[1150] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 528 ff.
[1151] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, pp. 38 ff., 56 ff.; cf. M. H.
Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 117 ff.
[1152] Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, preface to new
edition.
[1153] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 34.
[1154] Article "Brazil" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_.
[1155] G. Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 1 ff.; Taylor,
_New Zealand_, chap. vi; cf., for Polynesia, W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_, chap. xiii. The abstract ideas
reported by Taylor are remarkable: from conception came
increase, from this came swelling, then, in order, thought,
remembrance, desire; or, from nothing came increase and so
forth; or, the word brought forth night, the night ending in
death. The significance of this scheme (supposing it to be
correctly stated) has not been explained. The rôle assigned
to "desire" in the Rig-Veda creation-hymn (x, 129) is the
product of learned reflection (cf. Schopenhauer's "blind
will"), and sounds strange in the mouth of New Zealand
savages.
[1156] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 308 ff.
[1157] Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, p. 193 f.
[1158] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 15; Castrén,
_Finnische Mythologie_, p. 1.
[1159] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (English
and German editions), Index, s.vv. _Allatu, Nergal_; id.,
_Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and
Assyria_, p. 368 ff.; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient
Egyptians_, p. 217; Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_,
p. 94 ff.; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp. 171 ff., 169
ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 144 f.; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 128 ff.; Spiegel, _Eranische
Alterthianskunde_, ii, 163 (but the old Persian god of the
Underworld, if there was one, was absorbed, in
Zoroastrianism, by Ahura Mazda); Jackson, in Geiger and
Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii, 652, § 52;
Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, ii, 513 ff.; iii,
chap. v; Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 187 ff.; Aust,
_Religion der Römer_, p. 52; Rohde, _Psyche_, 3d ed. i, 205,
ff.; articles on Hades, Plutos, Hermes, Dionysos, Nergal,
and related deities, in Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[1160] Cf. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and
Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 356 f., 372 f.; F.
Schwally, _Das Leben nach dem Tode_, p. 65 ff.; R. H.
Charles, _Eschatology_, p. 18 f. For the Arabs see
Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, iii, 22 ff., 42
ff.; Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; for the
Phoenicians, Pietschmann, _Phönizier_, p. 191 f.
[1161] Ps. cxxxix.
[1162] See article "Celts" in Hastings, op. cit.; Saussaye,
_Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed.; Usener,
_Götternamen_; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, op.
cit., p. 38 f. and passim.
[1163] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264. The neighboring Nandi,
according to Hollis (_The Nandi_, p. 41), have a similar
pair.
[1164] A. C. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ (_Bulletin of the
American Museum Of Natural History_, xviii, iii), p. 263.
For other such conceptions see Tylor's discussion in
_Primitive Culture_, ii, 320 ff.
[1165] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 63; H. Hale,
_Iroquois Book of Rites_, p. 74.
[1166] A possible exception is the Khond myth of the
struggle between the sun-god (Boora Pennu), the giver of all
good things, and the earth-goddess (Tari), the author of
evil things (Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.;
Macpherson, _India_, p. 84); but the origin of this myth is
uncertain.
[1167] 1 Kings xxii, 19-23.
[1168] Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 71
f.; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 172, 177.
[1169] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, pp. 114 ff., 132; Jean A.
Owen, _The Story of Hawaii_, p. 70 f.
[1170] Mills, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_,
xx, 31 ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 123 ff.
[1171] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 21 ff., 121
ff.
[1172] Zech. iii, 1-3; Job i, ii.
[1173] 1 Chr. xxi, 1.
[1174] 2 Cor. iv, 4.
[1175] The Greek _daimon_, properly simply a deity, received
its opprobrious sense when Jews and Christians identified
foreign deities with the enemies of the supreme God.
[1176] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 318 ff.
[1177] Great gods also send suffering, but only when they
are angered by men's acts, as by disrespect to a priest
(Apollo, in _Iliad_, i) or to a sacred thing (Yahweh, 1 Sam.
vi, 19; 2 Sam. vi, 7). In the high spiritual religions
suffering is treated as educative, or is accepted as
involving some good purpose unknown to men.
[1178] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p.
126 f.
[1179] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 260
ff.; O. Weber, _Dämonenbeschwörung bei den Babyloniern und
Assyriern_ (in _Der Alte Orient_, 1906).
[1180] The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles),
chaps. liii, vi-x; the Slavonic Enoch, or Secrets of Enoch
(ed. R. H. Charles), chap. xxxi. For the later Jewish view
(in Talmud and Midrash) see _Jewish Encyclopedia_, article
"Satan."
[1181] The "demons" of 1 Cor. x, 20 (King James version,
"devils") are foreign deities.
[1182] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 416, 492 ff.
[1183] Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_, articles
"Ophiten," "Kainiten."
[1184] J. Menant, _Les Yésidis_ (in _Annales du Musée
Guimet_); Isya Joseph, _Yesidi Texts_ (reprinted from
_American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures_, xxv
(1909), no. 2 f.). Cf. the idea of restoration in Col. i,
20.
[1185] So the Christian Satan.
[1186] When, in the reports of travelers and other
observers, demons are said to be placated, examination shows
that these beings are gods who happen to be mischievous. Of
this character, for example, appear to be the "demons"
mentioned in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, ii, 122.
[1187] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.
[1188] But see below, § 704.
[1189] Baethgen, _Beiträge zur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte_; Wellhausen, _Skissen_, iii, 25;
Nöldeke, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen
Gesellschaft_, 1886, 1888, and article "Arabs (Ancient)" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Pinches,
article "Gad," and Driver, article "Meni," in Hastings,
_Dictionary of the Bible_; Cheyne, article "Fortune" in
_Encyclopædia Biblica_; Commentaries of Delitzsch, Duhm,
Marti, Skinner, and Box on Isa. lxv, 11.
[1190] Lane, _Arabic-English Lexicon_, s.v. The Old
Testament title "Rock" given to Yahweh (Deut. xxxii, 18,
"the Rock that begat thee") is figurative, but may go back
to a divine rock.
[1191] On the Hebrew place-name (Job i, 1) and perhaps
personal name (Gen. xxxvi, 28) U[s.] (Uz), which seems to be
formally identical with 'Au[d.], see W. R. Smith, _Kinship
and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1st ed., p. 260 f., and his
_Religion of the Semites_, p. 43; Wellhausen, _Skissen_,
iii; Nöldeke, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen
Gesellschaft_, xl, 183 f.
[1192] _Maniya_, plural _manây[=a]_.
[1193] Isa. lxv, 11; III Rawlinson, 66.
[1194] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp.
420, 428 (the tablets of fate given to Kingu and snatched
from him by Marduk); R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian
Literature_, p. 304 f. (Marduk seizes the tablets of fate
from Zu); Ps. cxxxix, 16; Dan. vii, 10; Rev. v, 1, and other
passages.
[1195] As far as the forms are concerned, a concrete sense
for _man[=a]t_, _manu_, _meni_, seems possible; cf. Wright,
_Arabic Grammar_, 2d ed., i, § 231; Barth, _Semitische
Nominalbüdungen_, p. 163 ff.; Delitzsch, _Assyrian Grammar_,
p. 158 ff.
[1196] The etymologies in Gen. xxx, 11 ff. are popular. In
"Baal-Gad" (Josh. xi, 17) _Gad_ may be the name of a place;
cf. Stade, _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_, i, 271, note.
[1197] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, chap. iii.
For a list of other Egyptian gods of abstractions, such as
eternity, life, Joy, see Wiedemann, "Religion of Egypt," in
Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_, v, 191.
[1198] Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 4 ff.; Wissowa,
_Religion der Römer_, p. 46 ff.; Usener, _Götternamen_, p.
364 ff. (cf. Farnell, in _Anthropological Essays presented
to E. B. Tylor_); Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, pp. 190 f.,
341; Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 169 ff.
[1199] Cf. above, § 679, note.
[1200] Not all of these had public cults.
[1201] See articles in Roscher's _Lexicon_ ("Eros," "Moira,"
and similar terms); on Phoibos, cf. L. Deubner, in
_Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1903.
[1202] Cicero, _De Natura Deorum_, ii, 25.
[1203] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 135 f.; Bloomfield,
_Religion of the Veda_, pp. 191, 243 ff.; Macdonell, _Vedic
Mythology_, p. 115 ff.
[1204] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 34 ff.; A.
V. Williams Jackson, _Iranische Religion_ (in Geiger and
Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii, 637).
[1205] The six are: Vohumanah (Good Thought or Good Mind),
Khshathra Vairya (Best or Wished-for Righteous Realm or
Law), Spenta Armaiti (Holy Harmony), Asha Vahista (Perfect
Righteousness or Piety), Haurvatat (Well-being), Ameretat
(Immortality).
[1206] On these and certain minor divinized conceptions of
time see Spiegel, op. cit., ii, 4-17. On the Hindu
personification of time see Bloomfield, _Religion of the
Veda_, p. 244 ff. In these and similar cases time,
containing all things, is conceived of as the producer of
all things, and the line between personification and
hypostatization is not always clearly defined. For the
influence of astrology on the deification of time, see
Cumont, _Les religions orientates parmi les peuples
romains_, chap. vii (on astrology and magic), p. 212 f.,
paragraph on new deities, and notes thereto. Hubert, "La
représentation du temps dans la religion et la magie" (in
_Mélanges de l'histoire des religions_), p. 190,
distinguishes between the notation of favorable and
unfavorable times (and the nonchronological character of
mythical histories) and the calendar, which counts moments
continuously.
[1207] On a supposed relation between the Amesha-spentas and
the Vedic Adityas see Roth, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen
morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, vi, 69 f.; Macdonell, _Vedic
Mythology_, p. 44; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p.
134 f. Cf. also L. H. Gray (on the derivation of the
Amshaspands from material gods), in _Archiv für
Religionswissenschaft_, vii (1904), 345.
[1208] Cf. J. B. Carter, _De Deorum Romanorum Cognominibus_.
[1209] Cf. Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 9.
[1210] Cf. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, v, 442 ff.
[1211] They survive in later times to some extent in the
form of patron and other local saints, Christian and Moslem.
[1212] Cf. Bloomfield's classification of deities (_Religion
of the Veda_, p. 96) partly according to the degree of
clearness with which characters belonging to physical nature
appear: "translucent" gods are those whose origin in nature
is obvious; "transparent" gods are half-personified nature
objects.
[1213] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 285 ff.
[1214] See above, § 328 ff.
[1215] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 561 ff., and _Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 182; Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 348;
Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi,
125; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 410 f.
[1216] Cf. Batchelor, _The Ainu_ (1901), p. 63 f.
[1217] Cf. Aston, _Shinto_, p. 35.
[1218] J. G. Müller, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 58,
and Index, s.v. _Sonnendienst_; Matthews, _Navaho Legends_,
p. 33; Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 65 (cf. his _American
Hero-Myths_, p. 230); Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the
Creeks_, p. 216 f.
[1219] Prescott, _Mexico_, i, 57 ff.; id., _Peru_, i, 92
ff.; E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_,
i, 463, 550 ff.; C. R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, pp. 63,
67, 104 ff.
[1220] _Records of the Past_, first series, ii, 129 ff.;
viii, 105 ff.
[1221] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 71.
[1222] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, p. 65.
[1223] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp. 30, 32, 29, cf. p.
23; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 86; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 40 ff.
[1224] _Yashi_, x, 67.
[1225] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.
[1226] § 710.
[1227] W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_, i, 12 ff.; _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_,
xviii, 373 ff. (the Lurka Coles); Hopkins, _Religions of
India_ (Dravidians, Kolarians); and for a modern, more
civilized cult see Hopkins, op. cit., p. 480, note 3; Payne,
_History of the New World called America_, i, 546 ff.
[1228] Turner, _Samoa_, Index, s.v. _Moon_; Matthews,
_Navaho Legends_, pp. 86, 226.
[1229] See above, § 328 ff.; cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
i, 290 f.
[1230] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 88, 91.
[1231] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 356
ff., 457.
[1232] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, p. 5 (cf. J.
Edkins, _Religion in China_, p. 105 ff.).
[1233] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 204, 266, 526.
[1234] Judg. v, 20; Isa. xxiv, 21 ff.; Job xxxviii, 7; Enoch
xviii, 12; xxi, 1 (cf. Rev. ix, 1); cf. Neh. ix, 6. See
Baudissin, _Semitische Religionsgeschichte_, i, 118 ff.;
article "Astronomy and Astrology" in Hastings, _Dictionary
of the Bible_.
[1235] 2 Kings xxiii, 5.
[1236] The corrupt and obscure passage Amos v, 26, cannot be
cited as proving a cult of a deity Kaiwan (Masoretic text
Kiyyun, Eng. R.V. "shrine") identical with Assyrian kaiwan
or kaiman, the planet Saturn; there is no evidence that this
planet was worshiped in Assyria.
[1237] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i,
660.
[1238] Cf. W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early
Arabia_, chap. vi, note 8; Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_, loc. cit.
[1239] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 70 ff.
[1240] Cf. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.vv.
_Stern_ and _Sternbilder_.
[1241] Cumont, _Les religions orientales parmi les peuples
romains_, chap. vii.
[1242] The Franciscan Fathers, _Ethnologic Dictionary of the
Navaho Language_, Index, s.v.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
i, 293 f.
[1243] This is the full development of what had doubtless
been felt vaguely from the beginning of religious history.
[1244] On Kronos and the Titans cf. article "Kronos" in
Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[1245] Cælus (or Cælum) was sometimes called the son of
Æther and Dies (Cicero, _De Natura Deorum_, iii, 17, 24).
[1246] Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_ (and cf.
his _Geschichte des Altertums_, 2d ed.); Maspero, _Dawn of
Civilisation_; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient
Egyptians_, and article "Religion of Egypt" in Hastings,
_Dictionary of the Bible_, vol. v; Erman, _Handbook of
Egyptian Religion_; Breasted, _History of Egypt_.
[1247] Breasted, op. cit., pp. 36, 46; id., _Ancient Records
of Egypt_, under the various kings.
[1248] So Ed. Meyer, in article "Horos" in Roscher's
_Lexikon_.
[1249] So Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_,
p. 26 f.
[1250] Cf. Steindorff, op. cit., p. 30 f.
[1251] _Records of the Past_, vi, 105 ff.; Steindorff, op.
cit., p. 107 ff.
[1252] See, for example, the hymn in _Records of the Past_,
viii, 105 ff.
[1253] He was, therefore, doubtless a god of fertility.
[1254] _Records of the Past_, ii, 129 ff. The names of other
deities also were combined with that of Ra.
[1255] Egyptian civilization, as appears from recent
explorations, began far back of Menes; cf. Ed. Meyer,
_Geschichte des Altertums_, 2d ed., vol. i, part ii, § 169.
[1256] Cf. Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 58; Frazer,
_Adonis Attis Osiris_, bk. iii, chap. v.
[1257] Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_, 18; Frazer, loc. cit.;
Breasted, op. cit., p. 171 f.
[1258] His identification by some ancient theologians with
the sun (Frazer, op. cit., p. 351 f.) or with the moon
(Plutarch, op. cit., 41) is an illustration of the late
tendency to identify any great god with a heavenly body.
[1259] Such is the wording given by Proclus. The form in
Plutarch (_Isis and Osiris_, 9) is substantially the same:
"I am all that has been and that is and that shall be, and
my veil no mortal has lifted." See Roscher, _Lexikon_,
article "Nit," col. 436. Doubts have been cast on the
reality of the alleged inscription.
[1260] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 131.
[1261] So Ed. Meyer, in Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Isis,"
col. 360.
[1262] Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p.
107 ff.
[1263] See Drexler, in Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Isis,"
col. 424 ff.
[1264] Barth, _The Religions of India_ (Eng. tr.); Hopkins,
_Religions of India_; Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_;
Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, Bloomfield, _Religion of the
Veda_. See the bibliography in Hopkins, op. cit., p. 573 ff.
[1265] _Rig-Veda_, viii, 41, 1. 7; i, 23, 5 (_[r.]ta_,
'order').
[1266] _Rig-Veda_, x, 121.
[1267] Early imagination apparently connected the future
social life of gods and men not with the calm sky, but with
the upper region that was the scene of constant and awful
movements. But the ground of the choice of Indra as lord of
heaven rests in the obscurity of primeval times.
[1268] For economic reasons a rain-god must generally be
prominent and popular.
[1269] § 703.
[1270] The history of this distinction between Dyaus and
Varuna is lost in the obscurity of the beginnings.
[1271] This conception appears in germinal form in
_Rig-Veda_, v, 84, vi, 515, but is not there or elsewhere
developed.
[1272] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, § 20.
[1273] Cf. Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_,
article "Bengal," p. 491 ff., and the references there given
to authorities.
[1274] One form of Çaktism is described (in Hastings, loc.
cit.) as being the general worship of the Mothers of the
universe represented as the wives of the gods.
[1275] _Rig-Veda_, x, 64, 92, 135, 21, 52, 14.
[1276] Ibid., x, 14; ix, 113. However, this title is given
to Varuna also (x, 14): Yama and Varuna are the two kings
whom the dead man sees when he reaches heaven.
[1277] Ibid., x, 10, 13, 14 (cf. Atharva-Veda, xviii, 13).
[1278] Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_, i, 394 ff., but
only for the Indo-Iranian period.
[1279] _Rig-Veda_, x, 64.
[1280] Cf. Müller, _Lectures on the Science of Language_,
second series, p. 534 f.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii,
314; Bergaigne, _La religion védique_, ii, 94, note 3;
Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xxii. Cf. the Egyptian
conception of Osiris (Maspero, _Dawn of Civilisation_, p.
195).
[1281] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 80; other examples are
given in W. Ellis's _Polynesian Researches_, i, chap. v, and
Tylor, op. cit., ii, 312 ff.
[1282] Ellis, loc. cit.; Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. 6.
[1283] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 128 ff.; Macdonell,
_Vedic Mythology_, § 77; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_,
Index, s.v. _Yama_; and see the references in these works to
other authors.
[1284] _Jewish Encyclopædia_, articles "Adam" and "Adam
Kadmon"; _Koran_, ii, 29 ff.; cf. 1 Cor. xv, 45 ff.
[1285] See above. §§ 67 ff., 82.
[1286] On the relation between the two "first ancestors,"
Yama and Manu, cf. Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 140 f.
[1287] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 379 ff.
[1288] Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_,
vol. ii, part i.
[1289] See above, § 703. Cf. articles by L. H. Mills in
_Journal of the American Oriental Society_, vols. xx and
xxi; L. H. Gray, in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, vii
(1904), p. 345.
[1290] _Records of the Past_, vols. v, ix.
[1291] Many lesser divine beings are mentioned by Spiegel
(in _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 66 ff.); the advance to
a real monotheistic cult was not achieved in Persia without
many generations of struggle.
[1292] Cf. the similar process in the Arabian treatment of
the jinn (W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed.,
p. 122 f.).
[1293] Cf. A. V. Williams Jackson, _Zoroaster_, and his
sketch in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen
Philologie_; D. Menant, _Zoroaster d'après la tradition
parsie_, in _Annales du Musée Guimet_, vol xxx.
[1294] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chaps. i and
iii; pp. 62 ff., 112 f., 129 f.
[1295] With this conception we may compare the similar
principles in the Vedic and Mazdean systems.
[1296] The all-controlling order, as is remarked above, is
that of the universe, which furnishes the norm for human
life; but in the universe the grandest object is heaven.
[1297] Legge, in _Sacred Books of the East_, xxxix, xl; De
Groot, _Religious System of China_, and his smaller works,
_Religion of the Chinese_ and _Development of Religion in
China_.
[1298] W. E. Griffis, _Religions of Japan_; E. Buckley, in
Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed.; Aston,
_Shinto_; Knox, _Development of Religion in Japan_;
Longford, _The Story of Old Japan_, chap. ii.
[1299] Whether the worship of ancestors, now so important an
element of the national life, is native or borrowed is
uncertain.
[1300] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., p.
13 ff.
[1301] Compare Baethgen, _Beiträge sur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte_, p. 262 f.
[1302] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_; id.,
_Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and
Assyria_; Jeremias, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_; Zimmern, article "Babylonians and
Assyrians" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i, part ii,
2d book. In our survey of Babylonian deities the question of
Sumerian influence may be left out of the account.
[1303] Compare Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_,
p. 481; id., _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 23, 45, 121.
[1304] Ezek. viii, 16.
[1305] Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 82. The Babylonian and Assyrian
triads were loosely constructed, and had, apparently, no
significance for the local and royal cults. In this regard
they differed from the Egyptian triads and enneads, which
were highly elaborated and organised (Maspero, _Dawn of
Civilisation_, p. 104 ff.; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p.
56.; Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p.
29).
[1306] Cf. article "Astarte" (by Ed. Meyer) in Roscher,
_Lexikon_.
[1307] For the cuneiform material see Delitzsch,
_Assyrisches Handwörterbuch_, and, for various etymologies
proposed for the name, Barton, _Semitic Origins_, p. 102
ff.; Haupt, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_,
xxviii, 112 ff.; Barton, ibid., xxxi, 355 ff. The frequent
expression _ilani u ishtarâti_, 'gods and goddesses,'
suggests that the original sense of _ishtar_ is simply 'a
deity'; it is not probable that a proper name would become a
common noun and have a plural; cf. the treatment of the
title _ilu_, 'a god.'
[1308] As the title _bel_, 'lord,' became the proper name of
a particular god, so the title _ishtar_, 'mistress,' 'lady,'
might become the proper name of a particular goddess; in
neither case is the detailed history of the process known to
us.
[1309] They were probably local "lords"; in Moab Ashtar was
combined with a deity called Kemosh, of whom nothing is
known except that he was a Moabite national god (cf. G. F.
Moore, article "Chemosh" in _Encyclopædia Biblica_). For a
different view of Ashtar and Athtar see Barton, _Semitic
Origins_, Index, s.vv. _Chemosh_, _Athtar_; he regards these
deities as transformations of the mother-goddess Ashtart.
[1310] Baethgen, _Beiträge zur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte_, p. 66 ff.; Jeremias, "Syrien und
Phönizien" (in Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_).
[1311] Rawlinson, _History of Phoenicia_; Pietschmann,
_Geschichte der Phönizier_; Jeremias, op. cit.
[1312] Article "Esmun" in Roscher's _Lexikon_; article in
_Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_. Of the vague group
known as the Kabiri (the 'great ones,' seven in number, with
Eshmun as eighth) we have little information; on the
diffusion of their cult in Grecian lands see Roscher, op.
cit., article "Megaloi Theoi."
[1313] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, pp. 21
ff., 45 ff.; W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early
Arabia_, chap. vi, note 8; chap. viii, note 2; article
"Dusares" in the _Anthropological Essays presented to F. W.
Putnam_.
[1314] Mordmann, _Himyarische Inschriften_; Mordmann and
Müller, _Sabäische Denkmäler_; Barton, _Semitic Origins_, p.
127 ff.
[1315] His original seat is uncertain; by some scholars he
is regarded as an old North Semitic deity, but the grounds
for this view are not convincing. The occurrences of the
name outside of the Hebrew region throw little or no light
on his origin. Cf. Delitzsch, _Paradies_; Baudissin,
_Studien sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_; Barton,
_Semitic Origins_, chap. vii.
[1316] On his position in the seventh century cf. W. F.
Bade, in _Transactions of the American Philological
Association_, 1908.
[1317] For the Old Testament statements see C. G.
Montefiore, _Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by
the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews_ (Hibbert Lectures,
1892), Index, s.v. _Yahweh_.
[1318] He was thus supreme for the particular tribe, though
not universal; cf. article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1319] Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_; Gruppe,
_Griechische Mythologie_; articles on the various deities in
Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[1320] Formally the names Dyaus, Zeus, and Ju (in Jupiter)
are identical; and to these may probably be added the
Teutonic Tiu (Tyr).
[1321] In early thought the sky (like the earth) is in
itself a powerful thing, a personality, and the god who is
later supposed to inhabit and control it is a definite
figure, like, for example, a tree-god.
[1322] From the ancient notices of Kronos it is hardly
possible to fix definitely the relation between him and
Zeus. It is probable that he represents an older cult that
was largely displaced by that of Zeus. The custom of human
sacrifice in his cult led to the identification of him with
the Phoenician (Carthaginian) Melek (Moloch), and his name
has been interpreted (from [Greek: krainô]) as meaning 'king'
(= melek); but this resemblance does not prove a Semitic
origin for him. Whether his rôle as king of the Age of Gold
was anything more than a late construction is not clear.
[1323] The etymology of his name is doubtful.
[1324] On his titles "earth-shaker" and "earth-upholder" cf.
Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_ p. 1139, note 2.
[1325] Possibly he was originally the ocean itself conceived
of as a living and powerful thing, as Zeus (and so Varuna
and Ahura Mazda) was originally the physical sky; Okeanos is
a great god (_Iliad_, xiv, 201; Hesiod, _Theogony_, 133).
[1326] By many writers he is considered to have been
originally a wind-god; but wind, though it might suggest
swiftness (and, with some forcing, thievishness), cannot
account for his other endowments.
[1327] Gen. xxx, 37 ff.; xxxi, 9; Wellhausen, _Reste
arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 196; Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii, 17-19.
[1328] _Odyssey_, xv, 319 f. Lang lays too much stress on
this fact (_Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, 1st ed., ii, 257).
[1329] Gruppe (_Griechische Mythologie_, p. 1384) thinks (on
grounds not clear) that he was originally of Crete.
[1330] So Gruppe, op. cit.
[1331] _Homeric Hymn to Pan._
[1332] Servius on Vergil, _Eclogue_ ii, 31.
[1333] Roscher, in _Lexikon_, article "Pan," col. 1405, and
in _Festschrift für Joh. Overbeck_, p. 56 ff. On the
influence of the Egyptian cult of the goat-god of Mendes on
the conception of Pan see Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Pan,"
cols. 1373, 1382.
[1334] Mannhardt, _Antike Wald und Feldkulte_, p. 135 f.;
Roscher, op. cit., col. 1406; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek
States_, v, 431, and many others. To this etymology Gruppe
(op. cit., p. 1385) objects that such a name for a deity is
not probable for primitive savage times; he offers nothing
in its place.
[1335] Plutarch, _De Defectu Oraculorum_, 17; Reinach,
_Orpheus_ (Eng. tr.), p. 41.
[1336] Pindar, ed. W. Christ, _Fragments_, 95 ff.
[1337] _Theogony_, 922 f.
[1338] Euripides, _Bacchæ_, 131 f. (cf. Æschylus, _The Seven
against Thebes_, 541; Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_, § 13).
[1339] _Nili Opera_, p. 27; Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., p., 338 f.; Spencer, _Principles of
Sociology_, i, 288.
[1340] See above, § 384 ff.
[1341] _Iliad_, xiv, 325.
[1342] Perhaps the description of him in the _Iliad_ (loc.
cit.) as "a joy to mortals" refers to wine; cf. Hesiod,
_Theogony_, 941, where he is called the "bright joyous one."
[1343] As, for example, the Arabian clan god Dusares (Dhu
ash-Shara), carried by the Nabateans northward, was brought
into relation with the viticulture of that region. Cf.
above, § 764.
[1344] On this point cf. Miss J. Harrison, _Prolegomena to
the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 366.
[1345] See above, § 680 f.
[1346] _Iliad_, xv, 184 ff.; Hesiod, _Theogony_, 453 ff.
[1347] He is not always in mythological constructions
distinct from Zeus--in _Iliad_, ix, 457, it is Zeus
Katachthonios who is lord below.
[1348] Æschylus, _Prometheus Bound_, 806.
[1349] Cf. the development of Osiris (above, § 728).
[1350] Cf. Greek Horkos, and the oath by the Styx.
[1351] Cf. Miss Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religion_, chap. vi.
[1352] Cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v.; Miss Harrison,
_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 271 ff.
[1353] Compare Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p.
320 ff.; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 176 ff.
[1354] Compare Miss Harrison, op. cit., p. 271 ff.
[1355] By her name she is identified with the hearth, as
similarly Zeus is identified with the sky. The hearth was
the center of the home, and had wide cultic significance.
The name Hestia embodies not the divinization of a concrete
object, but the recognition of the divine person presiding
over the object in question.
[1356] Roscher, _Lexikon_; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek
States_.
[1357] _Odyssey_, xx, 71.
[1358] The representation of her as the slayer of women with
her "kindly arrows" (_Odyssey_, xx, 67), that is, by an easy
death, is in keeping with the early idea that death was
caused by some supernatural Power; so Apollo slays (_Iliad_,
xxiv, 759).
[1359] Leto is a Titaness (Hesiod, _Theogony_, 404 ff.), an
old local goddess, naturally a patron of children, and so of
similar nature with Artemis, with whom she was often joined
in worship. Her connection with Apollo arose possibly from a
collocation of her cult with his in some place; in such
collocations the goddess would become, in mythological
constructions, the mother, sister, or wife of the god. This
relation once established, stories explaining it would
spring up as a matter of course. The fact that she was later
identified with the Asian Great Mother indicates that she
also had a universal character.
[1360] Hesiod, _Theogony_, 411 ff.
[1361] She was, perhaps, an underground deity, or the
product of the fusion of two deities, one of whom was
chthonic.
[1362] Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_; Roscher,
_Lexikon_.
[1363] Thus the Greeks endeavored to embody in divine
figures all sides of family life. The division of functions
between Hera, Hestia, and Athene is clear.
[1364] As, for example, 'fragile' and 'frail,' 'intension'
and 'intention,' 'providential' and 'prudential,' and many
other groups of this sort.
[1365] For the view that she was a native Ægean deity see
Farnell, _Greece and Babylon_, p. 97. Later Semitic
influences, in any case, must be assumed.
[1366] No satisfactory explanation of the name Aphrodite has
as yet been offered.
[1367] See above, § 762.
[1368] _Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite_; Euripides, _Medea_, 835
ff.; Lucretius. Ishtar also is the mother of all things, but
the idea is not developed by the Semites.
[1369] Compare the details given in J. Rosenbaum's
_Geschichte der Lustseuche im Alterume_.
[1370] Aust, _Religion der Römer_; Fowler, _Roman
Festivals_; id. _The Religious Experience of the Roman
People_; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_; Mommsen, _History
of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. i, chap. xii.
[1371] § 702 ff.
[1372] Hence a confusion of names that appears even to-day,
and in books otherwise careful, as, for example, in the Bohn
translations of Greek works, in which the Greek deities are
throughout called by Latin names.
[1373] So written in good manuscripts. The "piter" probably
denotes fatherly protection, though it may have meant
originally physical paternity. On this point cf. W. R.
Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, lecture ii, and the
various stories of the birth of Jupiter's children.
[1374] On the significance of the doublefaced Janus (Janus
Geminus) and of the ancient usage of opening the gates of
his temple in time of war and closing them in time of peace,
see article "Janus" in Roscher's _Lexikon_, col. 18 ff.
[1375] With his function as door-god compare the functions
of other Roman door-gods, of Vesta, and of Hindu and other
house-deities.
[1376] Varro, _De Lingua Latina_, v, 85; Cato, _De Agri
Cultura_, 141.
[1377] So Roscher and others.
[1378] Cf. Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 35.
[1379] The cult of Mars was widely diffused in Italy and,
later, elsewhere. His original seat is uncertain. He was,
perhaps, the tribal god of a conquering people.
[1380] Cf. also the Ancillarum Feriæ (July 7).
[1381] See above, § 217 ff.
[1382] Vergil, _Eclogues_, iv, 6. Cf. above, § 768, note
(Kronos).
[1383] Aust, _Religion der Römer_; Farnell, _Cults of the
Greek States_; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_; articles in
Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[1384] She appears to have been a Greek deity adopted by the
Romans.
[1385] See above, § 43.
[1386] Compare the Greek Hestia and the Hindu house-goddess
(Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 374, 530).
[1387] On the Arician Diana see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d
ed., i, 230 f.
[1388] Or, better, from _dei[=a]_.
[1389] The prevailing view is that the grove is an opened
place into which light enters, and it is thus distinguished
from the dark and gloomy forest. The verbs _nitere_,
_nitescere_, _virere_, are used by Ovid and other writers to
describe this gleaming of leaves, plants, trees, groves, and
of the earth.
[1390] An early divine name expressive of intellectual power
is not probable.
[1391] On her origin cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p.
203 ff.
[1392] Varro, _De Re Rustica_, i, 1.
[1393] See above, § 803.
[1394] In favor of Ardea, twenty miles south of Rome, as her
original seat, cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 235.
[1395] Her identification with the Greek goddess was perhaps
furthered by a supposed relation between her name and the
noun _venustas_, 'grace, beauty,' the special quality of
Aphrodite. If that was the original sense of 'Venus,' it
could hardly have indicated an æsthetic perception of nature
(Wissowa, op. cit.); such a designation would be foreign to
early ways of naming deities. Whether the stem _van_ might
mean 'general excellence' (here agricultural) is uncertain;
on the Greek epithets 'Kallisto,' 'Kalliste,' and so forth,
cf. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, p. 1270 f. The name
'Venus,' if connected with the root of _venerari_, might
mean simply 'a revered object,' a deity; cf. Bona Dea and
Ceres (creator).
[1396] Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.v. "Fortuna," col. 1518;
Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 68. On licentious cults of
Venus cf. J. Rosenbaum, _Geschichte der Lustseuche im
Altertume_.
[1397] See above, § 671.
[1398] Articles in Roscher, _Lexikon_, and in _Orientalische
Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_.
[1399] Inscriptions of Rammannirari and Nebuchadrezzar (Birs
Nimrud); Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_,
Index, s.v.; id., _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice
in Babylonia and Assyria_, Index, s.v. _Adad_.
[1400] There is no separate god of Sheol in the Old
Testament. On Eve as such a deity see Lidzbarski,
_Ephmeris_, i, 26; cf. Cook, _North Semitic Inscriptions_,
135.
[1401] Gen. vi, 4, cf. Ezek. xxxii, 27; Philo of Byblos;
Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_.
[1402] Isa. lxiii, 16 ("God is our father, though Abraham
and Israel do not acknowledge us") is regarded by some
commentators as pointing to ancestor-worship. It seems,
however, to be nothing more than the complaint of persons
who were disowned by the community or by the leaders.
[1403] § 341 ff.
[1404] Jastrow, _Religions of Babylonia and Assyria_, p.
168: "a pantheon of demons."
[1405] Isa. xxxiv, 14.
[1406] Satan is one of the Elohim-beings, old gods
subordinated to Yahweh, and Azazel, if his name contains the
divine title _el_, must be put into this class.
[1407] Wisdom of Solomon, ii, 24.
[1408] Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religion_, chap. v. On Hindu demons see Hopkins, _Religions
of India_, Index, s.v. _Devils_.
[1409] §§ 698 ff., 398 ff.
[1410] See below, Chapter vii. Here, again, Mazdaism forms
an exception, resembling the Semitic scheme rather than the
Hindu.
[1411] A partial exception is found in the comparatively
late movement from the south of Arabia over into Africa
(Abessinia, Ethiopia).
[1412] On the characteristics of the various great religions
see Hegel, _Religionsphilosphe_; Santayana, _Reason in
Religion_ (vol. iii of _The Life of Reason_); E. Caird,
_Evolution of Religion_; R. B. Perry, _Approach to
Philosophy_; S. Johnson, _Oriental Religions_; J. F. Clarke,
_Ten Great Religions_; S. Reinach, _Orpheus_. See below,
Chapter ix.
[1413] But a certain substratum is usually assumed, no
attempt being made to account for its existence.
[1414] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, chaps. viii-x;
Jastrow, _Study of Religion_, Index, s.vv. _Myth_,
_Mythology_; Lang, _Custom and Myth_, and _Myth, Ritual, and
Religion_; articles "Mythologie" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_,
and "Mythology" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 11th ed.
[1415] Belief in miracles, which is found in some higher
religions, may here be left out of the account as belonging
in a separate category.
[1416] Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, chaps. ii-iv.
[1417] So with the theory of universal borrowing from one
center advocated by Stucken (_Astralmythen_), Winckler
(_Himmels- und Weltensbild der Babylonier als Grundlage der
Weltanschauung und Mythologle aller Völker_), Jeremias (_Das
Alte Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients_), Jensen (_Das
Gilgamesch Epos_), and others.
[1418] Cf. article "Cosmogony and Cosmology" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1419] § 225 ff.
[1420] _Çatapatha Brahmana_, xi, 1, 6, 1.
[1421] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 335 f.
[1422] Spiegel (_Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 144)
ascribes to the Eranians the conception of creation out of
nothing. See also the Hawaiian representation of the origin
of all things from the primeval void, and the orderly
sequence of the various forms of life.
[1423] A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_ chap. vi ff.
[1424] See, for example, the two accounts of creation in the
Book of Genesis. In the earlier account (chap. ii) the
procedure of Yahweh is mechanical, and things do not turn
out as he intended; in the later account (chap. i) there is
no mention of a process--it is the divine word that calls
the world into being.
[1425] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 263.
[1426] See R. Andree, _Die Flutsagen_; article "Flood" in
Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_.
[1427] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 37; cf. Dorsey, _The
Skidi Pawnee_, p. 14 ff.
[1428] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 57 f.; cf. Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 335.
[1429] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, pp. 3, 4, 100, 138.
[1430] Gen. v; vi, 4; Herodotus, iii, 23; Roscher,
_Lexikon_, s.v. _Giganten_; cf. Tylor, op. cit., i, 385 ff.;
Brinton, _American Hero-Myths_, p. 88.
[1431] Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_, p. 126 f.;
Maspero, _Dawn_, p. 158; Gen. ii, iii; _Avesta, Vendidad_,
Fargard ii; Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, i, 463
ff.; Windischmann, _Zoroastrische Studien_, p. 19 ff.;
Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_
(September, 1910), pp. 362, 366; article "Hesperiden" in
Roscher's _Lexikon_; commentaries of Kalisch, Dillmann,
Driver, Skinner, and others on Gen. ii, iii; _Jewish
Encyclopædia_, s.v. _Paradise_; Delitzsch, _Wo lag das
Paradies?_ On the character of the abode of the Babylonian
Parnapishtim see Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and
Assyria_, pp. 488, 496.
[1432] 2 Pet. iii, 7, contrast with the old destruction by
water; Hindu eschatology.
[1433] The Norse myth of "the twilight of the gods" has
perhaps been colored, in its latest form, by Christian
eschatology.
[1434] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 421; Spiegel,
_Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 161; H. Warren, _Buddhism
in Translations_, p. 315 ff.
[1435] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 63 ff.
[1436] Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, chap. i.
[1437] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, chap. i.
[1438] Maspero, _Dawn_, p. 128 f.
[1439] _Aitareya Brahmana_, iv, 27.
[1440] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 279; cf. Turner, _Samoa_, p.
198.
[1441] Gruppe, _Griechische Culte und Mythen_. Cf. the
birth-myth in Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 71.
[1442] So Heracles, Achilles, Æneas, and the heroes
mentioned in Gen. vi, 4.
[1443] Gen. ii, 7.
[1444] So in Polynesia, North America, China, ancient
Greece, and among the Hebrews.
[1445] As, for example, the Hebrews (Deut. xxxii, 8 f.)
[1446] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 119 ff.; Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. xiv and
p. 325; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 3 ff.; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte
der amerikanischen Urreligionen_, pp. 33 ff., 179 ff., § 61.
[1447] So the Hindu Manu (man), or Father Manu (_Rig-Veda_,
ii, 33, 13), is the progenitor of the human race. Cf. the
"first man," Yama. For the Old-Persian genealogical scheme
see Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, i, 473, 500 ff.
[1448] Deut. xxxii.
[1449] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 156 ff.; Réville,
_Native Religions of Mexico and Peru_, p. 64; Brinton,
_Myths of the New World_, p. 264, and _American Hero-Myths_,
pp. 186 f., 195 ff.; cf. R. B. Brehm, _Das Inka-Reich_, p.
24 ff.
[1450] Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 89.
[1451] Gen. iv, 16 ff.
[1452] Gen. vi, 1, 2, 4 (verse 3 is an interpolation).
[1453] Herodotus, v, 57 f.; Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v.
_Kadmos_.
[1454] _Rig-Veda_, i, 93, 6.
[1455] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 49 ff.
[1456] In the story in Genesis (ii, 17; iii, 5, 22-24) there
is a trace of such jealousy; and it is by violation of the
command of the deity that man attains the knowledge of good
and evil.
[1457] L. Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xxv (and cf.
chap. xxvi).
[1458] Chapter iii.
[1459] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 394 ff.
[1460] See above, § 153 ff.
[1461] Gen. xvii.
[1462] Ex. iv, 24-26; Josh. v, 2 ff.
[1463] W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 40 ff.; J. W.
Fewkes, _The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi_.
[1464] Réville, _Native Religions of Mexico and Peru_
(Hibbert Lectures), pp. 94 f., 110 (cf. ib., p. 224 f., on
Peruvian dances). See above, § 109, note 6.
[1465] Gen. xxxii, 24 ff.
[1466] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 38.
[1467] Fowler, op. cit., p. 99 ff.; for another view see
Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Maia II"; cf. Wissowa,
_Religion der Römer_, p. 185.
[1468] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, 18, 9.
[1469] Judg. xi, 30 ff.
[1470] Plutarch, _Theseus_, 27.
[1471] F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of
Religion_, chap. xxiii f.; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena
to the Study of Greek Religion_, chap. x; K. H. E. de Jong,
_Das antike Mysterienwesen_, pp. 14, 16, 18; Preller,
"Eleusinia" in Pauly's _Realencyclopädie_; Reitzenstein,
_Hellenistische Mysterienreligion_.
[1472] In Babylonia such rôles are ascribed to Ea and Marduk
(Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 137, 139,
276).
[1473] See above, § 844 f.; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., pp. 18, 173 ff., _Records of the Past_,
vi, 108.
[1474] The myths connected with Quetzalcoatl (see Brinton,
_American Hero-Myths_, and L. Spence, _Mythologies of
Ancient Mexico and Peru_) do not relate mostly to the
movements and deeds of the sun or the winds, but arose from
his character as local deity with universal powers. Social
and political events were woven into them. His contest with
Tezcatlipoca seems to reflect the struggle between two
tribes; his defeat signifies the victory of the conquering
tribe, and the expectation of his return (by which the
invading Spaniards, it is said, profited) was based on the
political hope of his people. Cf. similar expectations among
other peoples.
[1475] Gen. xxii.
[1476] B. Beer, _Leben Abraham's nach Auffassung der
jüdischen Sage_, p. 5 and note 34; p. 102, note 30.
[1477] Turner, _Samoa_, Index.
[1478] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. xviii.
[1479] Pausanias, _Description of Greece_, passim.
[1480] Semitic and other examples are given in W. R. Smith's
_Religion of the Semites_, p. 173 ff.
[1481] On the complicated myth of Phaëthon see the article
in Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[1482] Isa. xxiv, 21; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 356 ff.
[1483] The Babylonians were the great astronomers and
astrologers of antiquity, but their eminence in this regard
belongs to their later period. After the fall of the later
Babylonian empire (B.C. 539) the term 'Chaldean' became a
synonym of 'astrologer' (so in the Book of Daniel, B.C.
165-164); cf. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and
Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 259 f.
[1484] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, passim; Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_, i, 149 f.; Grey, _Polynesian
Mythology_, p. 1 ff.; Hickson, _Northern Celebes_; Lane,
_Arabian Nights_, i, 30 ff.; Saussaye, _Religion of the
Teutons_, p. 216 f.; _Iliad_, xxiii, 198 ff.; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 360 ff.; Ratzel, _History of
Mankind_ (Eng. tr.), passim.
[1485] _Iliad_, xxiii, 200 f. For some wind-myths see
Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Boreaden," "Boreas,"
"Harpyia." Cf. the Maori myths given in R. Taylor's _New
Zealand_, chap. vi, and for Navaho winds see Matthews,
_Navaho Legends_, p. 226, note 75.
[1486] As in Goldziher's _Hebrew Mythology_ (Eng. tr.), a
view later abandoned by the author.
[1487] By Mannhardt, in _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 224
ff.; Frazer, in _Golden Bough_, 2d ed. (see Index, s.v.
_Corn_); and others.
[1488] Cf. Frazer, op. cit., chap. iii, § 16 f.; Roscher,
_Lexikon_, articles "Kybele," "Attis," "Persephone,"
"Ceres"; and Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_.
[1489] See above, § 678.
[1490] Gen. i, 2 f.
[1491] Dan. ii, 22; Rev. xxi, 23.
[1492] This is true even in the case of abstract deities;
see above, §§ 696, 702 ff.
[1493] A myth is a purely imaginative explanation of
phenomena; a legend rests on facts, but the facts are
distorted. The two terms are often confused the one with the
other.
[1494] Some peculiar combinations appear in the figures of
Semiramis and the Kuretes and the Korybantes; see the
articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_ under these headings.
[1495] Cf. Gomme, _Folklore as an Historical Science_; Van
Gennep, _La formation des légendes_.
[1496] See the various folk-lore journals; W. W. Newell,
article "Folk-lore" in Johnson's _Universal Cyclopædia_; cf.
Gomme, op. cit., and § 881 below.
[1497] So in the cases of the Australian ancestors, the
Polynesian, Teutonic, Finnic, Slavic, Greek, Phrygian, and
other heroes and gods, the Hebrew patriarchs, and many other
such figures.
[1498] See above, § 859.
[1499] See above, § 649.
[1500] Such were the Greek rhapsodists (Müller and
Donaldson, _History of the Literature of Ancient Greece_, i,
33 ff.), and probably the Hebrew mashalists (Numb. xxi, 27,
Eng. tr., "they that speak in proverbs"). Such reciters are
found in India at the present day.
[1501] On the value of myths for religious instruction cf.
Schultz, _Old Testament Theology_, Eng. tr. (of 4th German
ed.), i, chap. ii.
[1502] Geffcken, article "Allegory" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1503] _Phædrus_, 229; _Cratylus_, 406 f.; _Republic_ 378.
[1504] Cf. Müller and Donaldson, _History of the Literature
of Ancient Greece_, chap. xxvi.
[1505] 1 Cor. ix, 9 f.; x, 1-4; Gal. iv, 24 ff.; Heb. vii,
2; Origen, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and commentators
generally up to the sixteenth century and later.
[1506] _Origine de tous les cultes ou religion universelle_
(1794).
[1507] _Science of Language_, 2d series; cf. his Hibbert and
Gifford lectures.
[1508] It is elaborated in G. W. Cox's _Mythology of the
Aryan Nations_.
[1509] Op. cit. § 864. Cf. article "Panbabylonianism" in
_Harvard Theological Review_ for January, 1910.
[1510] _Astralmythen der Hebräer, Babylonier und Aegypter_
(1896-1907).
[1511] So in folk-tales the same motif appears in a hundred
different settings; but this is not necessarily a sign of
borrowing.
[1512] Op. cit., p. 190.
[1513] See above, § 826, note.
[1514] No well-defined Arabian myths are known.
[1515] Most of the Old Testament mythical material has been
worked over by Hebrew monotheistic editors.
[1516] P. Jensen, _Das Gilgamesch Epos in der
Weltliteratur_.
[1517] Cf. article "Panbabylonianism" cited in § 866, note.
[1518] As, for example, those of New Zealand, Babylonia, and
Greece.
[1519] Cf. Keightley, _Fairy Mythology_, 2d ed., p. 14 f.
[1520] Bacon, _Wisdom of the Ancients_; in Biblical
exposition many recent writers.
[1521] See above, § 864 ff.; cf. Jastrow, _Study of
Religion_, p. 28 ff.
[1522] _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker_
(1810-1812).
[1523] _Antisymbolik_ (1824-1826).
[1524] Buttmann, Welcker, Lobeck, and others.
[1525] _Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie_
(1825).
[1526] See above, § 865.
[1527] See above, § 359. Cf. Grant Allen, _The Evolution of
the Idea of God_.
[1528] Darwin and Spencer (evolution), Bastian (ethnology),
and others.
[1529] In his _Early History of Mankind_ and _Primitive
Culture_. Cf. C. de Brosses (_Du culte des dieux fétiches_,
1760), who expressed a similar view.
[1530] A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ and _Myth, Ritual, and
Religion_, and other works; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d and
3d edd.; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_; and others.
[1531] Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ and _Mythologische
Forschungen_.
[1532] See the bibliography at the end of this book.
[1533] Beginnings for such a survey have been made in the
Teutonic, American, and some other areas.
[1534] Confucianism, if it can be called a religion, is an
exception.
[1535] See the bibliographies in Johnson's _Universal
Cyclopædia_, article "Fairy-lore," and _La Grande
Encyclopédie_, article "Fée"; Maury, _Croyances et légendes
du moyen âge_, new ed.; Hartland, _The Science of
Fairy-tales_.
[1536] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, Index, s.v. _Magic_;
Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., Index, do.; id., _Early
History of the Kingship_, Index, do.; Hobhouse, _Morals in
Evolution_, Index, do.; Westermarck, _Origin and Development
of the Moral Ideas_, Index, do.; S. Reinach, _Orpheus_,
Index, do.; Hubert and Mauss, in _Année sociologique_, vii;
Marett, _Threshold of Religion_; articles "Magie" in _La
Grande Encyclopédie_ and "Magic" in _Encyclopædia
Britannica_, 11th ed.; article "Magia" in Daremberg and
Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_.
[1537] Examples are cited in the works mentioned above.
[1538] On the view that many quasi-magical acts are
spontaneous reactions of the man to his environment see I.
King, _Development of Religion_, chap. vii. According to
this view the thought suggests the act. The warrior,
thinking of his enemy, instinctively makes the motion of
hurling something at him (as a modern man shakes his fist at
an absent foe), and such an act, a part of the excitation to
combat, is believed to be efficacious.
[1539] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, s.v. _The Evil Eye_.
[1540] On mana see above, § 231 ff. Though the theory of
mana was necessarily vague, the thing itself was quite
definite.
[1541] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 85.
[1542] _Isis and Osiris_, 73.
[1543] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 154 ff.
[1544] § 6 f.
[1545] Cf. Lord Avebury, _Marriage, Totemism, and Religion_,
p. 135.
[1546] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.
[1547] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 263.
[1548] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 36.
[1549] Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, lecture
iii.
[1550] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 53 f.
[1551] 1 Cor. x, 20 f.
[1552] Certain ceremonies of the higher religions produce
effects that must be regarded as magical.
[1553] Lubbock, _Origin of Civilization_, p. 188. Similar
logic appears in the story of the origin of Goodwin Sands,
told by Bishop Latimer (in a sermon preached before Edward
VI). An old man, being asked what he thought was the cause
of the Sands, replied that he had lived near there, man and
boy, fourscore years, and before the neighboring steeple was
built there was no Sands, and therefore his opinion was that
the steeple was the cause of the Sands.
[1554] So among the old Hebrews, according to 1 Sam. xxviii,
9. For Rome cf. Fowler, _Religious Experience of the Roman
People_, lecture iii.
[1555] Cf. above, § 889.
[1556] In some cases the priest is a magician (Grey,
_Polynesian Mythology_, p. 114 ff.)--he acts as the
mouthpiece of a god, and in sympathy with the god. Cf.
Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_,
ii, 658. On a connection between the magician and the poet
see Goldziher, in _Proceedings of the Tenth International
Congress of Orientalists_.
[1557] Cf. above, § 889.
[1558] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 267 f.; id., _The
Shasta_, 471 ff.
[1559] Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 120.
[1560] Dixon, _The Shasta_, loc. cit.; Miss Fletcher,
_Indian Ceremonies_, p. 280.
[1561] M. Kingsley, _Studies_, p. 136.
[1562] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 278.
[1563] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 267
f.
[1564] 1 Sam. xxviii.
[1565] Apuleius, _Metamorphoses_, bk. ii f.
[1566] Sura cxiii.
[1567] Women, however, are sometimes shamans in such tribes,
as in the California Shasta (while in the neighboring Maidu
they are commonly men). See Dixon, _The Shasta_, p. 471;
_The Northern Maidu_, p. 267 f.
[1568] Tiele, _Elements of the Science of Religion_, ii,
140; cf. Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, iii, 564 f.,
587 f.; Jackson, in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der
iranischen Philologie_, ii, 630, 671, 692.
[1569] Sophocles, _OEdipus Tyrannus_, 387; Euripides,
_Orestes_, 1498. Hence the term 'magic' as the designation
of a certain form of procedure.
[1570] So in the _Thousand and One Nights_, passim.
[1571] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 113 ff.; Castrén,
_Finnische Mythologie_, pp. 186 ff., 229; Skeat, _Malay
Magic_, p. 162; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 263; Crooke,
_Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, ii, 283
ff. For modern usages see Wuttke, _Der deutsche
Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart_, 2d ed., pp. 131, 241.
[1572] A magician, as a man of special social prominence and
of extraordinary power over the forces of the world,
becomes, in some cases, the political head of his community
(as a priest sometimes has a like position). Where the
divinization of men is practiced, the magician may be
recognized as a god. But no general rule can be laid down.
The office of king had its own political development, and a
god was the natural product of the reflection of a
community. The elevation of the magician to high political
or ecclesiastical position was dependent on peculiar
circumstances and may be called sporadic. Cf. Frazer, _Early
History of the Kingship_, p. 107 ff. and lecture v.
[1573] Cf. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., Index, s.v.
_Kings_.
[1574] See Lord Avebury, _Marriage, Totemism, and Religion_,
chap. iv.
[1575] The plant or animal may be a totem, but its magical
power is not derived from its totemic character. Magical
potency may dwell in nontotemic objects; in magical
ceremonies connected with totems (as in Australia) it is the
ceremony rather than the totem that is efficacious. Cf.
Marett, _Threshold of Religion_, p. 22 f.
[1576] Cf. Marett, "From spell to prayer," in his _Threshold
of Religion_, p. 33 ff.
[1577] Cf. J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, Index, s.v.
_Charm_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 148; article
"Charms and Amulets" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.
[1578] Eng. tr. by Bloomfield, in _Sacred Books of the
East_.
[1579] L. W. King, _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_.
[1580] _Records of the Past_, first series, vols. ii, vi;
Griffith, article "Egyptian Literature" in _Library of the
World's Best Literature_; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_,
p. 212 ff.; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, Index, s.v.
_Magic_.
[1581] Cf. Macdonald, _Religious Attitude and Life in
Islam_, Index, s.v. _Magic_.
[1582] Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités
grecques et romaines_, article "Magia"; cf. articles
"Medeia" and "Kirke" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[1583] Apuleius, _Metamorphoses_; Gibbon, _Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire_, ii, 535 ff.; Friedländer, _Roman Life
and Manners under the Early Empire_ (Eng. tr.), i, 260 f.;
Fowler, _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_, p.
57 ff.; cf. Cumont, _Astrology and Religion among the Greeks
and Romans_, Index, s.v. _Magic_.
[1584] 1 Sam. xxviii; Isa. viii, 19.
[1585] In the later Judaism Solomon is the great master of
magic; see the story of the Queen of Sheba in the Second
Esther Targum; Baring-Gould, _Legends of Old Testament
Characters_. For the Arabian legends of Solomon (borrowed
from the Jews) see _Koran_, sura xxxviii; _History of
Bilkis, Queen of Sheba_, compiled from various Arabic
sources, in Socin's _Arabic Grammar_ (Eng. tr., 1885).
[1586] Lecky, _History of the Rise and Influence of the
Spirit of Rationalism in Europe_; Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, Index, s.vv. _Magic_ and
_Witches_.
[1587] These Powers, including mana, may all be called
"divine" as distinguished from the purely "human."
[1588] A superhuman phenomenon, if produced by a deity, is
called a "miracle," and is held to be beneficent; if
produced by a nontheistic process, it is called "magical,"
and is looked at doubtfully.
[1589] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 696; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, Index,
s.v. _Magic and Morals_.
[1590] Ultimately, in early religious theory, all objects
are divine or abodes or incarnations of divine beings and
capable of independent action; sometimes, doubtless, the
recognition of the natural character of a thing (as of
courage and other qualities in animals) coalesces with the
belief in its guiding power.
[1591] Cf. article "Magia" in Daremberg and Saglio,
_Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_, p. 1496.
[1592] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 254.
[1593] Cf. article "Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_, p. 358.
[1594] 1 Sam. x, 5; xix, 24.
[1595] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 513 f. The envoy not
only failed to procure cedar for the sacred barge of Amon
but was ordered by the prince to leave the city; the youth
intervened successfully (ca. 1100 B.C.).
[1596] So Teiresias (_Odyssey_, x, 492 ff.; _OEdipus
Tyrannus_, 92) and Samuel (1 Sam. ix).
[1597] Mic. i, 8; cf. 2 Kings iii, 15 (music as a
preliminary condition of inspiration).
[1598] As among the Hebrews, the Greeks, and other ancient
peoples.
[1599] Formerly, says Cicero (_De Divinatione_, i, 16),
almost nothing of moment, or even in private affairs, was
undertaken without an augury.
[1600] For a tabulation of omens and other signs and of
forms of divinatory procedure see article "Divination" in
_La Grande Encyclopédie_.
[1601] Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i, 1-4; Diodorus Siculus,
i, 70, 81; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 216 ff.;
Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 113 ff.
(cf. Gen. xliv, 5, 15, which may point to an Egyptian custom
of divination by cup); Jastrow, _Religion Babyloniens und
Assyriens_, and _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp.
256, 328; De Groot, _Religious System of China_, i, 103 ff.;
iii, chap. xii; Buckley, in Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed. (China); articles "Divination"
in _Encyclopædia Biblica_, Hastings's _Dictionary of the
Bible_, and _Jewish Encyclopedia_; Bouché-Leclercq,
_Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité_; articles
"Divinatio" and "Haruspices" in Daremberg and Saglio,
_Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_; Gardner
and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, chap. vii; Stengel and
Oehmichen, _Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer_; Wissowa,
_Religion der Römer_, p. 450 ff.; Fowler, _Religious
Experience of the Roman People_, lecture xiii; Wellhausen,
_Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, pp. 126 ff., 148 ff.;
article "Celts" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_; Hastings, op. cit., ii, 54 ff.; Saussaye, _Religion
of the Teutons_, Index, s.v. _Divination_.
[1602] Turner, _Samoa_, Index, s.v. _Omens_.
[1603] These animals were originally themselves divine, and
therefore, by their own knowledge, capable of indicating the
course of events; cf. § 905, note.
[1604] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 323 f.; id., _The Nandi_, p.
79.
[1605] Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 203.
[1606] Conolly, _Journey to the North of India_, 2d ed.,
1838, ii, 137 ff.
[1607] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 78, etc. For South
Africa cf. Callaway, _The Amasulu_, Index, s.vv. _Omens_,
_Divination_, _Diviners_; Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_,
Index, s.v. _Divining_; article "Bantu" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, p. 362.
[1608] 2 Sam. v, 24.
[1609] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Eng.
and Ger. edd.), in which references to the original
documents are given.
[1610] [Greek: ornis, oiônos]. _Iliad_, ii, 859; xii, 237;
xxiv, 219; Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 826; cf.
Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, i, 127 ff.
[1611] _Birds_, 715 ff.
[1612] _Iliad_, xii, 243.
[1613] In Borneo, which has an elaborate scheme of omens
from birds, prayer is sometimes addressed to them. Furness,
_Home life of the Borneo Head-hunters_, Index, s.v. _Omen_;
Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 344.
[1614] The sacrificial animal was regarded as divine, and
its movements had the significance of divine counsels.
[1615] Terence, _Phormio_, IV, iv, 25 ff.
[1616] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 137; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 119 f.; Miss Fletcher, _Indian
Ceremonies_, p. 278 ff.
[1617] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 384
ff.
[1618] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 319; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 593;
Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 100, and _The Masai_, p. 275 ff.
[1619] On the exaggerated range and importance ascribed by
some modern writers to early conceptions of the divinatory
function of heavenly bodies see above, §§ 826, 866 ff.
[1620] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 163, 180.
[1621] Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 240 ff.; R. F. Harper, _Assyrian
and Babylonian Literature_, p. 451 ff.
[1622] Persius, vi, 18.
[1623] Cicero, _De Divinatione_, ii, 42 ff.
[1624] The largest planet was brought into connection with
the chief god of Babylon, Marduk; the bright star of morning
and evening with Ishtar; the red planet with Nergal, god of
war, and the others with Ninib and Nebo respectively. The
Romans changed these names into those of their corresponding
deities, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, Saturn, and Mercury.
[1625] Cumont, _Les religions orientales dans le paganisme
romain_, chap. vii, and Eng. tr., _The Oriental Religions in
Roman Paganism_; id., _Astrology and Religion among the
Greeks and Romans_; Bouché-Leclercq, _L'astrologie grecque_
and _Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité_.
[1626] Medieval belief in astral power is embodied in the
English word 'influence,' properly the inflow from the stars
(so in Milton's _L'Allegro_, 121 f., "ladies whose bright
eyes rain influence"). An astrologer was often attached to a
royal court or to the household of some great person, his
duty being to keep his patron informed as to the future.
[1627] _Odyssey_, xvii, 541 ff. The fear of a sneeze (which
must be followed by some form of 'God bless you!') belongs
in a different category; the danger is that a hurtful spirit
may enter the sneezer's body, or that his soul may depart.
[1628] Muir, _The Caliphate_, p. 112.
[1629] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii,
362; Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 202; id., _Yoruba_, p. 97; cf.
Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 324.
[1630] 1 Sam. xxiii, 2.
[1631] 1 Sam. xiv, 38-42 (see the Septuagint text).
[1632] Ezek. xxi, 21 [26].
[1633] _Moallakat of Imru'l-Kais_, ver. 22.
[1634] Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, i, 195 ff.; iv, 153, 159; Augustine,
_Confessions_, iv, 5: de paginis poetae cujuspiam longe
allud canentis atque intendentis; if, says Augustine's
friend, an apposite verse so appears, it is not wonderful
that something bearing on one's affairs should issue from
the human soul by some higher instinct, though the soul does
not know what goes on within it.
[1635] Cf. Comparetti, _Virgilio nel medio evo_, i, 64 f.
(Eng. tr., p. 47 f.).
[1636] As the Masai (Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 324).
[1637] Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_; Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
antiquités grecques et romaines_, s.v. _Haruspices_; Fowler,
_The Religious Experience of the Roman People_, Index, s.v.
_Haruspices_.
[1638] M. Jastrow, "The Liver in Antiquity" (_University of
Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin_, 1908) and _Religion
Babyloniens und Assyriens_.
[1639] _Primitive Culture_, i, 124.
[1640] See above, § 28. The skull is employed as a means of
divination (Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 91 ff.).
[1641] See above, § 24.
[1642] Cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Oneiros," col. 904.
[1643] J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, i, 168 ff.; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 121 ff., 440 f.; Howitt, _Native
Tribes of South-East Australia_ p. 436; Mrs. K. Langloh
Parker, _The Euahlayi Tribe_, pp. 28, 83 f.
[1644] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, Index, s.v. _Dreams_.
[1645] Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 90
[1646] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 468, and see p. 558.
[1647] Gen. xi f.
[1648] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 349
f.
[1649] Gen. xx, 3; xxviii, 12; xxxi, 11; xxxvii, 5.
[1650] Dan. ii, iv.
[1651] _Iliad_, ii, 1 ff. So Yahweh, by a lying spirit,
sends Ahab to his death (1 Kings, xxii, 19 ff.) and deceives
the prophet, who misleads the people (Ezek. xiv, 9). The
theory of these ancient writers was that a deity, like an
earthly king, had a right to use any means to gain his ends.
[1652] Cf. article "Oneiros" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[1653] 1 Sam. xxviii, 6. The other means used, it is said,
were the urim (urim and thummim) and prophets. These all
failing, the king had recourse to necromancy.
[1654] See article "Asklepios" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[1655] See the description in Pater's _Marius the
Epicurean_.
[1656] A god might send a dream to a seer for the benefit of
some other person. So Ishtar spoke to Assurbanipal through
the dream of a seer (George Smith, _History of
Assurbanipal_, p. 123 f.).
[1657] Jastrow, _Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_; Dan.
ii, 2 ff.; Deut. xiii, 1; Gardner and Jevons, _Greek
Antiquities_, p. 258; Aust, _Religion der Römer_, Index,
s.v. _Traum_, _Traumdeutung_; Roscher, _Lexikon_, article
"Oneiros."
[1658] So it was in the case of magicians and prophets
generally; cf. Ezek. xxxix, 21; Isa. xiiii, 9.
[1659] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 404,
and German ed., ii, Index.
[1660] Dream-books exist at the present day. Those who
believe in the predictive power of dreams regard them as
messages from God or as products of telepathy.
[1661] The Nandi invoke a skull as divine witness (Hollis,
_The Nandi_, p. 76 f.).
[1662] Ellis, _Tshi_ chap. xviii.
[1663] Apparently because he is thus shown to be unsupported
by any evil spirit.
[1664] Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, p. 190 ff.
[1665] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 184.
[1666] Purchas, _Pilgrimage_, ed. Ravenstein, pp. 56 f., 59
f.
[1667] "Code of Hammurabi" (§§ 2, 132), by C. H. W. Johns,
in Hastings's _Dictionary of the Bible_, extra volume.
[1668] Numb. v.
[1669] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 275 ff.
[1670] She was rejected by the sacred water; cf. W. R.
Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 179; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 140. Cf. Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 190 f.;
id., _Tshi_, pp. 198, 201.
[1671] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 184.
[1672] Similarly, a blessing once uttered remains effective
and cannot be recalled; so in the story of Isaac blessing
Jacob and Esau, Gen. xxvii.
[1673] Westermarck, "L'âr" in _Anthropological Essays
presented to Tylor_; cf. his _Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Curses_.
[1674] Hence the opposition (now disappearing) to lines of
railway and telegraph, which were supposed to interfere with
the happy influences of rivers and hills and other natural
features.
[1675] De Groot, _Religious System of China_ and
_Development of Religion in China_; and his article "Die
Chinesen" in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_.
See above, § 747 ff.
[1676] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, pp. 42, 182 f.; on the
sacredness of the head see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed.,
i, 362 ff.; Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xiii.
[1677] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 532.
[1678] So when Rebecca wished to obtain information about
her children, soon to be born, it is said simply that she
went to inquire of Yahweh (Gen. xxv, 22), as if there was,
as a matter of course, a shrine in the neighborhood.
[1679] Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, ii, 250 ff.; iii.
[1680] Cumont, _Les religions orientales dans le paganisme
romain_, Eng. tr., _The Oriental Religions in Roman
Paganism_, pp. 105, 124 f., 168.
[1681] Cf. Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_,
p. 113 f.
[1682] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 126
ff.
[1683] 1 Sam. xiv, 36 ff.; xxiii, 2; xxx, 7 f.; Isa. lxv, 1;
Ezek. xxxiii, 30 ff.
[1684] 2 Kings, i, 2. The prophet Elijah, who was a zealous
Yahwist, was very angry with the king for applying to a
foreign deity; but evidently the Philistine shrine enjoyed a
greater reputation than any in Israel.
[1685] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.v. _Oracles_.
[1686] Cf. Aust, _Religion der Römer_, Index, s.v. _Orakel_;
see below, § 933 ff.
[1687] Friedländer, _Roman Life and Manners under the Early
Empire_ (Eng. tr.), p. 3, 129 ff.; Fowler, _Religious
Experience of the Roman People_, p. 339.
[1688] Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i, 34, 37 f.; Plutarch, _De
Pythiae Oraculis_ and _De Defectu Oraculorum_; Gardner and
Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, Index, s.v. _Oracles_;
Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, Index, and Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die
greichischen Sakralaltertümer_, Index; _Encyclopædia
Britannica_, 11th ed., article "Oracle."
[1689] On the position of women in ancient religion cf.
Farnell's article in _Archiv für Relgionswissenschaft_,
1904.
[1690] Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, pp. 102, 105;
Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, iv, 187 ff.
[1691] See above, §§ 362, 366.
[1692] See article "Ancestor-worship" and articles on lower
tribes in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[1693] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 511.