SCIENTIFIC AND ETHICAL ELEMENTS IN RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS
+1154+. It is remarked above[2103] that the sphere of religion is wholly
distinct from that of science (including philosophy and art) and from
that of constructive ethics (the determination of rules of conduct),
while it is true that the three, being coexistent and original
departments of human nature, must influence one another, and must tend
to coalesce and be fused into a unitary conception of life. This process
goes on in different degrees in different times and places, sometimes
one department of thought getting the upper hand and sometimes another,
but we cannot suppose that it ever ceases entirely. The relation between
religion and its two companions may become clear from a brief survey of
the facts given by historical records, this term being used to include
all trustworthy sources of information.
THE SCIENTIFIC ELEMENT
+1155+. Man is bound by his constitution to inquire into the nature of
things, to seek for the facts of the world, including the human soul.
This search is made by both religion and science, but their procedures
are somewhat different. Religion demands only the fact of an ultimate
moral ground of the world; science observes all phenomena and endeavors
to connect and organize them by a thread of natural causation or
invariable sequence; religion looks behind phenomena to what it regards
as its source. This source is reached by some process of reasoning,
either by acceptance, on grounds held to be satisfactory, of a divine
revelation, or by inference from the facts of the world (as the presence
of design or of moral order); but, when it is reached, all other facts
of science are treated as irrelevant. If, then, science confines itself
to the observation of sequences, the relation between the two cannot be
one of permanent hostility, since their material is not the same. They
clash when an old nonreligious belief, adopted by religion, is
confronted by an antagonistic scientific discovery; the first result is
a protest, but the mind demands harmony, and religion always ends by
accepting a well-attested scientific conclusion,[2104] and bringing it
into harmony with its fundamental beliefs.
+1156+. Certain phases in the relations between religion and science may
be distinguished, but an earlier or cruder phase may continue to exist
alongside of a later and higher one. There is first the time when
science based on a recognition of natural laws does not exist. The
existing science is then one of imagination, the fanciful application of
crude observations to the explanation of all phenomena. The _verae
causae_ are supernatural agencies--science and religion are one.
Explanations of phenomena take the form of what we call myths, what the
people of the time regard as true histories. There is no place for the
conception of miracle; the supernatural agents are all-powerful, one
thing is no harder than another, nothing is strange or inexplicable.
There is a crude conception of the unity of God and the world.
+1157+. The period of the rise and decline of the great national
religions and the rise of monotheistic cults (along with which may be
included Confucianism and Buddhism) is characterized by a great
development of philosophy (in China, India, and Greece) and a beginning
of scientific research properly so called (especially in astronomy,
physics, medicine, and chemistry, in Greece and by the Moslems of
Persia). There is a revolt against the older conception of unity.
Deities are highly personalized, stand outside of the world, and
intervene in human affairs at crises. It is the age of
miracles--supernatural Powers, by reason of their intimate social
relations with their respective communities, are expected to come to
their aid in all important matters, and, for most persons, there is no
difficulty in holding that they are able to change the course of nature,
which is not regarded as being absolutely fixed. In certain
philosophical circles, however, this view is rejected, and nature, with
its laws, is conceived of as a separate and independent existence,
accompanied or not by gods. Science begins to define the nature of
deities, and to limit the sphere of their practical activities--this is
a precursor of the fall of the old divinities. The old myths are
retained, but they are purified, humanized, and allegorized, and in some
cases applied, to new persons and events, according to changes in
religious construction.
+1158+. The next phase is the recognition by science of the absolute
domination of natural law in the world of phenomena. Religion, when it
accepts this view, holds fast to the belief in the ultimate personal
moral Force, and conceives of this Force as working and expressing and
manifesting itself only in phenomena in accordance with natural
law--that is, this law is regarded as the expression of the divine will.
Science is thus given liberty to investigate phenomena to the fullest
extent, and religion is freed from the incumbrance of physical,
psychological, and metaphysical theories; the spheres of the two are
sharply defined and kept separate. Such a conception is held to differ
from "naturalism" or "materialism" in that it recognizes a Power
distinct from matter--to differ from what has been called "humanism"
(which makes man the sole power in the world), or from positivism (which
regards man as the only worthy object of worship), in that it ascribes
to the will and activity of divine spirit the high position of humanity
as the center and explanation of the life of the world--to differ from
pantheism in that for it God is a personal being who enters into
relations with a free humanity--and to differ from agnosticism in that
it holds that God may be known from his works.
+1159+. Whatever difficulties may attach to this conception are regarded
by its adherents as not insuperable. In all religious systems except
Buddhism and Positivism the personality of the ultimate ground of the
world is looked on as a necessary datum. In the view under consideration
it is held that God exists for the world in which he expresses himself,
as the world exists for him, its source and end. The world, with all its
parts and incidents, is conceived of as a sacred thing, consecrated to
God, and ever striving to realize him in itself, and itself in him.
Under the guidance of exacter scientific thought the old crude idea of
the unity of the divine and the world is thus transformed into the idea
of a unity of will and work. In this conception there is no place for
myths, and no need is felt for miracles: histories of the external world
and of human society are held to rest on observation of facts, and
generally the possibility of miracles is not denied, but they are
regarded as unnecessary and improbable--they are thought unnecessary
because the conception of the divine character and the religious life
are not supposed to be dependent on them, and they are thought
improbable because they are held to be not supported by experience. This
is the attitude of those persons who accept the conclusions of science;
there is, however, great difference of opinion in the religious world on
this point.[2105]
+1160+. Certain scientific and philosophical positions discard religion
as a department of human life. When it is held that man knows nothing
and can know nothing but phenomena, or when, if something is assumed
behind phenomena, it is regarded as too vague to enter into personal
relations with men, religion as a force in life becomes impossible. In
these cases the two conceptions must stand side by side as enemies till
one or the other is proved, to the satisfaction of men, to be untenable.
Meanwhile it appears that one result of scientific investigations has
been to delimitate religion by making it clear that, while it belongs as
an influence to all life, it cannot include scientific theories as a
part of its content--a result that cannot be otherwise than favorable to
its development.
THE ETHICAL ELEMENT
+1161+. Conduct has always been associated with religion. Supernatural
Powers have been regarded as members of the tribe or other society,
divine headmen part of whose function it is to see that the existing
customs are observed, these customs being ethical as well as ritual.
Even in such low tribes as the Fuegians and the Australians the anger of
some Power is supposed to follow violation of law. Instructions to
initiates often include moral relations.[2106] The connection of morals
with religion in the more advanced peoples is close. In this regard a
distinction is to be made between the creation and the adoption and
treatment of ethical ideals.
+1162+. Ethical codes are never created by religion but are always
adopted by it from current usages and ideas.[2107] Rules respecting the
protection of life, property, and the family are found everywhere--they
arise out of natural social relations, even the simplest, and grow in
definiteness and refinement with the advance of society, so that things
at one period lawful, and accepted by religious authorities, are at a
later period prohibited.[2108] Kindness to one's fellows is common in
the lowest tribes, and in higher civilizations is formulated as a golden
rule (Confucius, Book of Tobit, New Testament, and virtually the
Egyptian Ptahhotep, the Old Testament Book of Proverbs, Buddha).
Truthfulness, fidelity, and justice have been generally recognized as
things to be approved--roughly defined and aimed at in rude communities,
more exactly defined and more clearly held up as ideals in higher
communities. All these virtues are taken up more or less definitely into
religious codes.
+1163+. Less praiseworthy customs and ideas also have been indorsed by
religious law. Where sexual license prevails it is made a feature in
religious ritual and other ceremonies after it has become a part of
social usage and law. It is true that it is generally at first naïve,
and, being not illegal, is not a violation of rights and not immoral in
the sense in which a refined age regards it.[2109] But it tends, even
among savages, to become socially bad, and, when it survives into times
of higher standards, is a corrupting influence. In this bad form it was
sanctioned by religious authorities in Canaan (even at one time among
the Hebrews),[2110] Greece, and Syria, and exists to-day in India as an
accompaniment of religious worship. The records of religious cruelty are
familiar. Wholesale slaughter, persecution, torture have been abundantly
practiced in the name of religion.[2111] Many social institutions (such
as slavery and polygamy) countenanced by a given age have been adopted
in the religious codes of the age. These examples illustrate the fact
that religion does not undertake to fix the details of ethical
conduct--its rôle is something different. This statement applies to the
institution of taboo, as is remarked above[2112]--its ritual rules are
not moral, and its moral rules are adopted from social usage. It was
influential in the organization of society, but not in the way of adding
anything to the moral code. In modern economic and other social
questions that have an ethical side the details are left to science;
religion contents itself with insisting on moral principles as having
divine authority, and these principles, as moral, are already recognized
by society.
+1164+. Discrepancy between codes and conduct has always existed--few
religious persons live up to the standards that they regard as
authoritative. This failure concerns not the sincerity of the religious
society in setting up its standard, but the conditions regulating actual
conduct.
A natural consequence of the coexistence of religion and ethics in human
life has been that each has influenced the other. Advance in the purity
and clearness of social ethical ideals has had the effect of modifying
not only religious codes but also religious dogmas. The old belief
(founded on the conception of social solidarity) that a family, tribe,
or nation was punished by the deity for the sin of one of its members
vanished before the recognition of individual responsibility. The
doctrines of eternal punishment and vicarious expiatory suffering are
now rejected by some religious bodies and circles as unjust. When they
are maintained, it is on the ground that they are not unjust--the appeal
is to an ethical principle. Apart from the fact of maintenance or
rejection, the tendency is to try all doctrines by moral standards. If
they are rejected and yet stand, or seem to stand, in sacred books, then
either the statements of the books are interpreted in accordance with
the moral standards, or the ethical authority of the books is set aside.
+1165+. The influence of religion on ethics has been in the way not of
modifying codes but of enforcing existing ideas and customs and giving
an impulse to moral life. It has commonly furnished supernatural
sanctions--rewards and punishments in this life or in the other. How far
this conception has been effective in restraining men from actual
ill-doing, in furthering good conduct, and in developing inward loyalty
to the right, may be a question. To answer this question would require
such a collection of facts as has never been made and perhaps cannot be
made. We can see that the belief in divine rewards and punishments has
sometimes been a real power, sometimes seems to have no effect. The
character of the sanctions varies with the growth of refinement,
advancing from the crude savage and later ideas of physical pains and
pleasures to the conception of moral degradation or salvation. The
recognition of rewards and punishments for one's self as incentives to
good living is not regarded as immoral if they are not made the chief
motive--the prevailing view is that it is legitimate to look for results
of action, that, however, devotion to right must always be independent
of results that affect only the actor. Whatever the general effect of
belief in supernatural sanctions, it must be concluded that the
existence of morality in the world is not dependent on this belief. The
common social motives for practicing justice and kindness are so strong
and so persistent that these virtues must always retain a certain
supremacy apart from men's religious creeds. The term 'supernatural' is
used above in the more usual sense of 'opposed to natural,' but,
according to one religious point of view, all things are the direct work
of God, so that there is no difference between 'natural' and
'supernatural,' and the real sanctions of morality are all the
conditions of life, external and internal.[2113]
+1166+. The most important elements that religion (though only in its
highest form) has introduced into ethics are a grandiose conception of
the basis and nature of the moral life, and a tone of tenderness in the
attitude toward the deity and toward men. The moral code it regards as
the will of God, conscience as the voice of God, morality as obedience
to God, all activity as a coworking with God. Nobility is given to the
good life by making it a part of the eternal divine purpose of the
world. The conception of human life as an essential factor in the
constitution and history of the world is common to religion and
philosophy, but religion adds the warmth of personal relation with the
divine head of the world. Into the philosophical and ethical view of the
unity of humanity religion infuses reverence and affection for the
individual as being not merely one of the component parts of the mass
but a creature of God, the object of his loving care, capable of
redemption and union with God. Here again, while there is no addition to
the content of the ethical code, there is added intensity of feeling,
which may be a spur to action.
+1167+. In the sphere of religion, as in all spheres of human activity,
ideas and tendencies are embodied in human personalities by whom they
are defined, illustrated, and enforced--not only in founders of
religious systems and other great leaders of thought, but in lesser
everyday persons who commend religion, each to his limited circle, by
purity of life. The special ethical figures contributed to history by
religion are those of the martyr and the saint. The martyr is one who
bears witness passively to what he regards as truth at the cost of his
life; he thus differs from the hero, who is a man of action. The martyr
spirit is found elsewhere than in religious history, but it is in this
latter that it has played its special ethical rôle--divergencies from
established faiths always excite peculiarly sharp hostility. When it is
pure loyalty to convictions of truth, it is an ethical force of great
moment--a permanent inspiration.[2114] It is less valuable when it
springs from the hope of personal advantage, when a controlling
consideration is the belief that one goes directly from the stake (as
Moslem warriors believed they went from death in battle) to celestial
happiness. There arose at times (for example, in the Decian and
Diocletian persecutions of the third century, and in Cordova in the
ninth century, when there was no persecution) a fanatical desire for the
honors of martyrdom that had to be checked by the Church leaders.
+1168+. The saint is related to the virtuous man as holiness to virtue.
The difference between them is one not of ethical practice but of motive
and sentiment--holiness is virtue consecrated to the deity. The saint,
like the martyr, is often an ethical power. When the title is given
officially as an ecclesiastical honor, it may or may not carry with it
moral excellence. In Brahmanism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam saintship has sometimes been contaminated with physical and ritual
ideas and practices, and so far ceases to have ethical value.[2115]
+1169+. The evil influence of the religious point of view on ethical
life has been of the general nature already referred to:[2116] embalming
and sanctifying outgrown and injurious social institutions; substituting
form for spirit; encouraging asceticism; drawing sharp lines of
demarcation between men on the basis of religious opinions, and so far
creating an antisocial spirit.
+1170+. The development of the sense of obligation to do right
(conscience) is due to so many different influences that it is hard to
say exactly what part any one of these has taken in the process. But
obviously religion has been an important factor in the result so far
reached. By its distinct connection of the favor of the deity with
conduct it has tended to fix attention on the latter and to strengthen
the feeling that righteousness is the sovereign thing. Though such
regard for right-doing is at first mainly egoistic, it easily becomes an
ideal, reverenced for its own sake, and more powerful because it is
identified with a person and colored by the sentiments of gratitude and
love that religion calls forth. Religion, especially in the earlier
forms of society, though not only in them, has been a pedagogue to lead
men to the acknowledgment of the supremacy of the moral law. It differs
from other such guides in the tone of mingled humility and enthusiasm
that it gives to this fealty.
+1171+. As to the existence of moral evil in the world, religion can
only regard it as the work of supernatural Powers. In the savage period
the question does not come up--moral evil is taken as a part of the
nature of things and is not curiously inquired into. In later times it
is ascribed to some malevolent spirit or deity who is either independent
of the supreme deity (as in certain half-civilized tribes) or is
tolerated by him (Angro Mainyu, Satan), or to a subordinate employed by
him (lies put into the mouths of prophets by a deity),[2117] or to a
quite separate divine Power, not necessarily malevolent (as in some
philosophical theories). Religion may adopt some philosophical
explanation--as that evil is only failure to reach the good, or only the
lower step to which we look back from a greater height, or an inevitable
accompaniment of a scheme of life characterized by struggle and intended
to recognize the freedom of the will and to develop moral autonomy--but,
from its own resources it can only say that it is a thing inexplicable
by man, belonging to a divine plan that the devout soul accepts as right
because God has ordained it.
+1172+. The theory of man's native incapacity to do right (total
depravity), held by some religious bodies, is antimoral since it denies
human freedom. The attempt to modify it by the supposition of divine
impartation of moral power is inadequate unless such power is held to be
given to every person, and this amounts to an indirect affirmation of
freedom and denial of moral impotency. The theory is, however,
practically innocuous, being rejected or ignored by the universal
consciousness of freedom.
+1173+. To the questions, raised by philosophy, whether the world is
essentially good or bad and whether life is worth living, theistic
religion gives a simple answer: a perfect God implies a perfect
universe; this answer is germinal and confused in early religion, and is
definitely stated only in the higher systems. The great theistic sacred
books, Jewish, Christian, Mazdean, and Moslem, all teach that though
there are present limitations and sufferings, there is to be a happy
issue for the faithful out of all distresses, and the Buddhistic view,
though nontheistic, is essentially the same as this; as for other
persons, they are sometimes included in a final restoration, when moral
evil is to disappear, sometimes are excluded from the happy outcome, but
in both cases the scheme of the world is regarded as good. Leaving out
of view the question as to the exact interpretation of the facts of
life, this optimism is ethically useful as giving cheerfulness and
enthusiasm to moral life, with power of enduring ills through the
conviction of the ultimate triumph of the right. It may pass into a
stolid dogmatic ignoring or denial of the existence of evil, and then
tends to become inhuman and therefore ethically bad.[2118] It is,
however, commonly saved from such an unfortunate result by common sense
and the instinct of sympathy. And it is so general a conception and its
goal is so remote that it cannot be a strong and permanent moral force
for most persons--immediate experiences are as a rule more powerful than
remote expectations. But, so far as it is a living faith, religious
optimism is in the main a healthy ethical factor in life.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] That is, phenomena regarded as special acts of a
superhuman Power; in the larger conception of religion all
phenomena are at once natural and divine acts.
[2] In early religion they are usually ghosts, beasts,
plants, or inanimate objects; rarely living men. Cf.
Marett's remarks on pre-animistic religion in his _Threshold
of Religion_.
[3] Appeal to the Powers carries with it a certain sense of
oneness with them, in which we may reasonably recognise the
germ of the idea of union with God, which is the highest
form of religion. This idea is not consciously held by the
savage--it takes shape only in highly developed thought
(Plato, the New Testament, Christian and other mysticism).
If the impulse to religion be thought to be love of life (so
Leuba, in the _Monist_, July, 1901), this is substantially
desire for safety and happiness.
[4] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 170.
[5] Gen. xxviii, 20-22; Hos. ii; Ezek. xxxvi; and the
Psalter passim.
[6] The classic expression of this view is given by Statius
(_Th._ 3, 661): _primus in orbe deos fecit timor_. Cf. L.
Marillier, in _International Monthly_, ii (1900), 362 ff.
[7] For numerous examples of the belief in supernatural
birth see E. S. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_.
[8] Modern civilised nations, after victories in war,
commonly assume that God has thus pronounced in favor of the
justice and right of their side, and sing Te Deums.
[9] This vagueness reappears in some systems of late
philosophic speculation. On the question whether a sense of
the divine exists anterior to conscious experience cf.
Marett, _Threshold of Religion_.
[10] This is only a particular application of the general
assumption that all human powers exist in germ in the lowest
human forms. Discussions of the sense of the infinite are
found in the _Gifford Lectures_ of F. Max Müller and Tiele,
and in Jastrow's _Study of Religion_. But early man thinks
only of the particular objects with which he comes into
contact; the later belief in an Infinite is a product of
experience and reflection.
[11] Cf. _Année sociologique_, iii (1898-1899), 205 ff.
[12] On the Fuegians cf. R. Fitzroy, in _Voyages of the
Adventure and the Beagle_, ii (1831-1836), 179 ff.; on the
African Pygmies, A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_ (Eng. tr.,
1895), p. 124 ff.; W. Schmidt, _Pygmäenvölker_, p. 231 ff.;
on Ceylon, T. H. Parker, _Ancient Ceylon_, iv; and on the
Guaranis and Tapuyas (Botocudos) of Brazil, Waitz-Gerland,
_Anthropologie_, iii, 418, and the references in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 837 f. The
Fuegians are said to stand in awe of a "black man" who, they
believe, lives in the forest and punishes bad actions. On
the people of New Guinea see C. G. Seligmann, _The
Melanesians of British New Guinea_, chaps. 16, 25, 48, 55.
[13] Such relations exist between men and the vague force
variously called mana, manitu, wakonda; but the conception
of this force is scientific rather than religious, though it
is brought into connection with religious ideas and usages.
[14] The evidence is summed up in G. d'Alviella's _Hibbert
Lectures_. Cf. Brinton, _Religion of Primitive Peoples_, p.
30 ff.
[15] The question whether the religious sense exists in the
lower animals is discussed by Darwin, _Descent of Man_
(1871), p. 65 ff., 101 f., and others. The question is
similar to that respecting conscience; in both cases there
is in beasts a germ that appears never to grow beyond a
certain point. On the genesis of the moral sense see
(besides the works of Aristotle, Spinoza, Kant, and their
successors) G. H. Palmer, _The Field of Ethics_; L. T.
Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_; E. Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_. In regard to religious
feeling we observe in certain animals, especially in the
domesticated dog, an attitude of dependence and devotion
toward the master as a superior Power that is similar to the
attitude of man toward a deity, only with more affection and
self-surrender. But in the animal, so far as we can judge,
the intellectual and ethical conceptions do not come to
their full rights--there is no idea of a Power possessing
moral qualities and controlling all phenomena. The beast,
therefore, is not religious in the proper sense of the term.
But between the beast and the first man the difference may
have been not great.
[16] The Central Australians, however, have an elaborate
marriage law with the simplest political organization and
the minimum of religion.
[17] Cf. L. M. Keasbey, in _International Monthly_, i
(1900), 355 ff.; I. King, _The Development of Religion_,
Introduction.
[18] _Cf._ Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, chap. xi f.
[19] Beasts, plants, and what we call inanimate objects,
also are held, in early stages of civilization, to have
souls--a natural inference from the belief that these last
are alive and that all things have a nature like that of
man.
[20] So Semitic _nafs_ 'soul,' _ruh_ 'spirit'; Sanskrit
_diman_ 'soul,' 'self'; Greek _psyche_, _pneuma_; Latin
_anima_, _spiritus_; possibly English _ghost_ (properly
_gost_ 'spirit'); and so in many low tribes. See Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 432 f.; O. Schrader, in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 15.
[21] The expression 'to receive the last breath' (_Æneid_,
iv, 684 f.), used by us to represent the last pious duty
paid to a dying man, was thus originally understood in a
strictly literal sense.
[22] So the Delaware Indians (Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 67).
[23] Cf. the name 'shade' (Greeks, Redmen, and others) for
the denizens of the Underworld.
[24] Photographs are now looked on by some half-civilized
peoples with suspicion and fear as separate personalities
that may be operated on by magical methods. A similar
feeling exists in regard to the name of a man or a god--it
is held to be somehow identical with the person, and for
this reason is often concealed from outsiders.
[25] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 402; Fraser,
_Golden Bough_, 1st ed., i, 178 f.; article "Blood" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[26] So in the Old Testament, in the later ritual codes:
Deut. xii, 23; Lev. xvii, 14; Gen. ix, 4; and so Ps. lxxii,
14; cf. Koran, xcvi, 2 (man created of blood).
[27] _Iliad_, xiv, 518; xvii, 86; cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion
of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 40 n. (Arabic expression: "Life
flows on the spear-point").
[28] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 259.
[29] So friendly (fraternal) compacts between individuals
are sealed by exchange of blood, whereby the parties to the
covenant become one; many examples are given in H. C.
Trumbull's _Blood-Covenant_, 2d ed.
[30] In many languages (Semitic, Sanskrit, Greek, Latin,
English, German, etc.) the word for 'soul' is used in the
sense of 'person' or 'self.' But the conception of "life"
was in early times broader than that of "person" or that of
"soul."
[31] An incorporeal or immaterial soul has never been
conceivable.
[32] For old-German examples see Saussaye, _Religion of the
Teutons_, p. 297; for Guiana, E. F. im Thurn, in _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xi, 368; compare the belief
in the hidden soul, spoken of below, and article "Animals"
in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[33] So the bush-soul or beast-soul among the
E[´w]e-speaking peoples of West Africa (A. B. Ellis, _The
E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 103) and in Calabar (Kingsley,
_West African Studies_). Spirits (Castrén, _Finnische
Mythologie_, p. 186) and demons (as in witchcraft trials)
sometimes take the form of beasts. For American Indian
examples see Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 294.
[34] See the Egyptian representations of the soul as bird
(Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Kypros, the Bible and Homer_, pl. cvi,
2; cix, 4, etc.); Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 183,
compare p. 109. Other examples are given by H. Spencer,
_Principles of Sociology_, i, 355 ff.; N. W. Thomas, in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i, 488. On
_siren_ and _ker_ as forms of the soul see Miss Harrison,
_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, pp. 139,
197-217. Cf. Hadrian's address to the soul:
Animula vagula blandula
Hospes comesque corporis
Quae nunc abibis in loca
Pallidula rigida nudula
Nec ut soles dabis jocos?
[35] The body is spoken of as the person, for example, in
_Iliad_, i. 4; Ps. xvi, 9.
[36] Hence various means of preserving the body by
mummification, and the fear of mutilation.
[37] On the cult of skulls in the Torres Straits and Borneo
see Haddon, _Head-hunters_, chap. xxiv.
[38] J. H. Bernan, _British Guiana_, p. 134.
[39] See Old Testament passim, and lexicons of the various
Semitic languages.
[40] An elaborate account of the loci of qualities is given
by Plato in the _Timæus_, 69 ff.
[41] On the importance attached to the liver as the seat of
life see Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice
in Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 149 ff.
[42] Diels, _Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_, 2d ed., i, 101
f., quoted in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, article "Brain and Mind."
[43] _Phædo_, 96 B; _Timæus_, 44.
[44] _Tusc. Disp._ i, 9, 19; cf. Plautus, _Aulul._ ii, 1,
30.
[45] Arabic _dima[^g]_ appears to mean 'marrow,' but how
early it was employed for 'brain' is uncertain.
[46] Waitz, _Anthropologie_, iii, 225; cf. Roger Williams,
_Languages of America_, p. 86.
[47] _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, iv (the
Karens).
[48] Cranz, _Greenland_ (Eng. tr.) i, 184.
[49] Examples in Frazer, _Golden Bough_, chap. ii.
[50] § 25.
[51] For folk-tales of the hidden 'external' soul see
Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 389 ff.
[52] The coyote (in _Navaho Legends_, by W. Matthews, p. 91)
kept his vital soul in the tip of his nose and in the end of
his tail.
[53] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii, 310.
[54] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 124. Andrew Lang (in _Anthropological Essays
presented to E. B. Tylor_) holds that this Australian view
comes not from ignorance but from the desire to assign a
worthy origin to man in distinction from the lower animals.
Some tribes in North Queensland think that the latter have
not souls, and are born by sexual union, but the human soul,
they say, can come only from a spiritual being. Decision on
this question must await further information.
[55] Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit.
[56] _Journal of American Folklore_, xvii, 4.
[57] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530 (the child is the
returned soul of an ancestor).
[58] Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 154 (a spirit child
enters a woman); cf. _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, viii, 297 (the Nusairi), and Lyde, in Curtiss,
_Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, p. 115; Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_, i, 50, and chap. 3 passim.
[59] A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 15; _The
Tshi-speaking Peoples_, p. 18.
[60] For the belief that the soul of the child comes from
the shades see _Journal of American Folklore_, xiv, 83.
Further, Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, chap. xii; Lang, in
article cited above; Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 96.
[61] Possibly a survival of the theory is to be recognized
in the custom, prevalent among some peoples, of naming a
male child after his grandfather; examples are given in
Gray, _Hebrew Proper Names_, p. 2 f. All such theories
appear to rest on a dim conception of the vital solidarity
of the tribe or clan--the vital force is held to be
transmissible; cf. the idea of _mana_, a force inherent in
things.
[62] Gen. ii, 7; cf. Ezek. xxxvii, 10.
[63] _Timæus_, 34 f.
[64] _De Sen._ 21, 77; _Tusc. Disp._ v, 13, 38.
[65] The term 'sacred' in early thought has no ethical
significance; it involves only the idea that an object is
imbued with some superhuman quality, and is therefore
dangerous and not to be touched.
[66] On modes of burial, see article "Funérailles" in _La
Grande Encyclopédie_. Other considerations, however
(hygienic, for example), may have had influence on the
treatment of corpses.
[67] In the Talmud the books of the Sacred Scriptures are
said to "defile the hands," that is, they are taboo
(_Yadaim_, Mishna, 3, 5).
[68] The lower animals also are sometimes credited with more
than one soul: so the bear among the Sioux (Charlevoix,
_Nouvelle France_, vi, 28; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of
the United States_, iii, 229).
[69] Williams, _Fiji_, i, 241; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
i, 434, cf. Brinton, _Lenâpé_, p. 69; Cross, in _Journal of
the American Oriental Society_, iv, 310 (Karens); W. Ellis,
_Madagascar_, i, 393; A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking
Peoples_, p. 114, and _The Tshi-speaking Peoples_, p. 149
ff.; Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 200 ff.; Skeat,
_Malay Magic_, p. 50.
[70] _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, iv, 310.
[71] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530.
[72] See below, § 46 ff.
[73] See Maspero (1897), _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 108 f.;
W. M. Müller in _Encyclopædia Biblica_, article "Egypt";
Petrie, _Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 30
ff., 48 ff.; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 63 f.; Erman,
_Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 86 f., 108; Wiedemann,
_Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 234 ff.
[74] R. H. Charles in his _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish, and
Christian_, p. 153, holds that the Hebrews made a
distinction between soul and spirit (the former being
"living" only when the latter is present), and that the
recognition of this distinction is necessary for the
understanding of the Old Testament conception of
immortality. His discussion is valuable if not convincing.
[75] 1 Kings xxii, 21 f.
[76] For the New Testament usage see 1 Cor. vi, 17; 2 Cor.
iv, 21; xii, 18; Luke ix, 53 (in some MSS.); Rev. xix, 10;
John vi, 63. Cf. Grimm, _Greek-English Lexicon of the New
Testament_, ed. J. H. Thayer, s. vv. _pneuma_ and _psyche_.
[77] Cf. Rohde, _Psyche_, 3d ed., i, 45 n.; ii, 141, n. 2.
[78] In philosophical thought the two are sometimes
distinguished: the _anima_ is the principle of life, and the
_animus_ of thinking mind (Lucretius, iii, 94-141).
[79] A curious resemblance to the cult of the 'genius' is
found in the E[´w]e (Dahomi) custom of consecrating a man's
birthday to his "indwelling spirit" (A. B. Ellis, _The
E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, 105). Compare Horace's designation
of the genius as 'naturae deus humanae' (_Ep._ ii, 2, 188),
and Servius on Verg., _Georg._ i, 302.
[80] So in Plato and Aristotle, and in Brahmanism.
[81] The evidence for this belief is found in hundreds of
books that record observations of savage ideas, and it is
unnecessary to cite particular examples.
[82] Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 108. Cf.
Hinde, _The Last of the Masai_, p. 99.
[83] D. Macdonald, _Africana_, i, 58 f.
[84] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, x, 283; cf.
Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 277.
[85] Rink, _Tales of the Eskimo_, p. 36.
[86] See above, § 41.
[87] Thomas Williams, _Fiji_, i, 244. Cf. W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_, i, 303.
[88] Gill, _Myths and Songs from the South Pacific_, p. 160.
[89] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix, 118 f.
[90] Jarves, _History of the Sandwich Islands_, p. 42. Cf.
Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, 2d ed., ii, 22 f., and
Codrington, _The Melanesians_ p. 256 ff.
[91] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530 f.
[92] Kingsley, _Travels_, p. 444.
[93] _Polynesian Researches_, p. 218.
[94] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 112, 185.
[95] _Tailtiriya Brahmana_, 3, 11, 8, 5; _Çatapatha
Brahmana_, 12, 9, 3, 12. Cf. Bloomfield, _Religion of the
Veda_, p. 253.
[96] The same remark holds of later conceptions of the
departed soul and of deities.
[97] Mariner, _Tonga_, pp. 328, 343. Gods also die, as in
the Egyptian religious creed (Maspero, _Dawn of
Civilization_, p. 111), in Greek myths and folk-beliefs (the
grave of Zeus, etc.), and in the Norse myth of the combat of
the gods with the giants.
[98] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, chap.
xxv.
[99] 1 Sam. xxvii, 11 f.; Ezek. xxxii, 17 f.; Isa. xiv, 9 f.
Eccl. iii, 19 f., ix, 5, 6, 10, which are sometimes cited in
support of the opposite opinion, belong not to the Jewish
popular belief, but to a late academic system which is
colored by Greek skeptical philosophy. All other late Jewish
books (Apocrypha, New Testament, Talmud) assume the
continued existence of the soul in the other world.
[100] See above, § 43.
[101] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 130, 143 ff., 396;
Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, p. 111 ff.; Spiegel, _Eranische
Alterthiunskunde_, ii, 161 ff.; Wiedemann, _Egyptian
Doctrine of Immortality_; De Groot, _Religion of the
Chinese_, chap. iii.
[102] On the Homeric usage see Rohde, _Psyche_, as cited
above, § 43.
[103] Several early Christian writers (Tatian, _Address to
the Greeks_, 13; Justin, _Trypho_, cap. vi) held that souls
are naturally mortal, but these views did not affect the
general Christian position.
[104] Such as Ezek. xviii, 4. This view appears in
_Clementine Homilies_, vii, 1.
[105] Cf. W. R. Alger, _Critical History of the Doctrine of
a Future Life_; Harvard Ingersoll Lectures on "The
Immortality of Man."
[106] Cf. H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, chap.
xv; article "Blest, abode of the," in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[107] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, chap. xii f.
[108] Cf. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, i, 254, and chap.
iii.
[109] In _Primitive Culture_, chap. xii.
[110] In _La survivance de l'âme_, passim.
[111] See also the discussion of the subject in Alger, op.
cit. (in § 53), p. 62 f. This work contains a bibliography
of the future state (by Ezra Abbot) substantially complete
up to the year 1862.
[112] Cf. Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 295 f.
[113] M. Kingsley, _Studies_, p. 122; _Travels_, p. 445.
[114] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 179 ff.
[115] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, Index, s.v. _Alcheringa_; id., _Northern Tribes
of Central Australia_, p. 271.
[116] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 128.
[117] Cf. especially the Central Australian conception.
[118] It is involved in all monistic systems. It appears
also to be silently made in the Old Testament: the lower
animals, like man, are vivified by the "breath of God" (Ps.
civ, 29, 30; cf. Gen. ii, 7; vii, 22), and are destroyed in
the flood because of the wickedness of man (Gen. vi, 5-7);
cf. also Rom. viii, 22.
[119] So in the Upanishads (but not in the poetic Veda); see
Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 227; Bloomfield, _Religion
of the Veda_, p. 257. Tylor (_Primitive Culture_, ii, 18)
points out that in this conception we have a suggestion of
the theory of development in organic life.
[120] So the Central Australians (Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 514), the
Californian Maidu (Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 246). Cf.
the cases in which precautions are taken against a ghost's
entering its old earthly abode.
[121] _Rig-Veda_, 15.
[122] Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit. and p. 516 f.
[123] Probably the Greek _ker_ ([Greek: kêr]) and the
Teutonic 'nightmare,' French _cauchemar_ (_mara_, an
incubus, or succuba), belong in this class of malefic
ghosts.
[124] See below, § 92.
[125] Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten
Entwicklung der Strafe_, i, 141 ff.
[126] For West Africa see above, § 43, n. 2; for the Norse
_fylgja_ ('follower') cf. Saussaye, _Religion of the
Teutons_, p. 292 ff.
[127] § 38, n. 2.
[128] A transitional stage is marked by the theory, in a
polypsychic system, that one soul remains near the body
while another goes to the distant land.
[129] So, perhaps, among the eastern Polynesians (W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_, i, 303) and the Navahos (Matthews,
_Navaho Legends_, p. 38).
[130] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, chap. iii, 183 ff.;
Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 85; Rink, _Tales of the
Eskimo_, p. 40.
[131] _Odyssey_, xi (by the encircling Okeanos); Williams,
_Fiji_, p. 192; Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 288
f.; Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 290; _Rig-Veda_,
x, 63, 10; ix, 41, 2.
[132] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 65; Charon; Saussaye,
op. cit., p. 290; Rohde, _Psyche_, 3d ed., i, 306. For the
story given by Procopius (_De Bell. Goth._ iv, 20) see
Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 64 f.
[133] Saussaye, op. cit., p. 291.
[134] _Rig-Veda_, x, 154, 4, 5; Lister in _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxi, 51 (moon). Cf. Breasted,
_History of Egypt_, p. 64; Hopkins, _Religions of India_,
pp. 129, 206; Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 284 ff.;
Müller, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, i, 288 ff.; Saussaye,
op. cit., p. 291; Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 232
f.
[135] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 185 f.; Teit, _Thompson
River Indians_, p. 78.
[136] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 257; Lawes (on New Guinea), in
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, viii, 371;
Callaway, _Zulu Nursery Tales_, p. 316; Matthews, _Navaho
Legends_, p. 215; Rink, _Tales of the Eskimo_, p. 37; Sir G.
S. Robertson, _The Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush_, p. 380 f.
[137] _Æneid_, vi.
[138] _Odyssey_, xi, 489; Isa. xxxviii, 10 ff.; Prov. iii,
16, etc.
[139] 1 Sam. xxviii, 14; Ezek. xxxii, 19-32; Isa. xiv, 9-15;
xxxviii, 18. For the early Babylonian conception of the
Underworld see the _Descent of Ishtar_ (in Jastrow,
_Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, chap. xxv); S. H.
Langdon, "Babylonian Eschatology," in _Essays in Modern
Theology and Related Subjects_ (the C. A. Briggs Memorial).
[140] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 175.
[141] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 83 ff.
[142] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_; Callaway, _Amazulus_, pp. 12, 151 f.; W. Ellis,
_Madagascar_, i, 393 (cf. J. Sibree, _Madagascar_, p. 312);
A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e_, p. 107 f., and _The Tshi_, p. 156
ff.; M. Kingsley, _Travels_, pp. 461, 480; R. B. Dixon, _The
Shasta_, p. 469.
[143] Williams, _Fiji_, p. 194.
[144] Ezek. xxxii, 23, 27; Isa. xiv, 15.
[145] Jastrow, op. cit., p. 601; Ezek. xxxii.
[146] _Iliad_, xxiii, 71.
[147] Jastrow, op. cit., p. 602; _Iliad_, i, 3 ff.; 2 Sam.
xxi, 10; Prov. xxx, 17.
[148] Hence special desire for sons, who were the natural
persons to perform funeral rites for fathers.
[149] So also Plato, _Gorgias_, 80 (524).
[150] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 110.
[151] Marillier, _La survivance de l'âme_.
[152] W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, chap. ix.
[153] Marillier, op. cit.
[154] Smith, _Virginia_, p. 36.
[155] Will and Spinden, _The Mandans_ (_Papers of the
Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_,
Harvard University), p. 133.
[156] So among the Betsileos and the Zulus (Marillier, op.
cit.)
[157] So in Madagascar. Cf. Ezek. xxxii, 18 ff.; Isa. xiv, 4
ff.
[158] _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, iv, 312 f.
[159] S. St. John, _The Far East_, 2d ed., i, 182 f.; cf.,
i, 184.
[160] Marillier, op. cit. Here suicide appears to be
regarded as a heroic act, and the women in question perish
in doing a service to the tribe.
[161] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 261; Westermarck,
_Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Future Life_; Hobhouse, _Morals
in Evolution_, ii, 271 ff.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii,
83 ff.
[162] Castrén, _Finnische Mythologie_, p. 126; Turner,
_Samoa_, p. 259; Lawes, "New Guinea," in _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, viii, 370; Rochas, _Nouvelle
Calédonie_ (_Bulletin de la Société d'anthropologie_, 1860),
p. 280; Lister, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xxi, 51; Dixon, op. cit., p. 262; Müller, _Amerikanische
Urreligionen_, p. 289 (Brazil).
[163] See Westermarck, loc. cit.
[164] Hawkins, _Creek Country_, p. 80.
[165] For details on this point see L. Marillier, _La
survivance de l'âme_.
[166] Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, p. 193 f.
[167] _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1842, p. 172,
and 1852, p. 211; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530 f.
[168] Sepulchral inscriptions of Tabnit and Eshmunazar, and
the inscriptions of Antipatros (_Corpus Inscriptionum
Semiticarum_, vol. i, part i, p. 9 ff.; Lidzbarski,
_Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik_, part ii, pl. iv,
1, 2; part i, p. 117; Rawlinson, _Phoenicia_, p. 394 f.).
[169] Breasted, _Egypt_, p. 173 ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion
of the Veda_, p. 252; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp.
336, 380, 443; _Texts of Taoism_, ed. J. Legge, ii, 6 f. (in
_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. 40); Legge, _Religions of
China_, p. 82; De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, pp. 6,
25, 54, 70 ff., 117; Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_,
ii, 158 ff.; Plato, _Republic_, 614 (story of Er); Book of
Enoch passim.
[170] W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, chap. xv; Will and
Spinden, _The Mandans_, p. 133; Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_,
p. 261; _Rig-Veda_, i, 356; vii, 104. Cf. article "Blest,
abode of the" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.
[171] Tartarus is as far below Hades as the earth is below
the sky (_Iliad_, viii, 16).
[172] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 379 ff.
[173] Wiedemann, _Egyptian Doctrine of Immortality_, p. 50
f.; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 183 ff.; Breasted,
_History of Egypt_, pp. 64, 173 ff. Different conceptions,
however, appear in different stages of eschatological
thought. Probably the older view was that all the dead
descended to the Underworld. According to another view, the
good ascended to heaven and accompanied the sun on his daily
voyage over the heavenly ocean.
[174] _Revue archéologique_, 1903, and Reinach, _Orpheus_
(Eng. tr.), p. 88 f.
[175] _Gorgias_, 523-526; _Republic_, x, 614; _Laws_, x, 904
f.; _Phædo_, 113 f.
[176] Isa. lxv, 17-21; lxvi, 24; Enoch, x, 12-22.
[177] Enoch, xxii.
[178] Enoch, civ, 6; xcix, 11.
[179] _Secrets of Enoch_, chaps. vii-x. For the third heaven
cf. 2 Cor. xii, 2-4. Varro also (quoted in Augustine, _De
Civ. Dei_, vii, 6) assigned the souls of the dead to a
celestial space beneath the abode of the gods.
[180] Matt. xxv, 46; 1 Thess. iv, 17; 2 Pet. ii, 4; iii, 13;
Rev. xx, 15; xxi, 1; 2 Cor. xii, 2-4.
[181] See, for example, the _Revelation of the Monk of
Evesham_, Eng. tr. by V. Paget (New York, 1909).
[182] _Republic_, x, 614.
[183] Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_, Index, s.v.
_Fegfeuer_; _Jewish Encyclopedia_, article "Purgatory."
[184] American Indians (H. C. Yarrow, _Introduction to the
Study of Mortuary Customs among the North American Indians_,
p. 5 ff.); Egypt (Wilkinson, _The Ancient Egyptians_, chap.
x); see article "Funérailles" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_.
Grant Allen, in _The Evolution of the Idea of God_, chap.
iii, connects the idea of bodily resurrection with the
custom of inhumation and the idea of immortality with
cremation, but this view is not borne out by known facts.
[185] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2nd ed., i, 262, 278.
[186] The doctrine of reincarnation in India followed on
that of Hades, and stood in a certain opposition to it. Cf.
Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 204 ff., 530 n. 3;
Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, pp. 211, 252 ff.
[187] _Zoroastrian Studies_, p. 236. Prexaspes says that "if
the dead rise again" Smerdis maybe the son of Cyrus. He may
mean that this is not probable. Smerdis, he would in that
case say, is certainly dead, and this pretender can be the
son of Cyrus only in case the dead come to life.
[188] Diogenes Laertius in Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum
Gracorum_, i, 289; cf. Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_, 47, and
Herodotus, i, 131-140. See Spiegel, _Eranische
Alterthumskunde_, ii 158 ff.
[189] Occasional reincarnation in human form is found
elsewhere. The Mazdeans made it universal.
[190] There is no certain or probable reference to it in the
Old Testament before this. Ezek. xxxvii, 1-14, is obviously
a figurative prediction of national (not individual)
resuscitation, and the obscure passage Isa. xxvi, 19 seems
to refer to the reëstablishment of the nation, and in any
case is not earlier than the fourth century B.C. and may be
later.
[191] Dan. xii; 2 Macc. vii, 14; Enoch, xci, 10; xxii.
[192] 1 Cor. xv, 23; Rom. vi, 4; viii, 11; John vi, 54.
[193] Acts xxiv, 15; John v, 28 f.
[194] Apokatastasis (Col. i, 20; cf. Rom. xi, 32).
[195] Cf. Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten
Entwicklung der Strase_.
[196] Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, ii, 234, 245 f.
[197] See below, on necromancy, § 927.
[198] See § 360 ff. (ancestor-worship) and § 350 ff.
(divinization of deceased persons).
[199] In Egypt there grew up also an elaborate system of
charms for the protection of the dead against hostile
animals, especially serpents,--a body of magical texts that
finally took the form of the "Book of the Dead" (Breasted,
_History of Egypt_, pp. 69, 175; Steindorff, _Religion of
the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 153 ff.).
[200] _Çatapatha Brahmana_, xii, 9, 3, 12. Cf. W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_, i, 193 f.
[201] Breasted, op. cit., p. 249.
[202] 1 Cor. xv, 29.
[203] 2 Macc. xii, 40 ff. Possibly the custom came to the
Jews from Egypt. For later Jewish ideas on this point see
_Jewish Encyclopedia_, article "Kaddish."
[204] Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian
Antiquities_, article "Canon of the Liturgy"; Hughes,
_Dictionary of Islam_, article "Prayers for the Dead."
[205] On savage logic cf. Jevons, _Introduction to the
History of Religion_, chap. iv.
[206] See § 18 ff.
[207] See § 635 ff.
[208] As to the efficiency of such tradition, compare the
way in which mechanical processes are transmitted by older
workmen to younger, always with the possibility of gradual
improvement. In literary activity, also, tradition plays a
great part; a young people must serve an apprenticeship
before it can produce works of merit.
[209] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, sec. 35;
Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 43 ff.; Pridham, _Ceylon_,
i, 454 (Veddas); _United States Exploring Expedition_, i,
124 (Fuegians); Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p.
278 (Australian Grounditch); Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen
Süd-Afrikas_, p. 328 (Bushmen); Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes
of the United States_, i, 207 (North American Snake tribes);
Rivet, in _The American Anthropologist_, 1909 ("The Jivaros
of Ecuador").
[210] Cf. I. King, _The Development of Religion_, p. 66 ff.
[211] Even in higher forms of religion, as the Vedic,
sacrifice and other ceremonies are supposed to have a
magical power over the gods.
[212] This is a part of the belief in the mysterious energy
(_mana_) potentially resident in all things.
[213] See, for example, the bird dances described by Haddon
(_Head-hunters_, p. 358); compare W. Matthews, _Navaho
Legends_, p. 83 al. Dances are now often given for the
amusement of the public. Clowns often form a feature of such
ceremonies; see Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 230; R. B.
Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ (_Bulletin of American Museum of
Natural History_, xvii, part iii, p. 315 ff.).
[214] Howitt, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xvi, 327 ff.
[215] Miss Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 263 n.
[216] Miss Kingsley, _Studies_, p. 126.
[217] E. F. im Thurn, _Indians of Guiana_, vii, iv, 5.
[218] E. F. im Thurn, op. cit., vi.
[219] Of the same simple festive nature as dances are the
plays or sports that are not infrequent among savages and
half-civilized tribes. In the Areoi dramatic performances
priests are ridiculed (W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, p.
187).
[220] Miss Fletcher, "Emblematic Use of the Tree in the
Dakotan Group" (in _Proceedings of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science_, 1896).
[221] So among the hill tribes of North Arracan (_Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, ii, 239) and the North
American Indians (Featherman, _Races of Mankind_, division
iii, part i, p. 37 etc.). Such dances are performed by the
Tshi women in the absence of the men (A. B. Ellis, _The
Tshi_, p. 226).
[222] See below, § 903, on imitative magic.
[223] Riedel, in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xvii.
[224] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 139.
[225] _Journal of American Folklore_, xvii, 32. Cf. the
dance for the benefit of a sick man (R. B. Dixon, "Some
Shamans of Northern California," op. cit., xvii, 23 ff.).
[226] _Journal of American Folklore_, iv, 307. Cf. Will and
Spinden, _The Mandans_, pp. 129 ff., 143 ff. The gods
themselves, also, have their festive dances (W. Matthews,
_Navaho Legends_, p. 83), and are sometimes represented as
the authors of the sacred chants (ibid. p. 225).
[227] See W. Matthews, loc. cit.
[228] See, further, _Journal of American Folklore_, iii,
257; iv, 129; xii, 81 (basket dances); R. B. Dixon, _The
Northern Maidu_, p. 183 ff. (numerous and elaborate, and
sometimes economic); Robertson, _Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush_,
chap. 33; N. W. Thomas, _Australia_, chap. 7. Thomas
describes many Australian games, and Dixon (_The Shasta_, p.
441 ff.) Californian games. For stories told by the natives
of Guiana see above, § 106.
[229] 2 Sam. vi, 5.
[230] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 133 f., 409 f.
[231] A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi_, p. 226.
[232] So, probably, the Old-Hebrew ark.
[233] See the references in article "Circumambulation" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[234] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, 3d ed., p. 542. This
sexual instinct is carried back by Darwin (_Descent of Man_,
chap. xii) to the lower animals.
[235] Cf. Gen. iii, 7. There is no conclusive evidence that
the concealment of parts of the body by savages is prompted
by modesty (cf. Ratzel, _History of Mankind_, i, 93 ff.),
but it may have contributed to the development of this
feeling.
[236] Cf. Y. Him, _Origins of Art_, chap. xvi. For the Maori
usage see R. Taylor, _New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,
chap. xviii.
[237] Cf. Lucien Carr, "Dress and Ornaments of Certain
American Indians" (in _Proceedings of the American
Antiquarian Society_, 1897).
[238] Ratzel, op. cit., Index, s.v. _Tattooing_; Boas, _The
Central Eskimo_, p. 561; Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_,
chap. ii. Among some tribes (as the Fijians) untattooed
persons are denied entrance into the other world. Naturally
the origin of tattoo is by some tribes referred to deities:
see Turner, _Samoa_, p. 55 f.; _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xix, 100 (New Zealand); xvii,
318 ff. (Queen Charlotte Islands and Alaska). The Ainu hold
that it drives away demons (Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 22).
[239] Turner, op. cit., p. 141.
[240] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. vi.
[241] Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, p. 31 ff.; cf. chap. i.
[242] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vii.
[243] On a possible connection between tattoo marks and
stigmata cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 3d ed.,
p. 334.
[244] See § 23. Blood of men is sometimes drunk, simply to
assuage thirst, or as a curative (Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 462, 464).
[245] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
Index, s.v. _Art, decorative_; _Journal of American
Folklore_, vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).
[246] So the dress of the Jewish high priest (Ex. xxviii),
that of the Lamas of Tibet (Abbé Huc, _Travels in Tartary,
Tibet and China_, ii, chap. ii; Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, p.
250), and costumes in some Christian bodies.
[247] Of the same nature is Jeremy Taylor's view (_An
Apology for authorized and set forms of Liturgy_, Question
1, § 7 ff.) that, as earthly monarchs are not addressed in
the language of everyday familiar intercourse, so it is not
proper that the deity should be approached with other than
choice and dignified words--public prayers should be
carefully worded.
[248] Cf. A. C. Haddon, article "Art" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[249] A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_, p. 157.
[250] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
Index, s.v. _Hunting_.
[251] Batchelor, _The Ainu_ (the hunting of the bear); and
so many American tribes, and, in part, some half-civilized
peoples, as the Arabs of North Africa.
[252] Teit, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, ii, 280.
[253] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
291 ff.
[254] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 8 (cf. p. 24).
[255] Hollis (op. cit., p. 6 f.) relates that on a certain
occasion when his party was driven from its wagons by a
swarm of bees, a Nandi man appeared, announced that he was
of the bee totem, and volunteered to restore quiet, which he
did, going stark naked into the swarm. His success was
doubtless due to his knowledge of the habits of bees.
[256] So in the Tsimshian ceremony in eating the first fish
caught (Boas, in _Fifth Report of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science_, vol. lix, p. 51). Cf. the
Jewish rule (Ex. xii, 46), which may have had a similar
origin.
[257] Teit, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, ii, 282. A
similar provision is mentioned in Ex. xvi, 16-20.
[258] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 167 f., and _Native Tribes of Northern
Australia_, p. 308 etc.; Strehlow, _Die Aranda-und
Loritjastämme in Zentralaustralien_, part ii, p. 39 etc.
[259] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 285 f.
[260] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
177 f.
[261] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. 149.
[262] Seligmann, op. cit., p. 291 ff.
[263] Here again the taboos are precautions against
injurious supernatural influences.
[264] He is said also to imitate the cries of animals--that
is, he combines natural means with supernatural.
[265] Spencer and Gillen, and Strehlow, loc. cit.
[266] This feeling for the tribal life may be called
germinal public spirit. Cf. above, § 103.
[267] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 238 ff.
[268] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 526.
[269] Frazer (_Golden Bough_, 2d. ed., ii, 43 ff.) refers to
B. Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii, 311; Strachey,
_Historie_, p. 84; Krapf, _Travels_, p. 69 f.; Mone,
_Geschichte des Heldenthums im nördlichen Europa_, i, 119.
See, further, T. Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, p. 181 f.; W.
Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_,
ii, 169.
[270] Ex. xxii, 29 [28]; xiii, 12, 13.
[271] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vi.
[272] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv, 104
ff.
[273] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 78.
[274] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii, 18;
xxvi, 30. Other examples are given by Frazer in his _Golden
Bough_, 2d. ed., i, 81 ff., 163; he cites cases of persons
(priests and kings) held responsible for rain, and put to
death if they failed to supply it.
[275] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 145. On certain Roman ceremonies
(that of the lapis manalis and others) that have been
supposed to be connected with rain making see Wissowa,
_Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. 106; W. W. Fowler,
_Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, iii.
[276] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 23.
[277] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 454; Westermarck,
_Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, i, 52 ff.; ii,
532 ff.
[278] There is, of course, another side to the character of
ghosts--sometimes they are friendly.
[279] Ploss, _Das Kind_, 2d ed., i, chap. iv.
[280] Numb. xix.
[281] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.
[282] J. J. M. de Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap.
ii.
[283] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, new ed., p. 321 f.
[284] Josh. vii (story of Achan).
[285] Examples are given in Frazer's _Golden Bough_, loc.
cit.
[286] Lev. xiv, 1-9.
[287] Lev. xvi. Cf. the vision (Zech. v, 5 ff.) in which
wickedness (or guilt), in the shape of a woman, is
represented (in no brotherly spirit) as being transferred
from Jewish soil to Shinar (Chaldea).
[288] Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion_, p. 95 ff.
[289] Later the festival was certainly connected with the
driving forth of winter, but its earlier form was, probably,
as given above.
[290] W. W. Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, Index, s.v.
_Mamurius, Lupercalia_. The beating was supposed also to
have fertilizing power; cf. S. Hartland, _Primitive
Paternity_, i, 100 ff.
[291] Deut. xvi; Ex. xii.
[292] In some savage tribes the older men seem to have
nothing to do but arrange ceremonies.
[293] There is a faint survival, perhaps, in the use of
incense in churches.
[294] A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der
Gegenwart_, ed. E. H. Meyer, Index; J. H. King, _The
Supernatural_, i, 111 ff.
[295] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xii, 129
ff. (Andaman Islands); ibid. xxv, 188 (East Africa);
Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. iii; Frazer, _Golden
Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.
[296] A. L. Kroeber, in _University of California
Publications in American Archæology and Ethnology_, ii,
viii; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, chap. xliii (on homosexual relations).
[297] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 326; iii, 204 ff.;
Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, Index, s.v. _Puberty_;
Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 55.
[298] See below, under "Taboo."
[299] Emasculation, of course, does not belong here; it is
not a custom of initiation proper.
[300] Cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 135.
[301] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii, 406
(Omahas). On mutilation as a general religious rite see H.
Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 189, 290, and as
punishment, Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Mutilation_.
[302] Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Attis," "Kybele." Origen
is a noteworthy example in Christian times; cf. Matt. xix,
12.
[303] For details of diffusion, methods, etc., see article
"Circumcision" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.
[304] This is an incision of the penis from the meatus down
to the scrotal pouch.
[305] Herodotus, ii, 37.
[306] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 137 f.
[307] Ploss, _Das Kind_, 2d ed., i, 368 f.
[308] On phallic cults see below, § 388 ff.
[309] Gen. xxiv, 2 f.
[310] A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba_, p. 66.
[311] J. G. Frazer, in the _Independent Review_, iv, 204 ff.
[312] Circumcision of females is the removal of the clitoris
and the labia minora; introcision is the enlargement of the
vaginal orifice by tearing it downwards; infibulation is the
closing of the labia just after circumcision. Cf. Ploss,
_Das Weib_, 2d ed., i, chap. v.
[313] Cf. also the great extent to which masturbation
prevails among savages. Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xliii.
[314] A rod is thrust through the glans of the penis; see
Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii,
45 (the palang); cf. Ploss, _Das Weib_, 2d ed., i, chap. xi;
J. Macdonald, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xx, 116.
[315] Cf. the defloration of young women (by certain
officially appointed men) on the occasion of their arriving
at the age of puberty; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 503; Spencer
and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 93;
Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 347.
[316] Gen. xvii. Islam has no divine sanction for
circumcision; it is not mentioned in the Koran, doubtless
because Mohammed took it for granted as a current usage.
[317] 1 Sam. xvii, 26.
[318] Article "Circumcision (Egyptian)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, and the literature
there cited.
[319] Deut. x, 16; Jer. ix, 25 f.; Rom. ii, 28 f.
[320] Article "Brotherhood (artificial)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[321] Cf. H. C. Trumbull, _The Blood-Covenant_, passim; W.
R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., Index, s.v.
_Blood Covenant_.
[322] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.; cf.
Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 185 f.
[323] Alice Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 278.
[324] §§ 533, 1095 ff., 1161 ff.
[325] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv, 295
(South Australia); Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_, p. 531 f.
[326] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii, 296
(Queensland); Howitt, loc. cit.; Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 221, 223, and _Native
Tribes of Northern Australia_, p. 361.
[327] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chap. ii ff.
[328] The office of sponsor exists in embryonic form in many
savage communities; for boys the sponsor is the father or
other near relation, for girls an old woman. The duties of
savage sponsors usually continue only during the period of
initiation.
[329] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_; H. N. Hutchinson,
_Marriage Customs in Many Lands_; Ch. Letourneau, _The
Evolution of Marriage and of the Family_; Crawley, _The
Mystic Rose_; and the references in G. E. Howard's _History
of Matrimonial Institutions_, i, chaps. i-iv; cf. Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_.
[330] See below, § 429 ff.
[331] Similar restrictions existed in Greece and Rome. An
Athenian citizen was not allowed to marry a foreign woman.
In Rome connubium held in the first instance between men and
women who were citizens, though it might be extended to
include Latins and foreigners. In India marriage came to be
controlled by caste. These local and national rules
gradually yielded to rules based on degrees of
consanguinity. Marriage between near relations was looked on
with disfavor in Greece and Rome and by the Hebrews, and the
Old Testament law on this point has been adopted (with some
variations) by Christian nations. For the Arab customs see
W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, chap.
iii.
[332] Cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 462 ff.; W. R.
Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1st ed., p.
62 ff.; Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, chaps. v, vi.
[333] In some cases, among the Todas of South India for
example, the defloration takes place shortly before the girl
reaches the age of puberty (Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 703);
more generally it is performed when she reaches this age.
This difference of time is not essential as regards the
significance of the ceremony.
[334] Cf. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 224. For the
Old Testament Song of Songs see Budde's commentary on that
book.
[335] Sacrifices to local or other deities formed a part of
marriage ceremonies in Greece and Rome; Hera and Juno were
guardians of the sanctity of marriage. No religious ceremony
in connection with marriage is mentioned in the Old
Testament; a trace of such a ceremony occurs in the book of
Tobit (vii, 13).
[336] _The Mystic Rose_, p. 322, etc.
[337] Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, article "Marriage."
[338] The danger might continue into early childhood and
have to be guarded against; for a Greek instance see Gardner
and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 299.
[339] For details see Ploss, _Das Kind_, and works on
antiquities, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman.
[340] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 72 ff.; iv, 244
ff.
[341] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 228 ff.; and _The
Shasta_, p. 453 ff.; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 313 ff.;
Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 64 f.; D. Kidd, _Savage Childhood_,
p. 7; Lev. xii; article "Birth" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia
of Religion and Ethics_.
[342] See above, § 55 f.
[343] Tylor (_Primitive Culture_, ii, 3 ff.) suggests that
such an idea may have been supposed to account for the
general resemblance between parents and children.
[344] R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, p. 212.
[345] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 353 ff.
[346] Turner, _Samoa_, chap. iii. In some Christian
communities the saint on whose festival day a child is born
is adopted as the child's patron saint. In the higher
ancient religions there were religious observances in
connection with the birth and rearing of children, special
divine care being sought; see, for example, the elaborate
Roman apparatus of divine guardians.
[347] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 231; H. Webster,
_Primitive Secret Societies_, p. 40 f.
[348] For methods of burial see article "Funérailles" in _La
Grande Encyclopédie_.
[349] Robertson, _The Kafirs_, chap. xxxiii; Batchelor, _The
Ainu_, chap. xlviii (the goddess of fire is asked to take
charge of the spirit of the deceased).
[350] The food and drink (of which only the soul is supposed
to be consumed by the deceased) are often utilized by the
surviving friends; such funeral feasts have played a
considerable part in religious history and survive in some
quarters to the present day.
[351] A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e_ (Dahomi), chap. viii; A. G.
Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_, p. 160 f.;
Herodotus, iv, 71 f. (Scythians); v, 5 (Thracians). Cf. the
Greek Anthesteria and the Roman Parentalia.
[352] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi, 121.
[353] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 498.
[354] For elaborate Sioux ceremonies on the death of a child
see Miss Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_ (the Shadow or Ghost
Lodge).
[355] On the disposal of the corpse, by inhumation,
cremation, exposure, etc., see article "Funérailles" cited
above; O. Schrader, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_, ii, 16 ff.
[356] This may be in part a hygienic precaution.
[357] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 91. Cf. G. L. Kittredge,
"Disenchantment by Decapitation," in _Journal of American
Folklore_, vol. xviii, no. 68 (January, 1905).
[358] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap. iii.
[359] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, chap. xxxvii ff.; Saussaye, _Science of Religion_
(Eng. tr.), chap. xviii; and the references given in these
works.
[360] See below, on removal of taboos.
[361] Fraser, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 306 f.
[362] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, index, s.v. _Homicide_.
[363] See below, § 201; cf. the Athenian Anthesteria and
Thargelia.
[364] In Ex. iv, 24 f., Yahweh is about to kill Moses,
apparently for neglecting a ritual act.
[365] Examples in Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 429 ff.;
cf. Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 39.
[366] See the practices described by Rivers, in _The Todas_,
Index, s.vv. _Bathing_, _Purification_.
[367] Schneckenburger, _Proselytentaufe_; article
"Proselyten" in Herzog, _Real-Encyklopädie_.
[368] In the New Testament baptism is said to be "for the
remission of sins" (Acts ii, 38), and is called "bath of
regeneration" (Tit. iii, 3); a quasi-magical power is
attributed to it in 1 Cor. xv, 29.
[369] For the Mazdean use of urine see _Vendidad_, Fargard
v, 160; xvi, 27, etc.; for use of buffalo's dung, Rivers,
_The Todas_, pp. 32, 173 f., etc.
[370] Rivers, op. cit., p. 367.
[371] Compare, however, the use of natural pigments for
decorative and religious purposes; see above, § 115 ff.
[372] The Toda ceremony of burning a woman's hand in the
fifth month of pregnancy, and a child's hand on the occasion
of a funeral (Rivers, _The Todas_, pp. 315, 374), may be
purificatory, but this is not clear; cf. Frazer, in _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xi.
[373] Lev. xv, 30; xvi, 15 ff.
[374] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 196.
[375] Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, p. 888 ff.; Jevons,
_Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 375; Harrison,
_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 150 ff.
[376] Lev. xvi.
[377] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, Index, s.v.
[378] The native name of the festival, _puskita_ (busk), is
said to mean 'a fast,' but the ceremonies are largely
purificatory; Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p.
177 ff.
[379] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 300 ff.
[380] _Odyssey_, iv, 730.
[381] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 352; Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 269 f.
[382] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chap. ix; G.
Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, pp. 60-78.
[383] Lev. viii; cf. Copleston, _Buddhism_, chap. xviii;
Lippert, _Priesterthum_ (see references in the headings to
the chapters).
[384] So in some Christian bodies.
[385] The details are given at great length by Westermarck,
op. cit., chap. xxxvii, with references to authorities.
[386] It is by nature nonsacred, and so remains so long as
it has not been made sacred by the special ceremonies that
abound in savage communities. We have here the germ of the
dualistic conception of man's constitution--the antagonism
between spirit and body.
[387] Hollis, _The Nandi_, pp. 58, 92.
[388] Cf. the danger to a common man of eating a chief's
food; see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 321 f.
[389] Frazer, In _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xv, 94, quoted by Westermarck.
[390] H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, § 140.
[391] In Christianity in connection with the eucharistic
meal and other observances.
[392] The true principle is stated in Isa. lviii, 3 ff.
[393] Cf. article "Calendar" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_.
[394] For a series of dance seasons see Dixon, _The Northern
Maidu_, p. 283 ff.; cf. Basset, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia
of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 513.
[395] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 94 ff.
[396] Hollis, _The Masai_, Index, s.v. _Moon_.
[397] Rivers, _The Todas_, Index, s.v. _Moon_.
[398] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii,
835.
[399] 1 Sam. xx, 6 (clan festival); Isa. i, 13; Numb.
xxviii, 11.
[400] Hastings, op. cit., ii, 555.
[401] Lev. xxiii, 33; Ps. lxxxi, 4 [3]. On the Sabbath as
perhaps full-moon day, see below, § 608.
[402] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 449 ff.
[403] Buckley, in Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed., p. 83.
[404] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 677
ff.
[405] Lev. xxiii, 23 f.; Numb. xxix, 1 ff. The Hebrew text
of Ezek. xl, 1, makes the year begin on the tenth day of
some month unnamed; but the Hebrew is probably to be
corrected after the Greek. Cf. Nowack, _Hebräische
Archäologie_, ii, 158 f.
[406] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 278.
[407] Cf. A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898), p. 55.
[408] J. W. Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi"
(in _The American Anthropologist_, xi).
[409] Prescott, _Peru_, i, 104, 127.
[410] A Saracen cult is described in _Nili opera quædam_
(Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117.
[411] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 100; Rivers, _The Todas_, p.
593 ff.; cf. Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xviii f.;
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 132 f.
[412] For some fasting observances in astral cults see
Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_,
ii, 312 f.
[413] As food is the most pressing need.
[414] Judg. ix, 27; Neh. viii, 10.
[415] A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898), Index,
s.vv.; Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, pp. 287 f.,
290, 292.
[416] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, pp. 95 ff., 157 ff., 268
ff., 114, 124 ff., 241 ff.; cf. article "Mars" in Roscher,
_Lexikon_, col. 2416 f.
[417] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 453 ff.
[418] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 78 f.
[419] A Babylonian festival of this sort (Sakea) is
mentioned by Athenæus (in _Deipnosophistæ_, xiv, 639) on the
authority of Berosus, and "Sakea" has been identified with
"zakmuk," the Babylonian New Year's Day (cf. the story in
Esth. vi); but the details of the festival and of the
Persian Sakæa (Strabo, xi, 8) are obscure.
[420] Lev. xxiii.
[421] see above, § 128.
[422] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 46 f.
[423] Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 177 ff.
[424] Cf. the ceremony of the pharmakos in the festival of
the Thargelia (Miss Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion_, p. 95 ff.).
[425] Frazer, _Golden Bough_ 2d ed., ii, 337 ff.
[426] This period has been generally held to be calendary.
Its calendary reality is denied by Legge (in _Recueil des
travaux_, xxxi) and Foucart (in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_, article "Calendar [Egyptian]").
[427] A noteworthy instance of this persistence appears in
the history of the Bene-Israel, a body of Jews living in the
Bombay Presidency (article "Bene-Israel" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_); they preserve the
Jewish religious festivals, but under Indian names.
[428] See above, §§ 4, 7.
[429] The word "fetish" (from Portuguese _feitiço_,
'artificial', then 'idol, charm,'), devised originally as a
name of charms used by the natives of the West African
coast, is often employed as a general name for early
religious practices. Its proper use is in the sense of a
dead object, as a piece of clay or a twig, in which, it is
held, a spirit dwells. The fetish is often practically a
god, often a household god; the interesting thing about it
is that the spirit, generally a tutelary spirit, can enter
the object or depart at will, may be brought in by
appropriate ceremonies, and may be dismissed when it is no
longer considered useful.
[430] Algonkin _manito_ or _manitu_ (W. Jones, in _Journal
of American Folklore_, xviii, 190); Iroquois _orenda_;
Siouan _wakonda_; Chickasa _hullo_ (_Journal of American
Folklore_, xx, 57); cf. the Masai _n'gai_, 'the unknown,
incomprehensible' (Hinde, _The Last of the Masai_, p. 99),
connected with storms and the telegraph. Other names perhaps
exist.
[431] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, Index, s.v. _Mana_.
[432] W. Jones, op. cit.
[433] It has therefore been compared to the modern idea of
force as inherent in matter.
[434] The American _manitu_ is an appellation of a personal
supernatural being. The Siouan _wakonda_ is invoked in
prayer (Miss Fletcher, _The Tree in the Dakotan Group_).
[435] Judg. xiv, 19; 1 Sam. xix, 23; Ezek. xxxix, 29. Fury
also is said to be poured out. Cf. Mark v, 30, where power
([Greek: dynamis]) is said to go out of Jesus.
[436] Cf. the Greek _energeia_ and _entelecheia_.
[437] Cf. I. King, _The Development of Religion_, chap. vi.
[438] Examples in J. H. King, _The Supernatural_. Cf. T. S.
Knowlson, _Origins of Popular Superstitions_, etc.; T.
Keightley, _Fairy Mythology_.
[439] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, 3d ed., ii, 229 ff.:
article "Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.
[440] This may have been simply the transference to them of
human custom, or it may also have been suggested by the
obvious social organization of such animals as bees, ants,
goats, deer, monkeys.
[441] Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 21, 26.
[442] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 27.
[443] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, (new ed., see
p. 106) p. 128 f.
[444] A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, i, 117 ff.
[445] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, pp. 389, 401. Some Australians believed in an
original gradual transformation of animals and plants into
human beings.
[446] On the conception of animals as ancestors see below, §
449 f.
[447] A demon may be defined as a supernatural being with
whom, for various reasons, men have not formed friendly
relations. Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new
ed., p. 119 ff., on the Arabian jinn; De Groot, _Religion of
the Chinese_, p. 13 ff., for the Chinese belief in demonic
animals. On the origin, names, and functions of demons and
on exorcismal ceremonies connected with them see below, § 690
ff., and above, § 138 ff.
[448] So the Eskimo, the Ainu, the Redmen, and modern Arabs
in Africa; many other instances are cited by Frazer in his
_Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 386 ff.
[449] Examples are found in many folk-stories of savages
everywhere.
[450] For other sacred animals see N. W. Thomas, article
"Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.
[451] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 238.
[452] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 430 ff.; Thomas,
article "Animals" cited above; Shortland, _Traditions of New
Zealand_, iv; Marsden, _Sumatra_, p. 292; Schoolcraft,
_Indian Tribes_, i, 34; v, 652; Waitz, _Anthropologie_, iii,
190; Callaway, _Amazulus_, p. 196; A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi_,
p. 150; Mouhot, _Indo-China_, i, 252; J. Wasiljev,
_Heidnische Gebräuche der Wotyaks_, pp. 26, 78, etc.; G. de
la Vega, _Comentarios Reales_, bk. i, chap. ix, etc. (Peru);
Miss Kingsley, _Travels_, p. 492.
[453] Turner, op. cit., p. 242; Castrén, _Finnische
Mythologie_, pp. 106, 160, 189, etc.; Parkman, _Jesuits in
North America_ (1906), pp. 61 f., 66; Brinton, _Myths of the
New World_, pp. 3, 105, 127, 161, 175, 272; cf. Acosta,
_Historia de las Indias_, bk. v, chap. iv.
[454] So Zeus and bull, Artemis and bear, Aphrodite and
dove, and many other examples. In such cases it is generally
useless to try to discover a resemblance between the
character of the god and that of the associated animal.
There is simply, as a rule, a coalescence of cults, or an
absorption of the earlier cult in the later.
[455] The particular conditions that induced this cult in
Egypt escape us. See the works on Egyptian religion by
Maspero, Wiedemann, Erman, Steindorff, and others.
[456] On the curious attitude of medieval Europe toward
animals as legally responsible beings see E. P. Evans, _The
Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals_.
[457] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. x. Two superhuman creators are said to
have transformed themselves into lizards (ibid. p. 389 ff.).
[458] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 35 ff.
[459] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 80, 223; Dixon, _The
Northern Maidu_, p. 263.
[460] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 269; cf. article
"Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia Of Religion and
Ethics_.
[461] See above, § 253, for the Egyptian cult.
[462] References to Stow's _Native Races of South Africa_
and Merensky's _Beiträge_ are given in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i, 522.
[463] Cushing, in _The Century Magazine_, 1883; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, ii, 243 f.
[464] Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_, ii, 213.
[465] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 527, 539; Crooke,
op. cit.; Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi,"
p. 17 ff.
[466] For a fanciful connection between the sun-myth and the
spider see Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xxiii.
[467] A somewhat vague Naga (snake) being of this sort is
noted (Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 539). The relation
between the Australian supernatural being Bunjil (or Punjil)
and the eagle-hawk is not clear. Cf. Howitt, _Native Tribes
of South-East Australia_, Index; Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes of Central Australia_, Index.
[468] See below, § 635 f.
[469] A special form of man's relations with animals is
considered below under "Totemism."
[470] For example, in Sumatra, offerings are made to the
"soul of the rice"; there is fear of frightening the
rice-spirit, and ceremonies are performed in its honor; see
Wilken, _Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen
Archipel_; Kruyt, _De Rijstmoeder van den Indischen
Archipel_, 389. It has been suggested that the prohibition
of yeast in the Hebrew mazzot (unleavened bread) festival
may have come originally from fear of frightening the spirit
of the grain. It may have been, however, merely the
retention of an old custom (if the grain was eaten
originally without yeast), which later (as sometimes
happened in the case of old customs) was made sacred by its
age, was adopted into the religious code, and so became
obligatory.
[471] This conception survives in the expressions "spirit of
wine," etc., and Cassio's "invisible spirit of wine" easily
passes into a "devil."
[472] This distinction is made in a somewhat formal way by
the Ainu, a very rude people (Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap.
xxxiii).
[473] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 132
f.
[474] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, Index, s.vv. _totems_,
_ancestors_.
[475] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, pp. 112, 116. Many other plant totems are
mentioned by Frazer in his _Totemism and Exogamy_.
[476] Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 32, 39, 43, 72.
[477] This relation was not necessarily totemic--it may have
been of a general character, of which totemism is a special
form.
[478] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 179 ff.
[479] Cf. articles "Asylum" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_, and _Jewish Encyclopedia_.
[480] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., pp.
133, 195; Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, xxx (1910), 4, p. 352.
[481] Miss Godden, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxvi, 186 ff.
[482] W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_, new ed., ii, 85 ff.; cf. Hopkins, "Mythological
Aspects of Trees, etc.," in _Journal of the American
Oriental Society_, September, 1910.
[483] _Rig-Veda_, ix al.; Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_,
v; Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_, i, 450; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 112 ff.
[484] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 114 ff.;
Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Alterium_, ii,
ii, p. 234 ff.
[485] Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ and _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, Index, s.v.
_Corn-spirit_.
[486] Cf. below, § 751 ff.
[487] The connection between such posts and the
North-Semitic goddess Ashera is uncertain.
[488] Ward, _Seal-cylinders of Western Asia_.
[489] Cf. the suggestion of A. Réville (in his _Prolégomènes
de l'histoire des religions_) that images arose in part from
natural woods bearing a fancied resemblance to the human
form.
[490] Boas, _The Kwakiutl_; Swanton, "Seattle Totem Pole,"
in _Journal of American Folklore_ vol. xviii, no. 69 (April,
1905).
[491] See below, "Totemism," § 449 f.
[492] Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_, ii, 115 ff.
[493] Pausanias, x, 31, 4; Roscher, _Lexikon_, article
"Meleagros."
[494] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 391 ff.
[495] Gen. iii; cf. Hopkins, in _Journal of the American
Oriental Society_, September, 1910. Whether the golden
apples of the Hesperides had the life-giving quality is
doubtful.
[496] This appears from a comparison of Gen. iii, 3 with ii,
17.
[497] Gen. iii, 5, 22.
[498] He is, perhaps, a diminished and conventionalized form
of the old chaos dragon.
[499] On the various names and characters of this cosmic
tree see Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 347 ff.
[500] _Rig-Veda_, x, 81, 4.
[501] 2 Sam. v, 24.
[502] Judg. ix, 37.
[503] See below, § 935 ff.
[504] This is the case with all spirits that social needs do
not force man to give names to.
[505] Rhys Davids, _Buddhist India_, p. 232.
[506] See above, § 252 f.
[507] Ex. iii, 2 ff.; Deut. xxxiii, 16; Acts vii, 30, 35.
[508] See _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, xxx,
353 f., for possible examples.
[509] A list of such titles is given by C. Boetticher in his
_Baumkultus der Hellenen und Römer_, chap. iv.
[510] Dionysos is a bull-god as well as a tree-god.
[511] _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 12.
[512] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 533.
[513] On the Soma cult see above, § 270.
[514] § 271.
[515] Lev. xvi.
[516] Gruppe, _Culte und Mythen_; Roscher, _Lexikon_. Cf.
the developed cults of Vishnu and Çiva.
[517] On Osiris and Isis see below, § 728 f.
[518] Some instances of worship are given in Frazer's
_Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 181, 189, 191. Frazer sometimes
uses the term 'tree worship' where all that is meant is
respect for trees as powerful things.
[519] See § 253 ff.
[520] See _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, 1881.
[521] So in Central Australia (Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 123 f., 137).
[522] The rock whence came the stones thrown by Deucalion
and Pyrrha (the origin of the human race) also gave birth to
Agdistis _mugitibus editis multis_, according to Arnobius,
_Adversus Nationes_, v, 5. Mithra's birth from a rock
(Roscher, _Lexikon_) is perhaps a bit of late poetical or
philosophical imagery.
[523] For various powers of stones, involving many human
interests, see indexes in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_,
Frazer's _Golden Bough_, and Hartland's _Primitive
Paternity_, s.v. _Stone_ or _Stones_.
[524] Festus, p. 2; see the remarks of Marquardt, _Römische
Staatsverwaltung_; Aust, _Religion der Römer_, p. 121; and
Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 232 f. On the relation between
the lapis and Juppiter Elicius, see Wissowa, _Religion und
Kultus der Römer_, p. 106; cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_, article
"Iuppiter," col. 606 ff.
[525] See above, § 97 ff.
[526] On processes of capturing a god in order to inclose
him in an object, or of transferring a god from one object
to another, see W. Crooke, "The Binding of a God," in
_Folklore_, viii.
[527] In pre-Islamic Arabia many gods were represented by
stones, the stone being generally identified with the deity;
so Al-Lât, Dhu ash-Shara (Dusares), and the deities
represented by the stones in the Meccan Kaaba.
[528] Livy, xxix, 10 f.
[529] 1 Sam. iv.
[530] Head, _Historia Numorum_, p. 661.
[531] Tacitus, _Hist._ ii, 3; it was conical in shape.
[532] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_ p. 230 ff.; cf. above, the
"lapis manalis," § 289.
[533] Herodian, v, 3, 10.
[534] Pausanias, vii, 22. Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
ii, 160 ff.
[535] H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 335;
Saussaye, _Manual of the Science of Religion_ (Eng. tr.), p.
85 ff.
[536] Gen. xxviii, 18; cf. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,
2d ed., p. 203 f.
[537] Hos. iii, 4.
[538] The reference in Jer. ii, 27, Hab. ii, 19 (stones as
parents and teachers), seems to be to the cult of foreign
deities, represented by images.
[539] On the interpretation of the masseba as a phallus or a
kteis see below, §§ 400, 406.
[540] And so in Assyrian and Arabic.
[541] There is no Greek etymology for _baitulos_, and if it
came from without, a Semitic origin is the most probable.
[542] Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelica_, i, 10, 18.
[543] _Hist. Nat._, bk. xxxvii, chap. 51.
[544] Cf. F. Lenormant, in _Revue de l'histoire des
religions_, iii, 31 ff.; Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_,
p. 775 f.
[545] For Phoenician customs see Pietschmann, _Phönisier_,
p. 204 ff.
[546] Cf. Deut. x, 2; Ex. xxv, 16; 2 Chr. v, 10, where the
stone in the ark seems to have become two stone tables on
which the decalogue was written by the finger of Yahweh--an
example, if the view mentioned above be correct, of the
transformation of a thing originally divine in itself into
an accessory of a god.
[547] Cf. Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, s.v. _Kaaba_;
Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, pp. 99, 171.
[548] On the relation between the stone heaps and the Hermes
pillars cf. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, ii, 455, and
Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 2, col. 2382. With Hermes as guide of
travelers cf. the Egyptian Khem (Min), of Coptos, as
protector of wanderers in the desert, and perhaps Eshmun in
the Sardinian trilingual inscription (see Roscher,
_Lexikon_, article "Esmun"; _Orientalische Studien Nöldeke
gewidmet_).
[549] See below, § 1080.
[550] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., pp.
202, 341; cf. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of
Religion_, chap. xi; article "Altar" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[551] Lev. xvi, 19.
[552] For some methods of such introduction see W. Crooke,
in _Folklore_, viii.
[553] Herodotus, ii, 44; he identifies Melkart with
Herakles.
[554] 1 Kings, vii, 15-22; Ezek. xl, 49.
[555] Perrot and Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art_, vol. iii; cf.
Pletschmann, _Phönizier_, p. 203 ff.; Rawlinson,
_Phoenicia_, p. 338.
[556] Cf. below, § 399 ff.
[557] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 487
ff.
[558] Strabo, iii, 5, 5.
[559] Those of Solomon's temple are described as being 27
feet in height, and without stairways. Cf. the structures
connected with the Hierapolis temple (Lucian, _De Syria
Dea_, 28).
[560] Desire for height appears also in the Egyptian pyramid
and the Babylonian ziggurat, but both these had means of
ascent to the higher levels. Cf. below, § 1085.
[561] Maspero, _Egyptian Archæology_, p. 100 ff.
[562] The movement from aniconic to anthropomorphic forms is
seen in the image of the Ephesian Artemis, the upper half
human, the lower half a pillar (Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 1,
cols. 588, 595).
[563] Examples in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, 2d ed., ii,
170 f.; cf. his _Early History of Mankind_, chap. vi.
[564] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 188, etc.
[565] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, index, s.v. _Mountains_;
article "Bengal" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 260; Hollis, _The
Nandi_, p. 48.
[566] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 358 ff., 537, and
_Journal of the American Oriental Society_, September, 1910.
[567] On a general relation between gods and local hills see
Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 444.
[568] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 541,
638; cf. Isa. xiv, 13. Many Babylonian temples, considered
as abodes of gods, were called "mountains."
[569] Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, loc. cit., where the mythical mountains of the
Mahabharata are described.
[570] _Iliad_ viii, 2 al.
[571] Bastian, "Vorstellungen von Wasser und Feuer," in
_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, i; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
2d ed., ii, 209 ff., 274 ff.; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, lecture v.
[572] Polybius, vii, 9.
[573] Num. v.
[574] Job vii, 12.
[575] Herodotus, vi, 76.
[576] _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, x, 179; Bell,
_Maldive Islands_, p. 73.
[577] In Titus iii, 5, the reference seems to be to baptism.
[578] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, p. 10 f.; cf. the
German Lorelei.
[579] Frazer (in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tylor_) sees a river-god in the figure mentioned in Gen.
xxxii, 24.
[580] Cf. John v, 4 (in some MSS.).
[581] This is W. R. Smith's contention in _Religion of the
Semites_, lecture v. See his account of Semitic water-gods
in general.
[582] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 345 f. Cf. the Roman lapis
manalis; see above, § 136.
[583] A large number of examples are given by Frazer in his
_Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 81 f., al.
[584] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 17; Spencer and
Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 189 f.
[585] One signification (not a probable one) proposed for
the name Yahweh is, 'he who causes (rain) to fall.'
[586] Examples of such gods, in Africa, America, and Asia,
are given in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, ii, 259 ff.
[587] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 99 ff.
[588] So in the _Secrets of Enoch_ (ed. R. H. Charles),
chaps. iv-vi, the treasuries of rain and dew in the lowest
heaven are guarded by angels.
[589] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.vv.
[590] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 37; Dorsey, _The Skidi
Pawnee_, p. 8; Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 56 f.; R.
Taylor, _New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, p. 130; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 168, n. 1; Roscher, _Lexikon_,
article "Prometheus." Accounts of the original production or
the theft of fire are found in savage mythology the world
over; see Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chaps. xxv-xxvii;
Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 379;
Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 277 ff.; O. T. Mason,
_Origins of Invention_, chap. iii.
[591] So among the Todas (Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437) and
the Nandi (Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 85).
[592] On an identification of Agni with fire see Bloomfield,
_Religion of the Veda_, p. 158 ff.
[593] See Chap. VI.
[594] Shahrastani (12th century), _Kitab al-Milal
wa'l-Nihal_, a sketch of religions and philosophical sects,
Moslem and other (Germ. tr. by Haarbrücker, p. 298 f.).
[595] Hopkins observes (_Religions of India_, p. 105) that
originally fire (Agni), in distinction from sun and
lightning, is the fire of sacrifice. Cf. Bloomfield,
_Religion of the Veda_, p. 157.
[596] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437; cf. the ceremony
described on page 290 f.
[597] A. M. Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and the
Lacandones_, p. 133.
[598] Prescott, _Peru_, i, 106 f.
[599] Plutarch, _Aristides_, 20.
[600] The Hebrew expression, rendered in the English version
"cause to pass through fire," means simply 'devote by fire.'
[601] Ex. xix, 18; Ezek. i, 4; Ps. xviii, 9 [604];
_Rig-Veda_, iii, 26, 7 (Indra).
[602] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437. In Gen. i, 3, light
appears before the creation of the heavenly bodies.
[603] So in Carinthia, the Tyrol, and neighboring districts
(Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart_, p.
86).
[604] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xix.
[605] See below, § 662, etc.
[606] Ps. xviii, 11 [10]; civ, 3 f.
[607] _Iliad_, xxiii, 194 ff.
[608] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. xviii; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 595.
[609] W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 80, 223.
[610] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 55; Taylor, _New
Zealand_, p. 119; Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 279; cf. Turner,
_Samoa_, p. 283.
[611] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 55 (the present sun
is the daughter of a man sun).
[612] See examples in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, i, 290
ff.
[613] On the position of the sun and moon in the later cults
see below, Chap. VI.
[614] Teit, op. cit., p. 54.
[615] See the elaborate Pawnee history of gods (Dorsey, _The
Skidi Pawnee_).
[616] See Chap. VI f.
[617] On the genesial (urano-chthonic) conception of the
world in Polynesia see Tautain, in _Anthropologie_, vii
(1896).
[618] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 113.
[619] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 363; ii, 262.
[620] Ps. xxix, 3; xviii, 14, 15 [13, 14].
[621] _Iliad_, viii, 76 f.; xxi, 198, etc. The thunderbolt
of Zeus is said in Hesiod, _Theogonia_, 140 f., to be forged
by the Cyclops.
[622] Bastian, _Beiträge_; H. Spencer, _Principles of
Sociology_ and _Principles of Ethics_; Grant Allen,
_Evolution of the Idea of God_; Waitz-Gerland,
_Anthropologie der Naturvölker_; Lippert, _Allgemeine
Geschichte des Priesterthums_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_;
Codrington, _The Melanesians_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_;
Wilken, _Handleiding voor de Vergelykende Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_; Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur
ersten Entwicklung der Strafe_; Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, Index, s.vv. _Kings_,
_Man-gods_; Religions of Egypt (Maspero, Meyer, Wiedemann,
Breasted, Steindorff), Babylonia (Jastrow), India (Barth,
Hopkins), China (De Groot), Greece (Gruppe), Rome (Auer),
etc.
[623] _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 139 ff.
[624] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 448.
[625] Monier-Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in
India_, p. 259. See the cases mentioned by Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 522 n.
[626] For the documents see Breasted, _Ancient Records of
Egypt_.
[627] Rawlinson, _Egypt_, ii, 40 f., 84; Ed. Meyer,
_Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 252.
[628] When in a compound name the name of a god stands
first, the determinative may refer simply to the god; it is
evidence for the man only when it stands immediately before
the nondivine element of the royal name. The inscriptions
are given in Schrader, _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, III,
i; Thureau-Dangin, _Sumerisch-Akkadische Königsinschriften_.
In the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 2000 B.C.) the king in one
place (col. 5, ll. 4, 5) calls himself "the Shamash of
Babylon," but this is of course a figure of speech; the code
is given him by Shamash, the god of justice, and he assumes
to be no less just than the god whom he here represents.
[629] For a different view see S. H. Langdon, article
"Babylonian Eschatology" in _Essays in Modern Theology and
Related Subjects_ (the C. A. Briggs memorial volume).
[630] Cf. the Chinese and Japanese views mentioned above.
Among the Mongols there seems to be no trace of such a cult
(Buckley, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_,
2d ed.), but a similar one is found in Tibet in Lamaism.
[631] Ex. xxii, 28 [27]. Cursing the deity (that is, the
national or the local god) is mentioned several times in the
Old Testament. Eli's sons committed this offense (1 Sam.
iii, 13, corrected text), and Job feared that his sons might
have been guilty of it (Job i, 5, where the old Jewish
scribes, _causa reverentiae_, have changed "curse" into
"bless,"--so also in i, 11; ii, 5, 9).
[632] _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 15 ff.
[633] 2 Sam. xiv, 17.
[634] Isa. ix, 6 [5].
[635] Ps. lviii, 1 [2]; lxxxii, 1, 6. This last passage,
however, is understood in John x, 34 f., to refer to Jewish
men. The Hebrew text of Ps. xiv, 7 [6], is corrupt.
[636] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_. This is the
philosophical form of the dogma. The root of the conception
is to be found, doubtless, in the old (savage) view that the
chief of the tribe has quasi-divine attributes.
[637] Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 64.
[638] In _Alexander_, 28. In the case of Alexander the
influence of Egypt is apparent, and it may be suspected that
this influence affected the later Greek and Roman custom.
[639] Appian, _De Rebus Syriacis_, lxv.
[640] Acts xii, 22.
[641] Boissier, _La religion romaine_ (1878), i, 131 ff.
[642] Suetonius, _Caligula_, xxii.
[643] On the demand for a universal religion in the Roman
Empire, and the preparation in the earlier cults for the
worship of the emperors, see J. Iverach's article "Cæsarism"
in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_;
Boissier, op. cit., bk. i, chap. ii.
[644] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, bk. iv, chap.
iii.
[645] See the story of the power and fall of a great muni in
Lassen's _Anthologia Sanscritica_.
[646] So, many Christian and Moslem saints have been
wonder-workers without being divinized.
[647] Monier-Williams, _Brahmanism and Hinduism_, p. 510 f.
[648] _Fortnightly Review_, 1872.
[649] Stair, _Samoa_, p. 221; article "Bengal" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_ (Brahmans often become
evil spirits).
[650] _The Todas_, pp. 193, 203, 446.
[651] _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 88 ff.
[652] Breasted, _Records of Ancient Egypt_.
[653] § 357.
[654] Here, as in the case of the divinization of living men
(§ 347 n., above), outside suggestion is probable.
[655] Cf. article "Cæsarism" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_.
[656] Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 182. An
illustration of religious ideas in the third century is
afforded by the enrollment of Caracalla among the heroes, a
divinizing decree of the Senate having been extorted by the
turbulent and mercenary soldiery (Dio Cassius, ed.
Boissevain [Eng. tr. by H. B. Foster], lxxix, 9).
[657] A. Müller, _Islam_, i, 494; W. Muir, _The Caliphate_,
p. 553 ff.
[658] In Isa. lxiii, 16, 'Abraham' appears to be a synonym
of 'Israel,' and the reference then is to the nonrecognition
of certain Jews by the national leaders.
[659] The narratives of the Pentateuch; Herodotus, v, 66;
Pausanias, i, 5, 1.
[660] Article "Romulus" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.
[661] See below, § 652.
[662] Herodotus, v, 66 al.
[663] Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, pp. 163, 170,
206.
[664] The Ojibwa god Manabozho (described in Schoolcraft's
_Algic Researches_) by some inadvertence got the name
'Hiawatha,' and so appears in Longfellow's poem. The real
Hiawatha was a distinguished Iroquois statesman (supposed to
be of the fifteenth century), the founder of the Iroquois
League, honored as a patriot, but never worshiped as a god.
See H. Hale, _Iroquois Book of Rites_, Index, s.v.
_Hiawatha_; Beauchamp, in _Journal of American Folklore_,
October, 1891.
[665] F. Pfister, _Der Reliquienkult im Altertum_.
[666] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i; Grant Allen,
_Evolution of the Idea of God_. See below, § 631 ff.
[667] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Dead_; Grant Allen, op. cit.; article
"Ancestor-worship" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.
[668] Cf. above, Chap. II.
[669] Steinmetz (_Ethnologische Studien zur ersten
Entwicklung der Strafe_, p. 280 ff.) has attempted a
collection and interpretation of the usages of nearly two
hundred tribes, but his reckoning is not satisfactory--his
enumeration is not complete, and the facts are not
sufficiently well certified. He concludes that cases of fear
are twice as numerous as those of love.
[670] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, chap. xiv.
[671] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes Of Central
Australia_, pp. 516 f., 520 f.
[672] Cf. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 271 f.
[673] The conception of such meals as physical and spiritual
communion with the dead was a later development.
[674] The buffoonery that was sometimes practiced at Roman
funerals seems to have come from the natural love of fun,
here particularly, also, through the reaction from the
oppressive solemnity of the occasion.
[675] Howitt and Fison, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 246 ff.
[676] Taylor, _New Zealand_, pp. 104, 108.
[677] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 194, 253 f.;
Powell, _Wanderings_, p. 170.
[678] Ellis, _Madagascar_, i, 23, 423.
[679] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, pp. 145, 151.
[680] A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e_, p. 102 f.
[681] Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten
Entwicklung der Strafe_. A. L. Kroeber (in _Journal of
American Folklore_, 1904) gives an account of a
'ghost-dance' in Northwest California, the object of which
was said to be that the dead might return, though the
details are obscure.
[682] Some such custom seems to be referred to in Deut.
xxvi, 14.
[683] Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_.
[684] Mariner, _Tonga_, p. 149.
[685] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 162 f.;
Goldziher, in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, x. So the
Egyptian fellahin to-day.
[686] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 219 f.; Bonney, in
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii, 122 ff.;
Haddon, _Head-hunters_, pp. 91 f., 183; G. Allen, _Evolution
of the Idea of God_, chap. iii.
[687] Sir G. S. Robertson, _The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush_,
pp. 645 ff., 615 ff., 414 f.
[688] Breasted, _Egypt_, p. 421, etc.
[689] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 604
f.
[690] Deut. xxvi, 14; Hos. ix, 4; Ezek. xxiv, 17 (revised
text); Isa. viii, 19; 1 Sam. xxviii, 13.
[691] _Rig-Veda_, x, 15; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p.
143 f.
[692] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 91 ff.
[693] _Odyssey_, xi, 74 ff.; cf. xxiv, 63 ff.
[694] _Odyssey_, x, 519 ff.; xi, 25 ff.
[695] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die griechischen
Sakralaltertümer_, p. 99 f.
[696] Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 158 ff.;
Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.v. _Heros_;
Deneken, article "Heros" in Roscher, _Lexikon_. Lists of
heroes are given by F. Pfister, in _Der Reliquienkult im
Altertum_.
[697] Thucydides, v, 11; Pausanias, i, 32. For other
examples, and for the details of the cult, see Stengel and
Oehmichen, _Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer_, p. 96 ff.
[698] Similar functions are performed by saints in some
Buddhist, Christian, and Moslem communities.
[699] Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft_; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to
the Study of Greek Religion_, chap. ii, and the references
in these works. On the _Keres_ as ghosts see Crusius, in
Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.v. _Keren_, and Harrison, op. cit.,
chap. v.
[700] Ovid, _Fasti_, v, 439 ff., _manes exite paterni_; cf.
the Greek proverbial expression [Greek: thyraze kares]
(Suidas, s.v. [Greek: thyraze]).
[701] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap. iii.
[702] Aston, _Shinto_; Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 66 f.
[703] 1 Sam. xxviii.
[704] Cf. also the Teutonic valkyrs and nornas.
[705] See above, § 359. The wide prevalence of the theory in
ancient times is indicated by its adoption in the
Græco-Jewish _Wisdom of Solomon_ (of the first century
B.C.), chap. xiv, and by some Roman writers.
[706] § 262 ff.
[707] For example, in Australia, Fiji, New Guinea, and
India.
[708] Greece, Rome (Lupercalia), Egypt, and apparently in
Israel (Ex. xxxii, 6; Numb. xxv).
[709] In carnivals and many less elaborate customs.
[710] See above, § 34.
[711] It was observable in the lower animals, but in their
case was not regarded as religiously important. See below,
§ 419, for the connection of animals with phallic cults.
[712] § 158 ff.
[713] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii,
361.
[714] See Ratzel, _History of Mankind_; Waitz,
_Anthropologie der Naturvölker_; Müller, _Amerikanische
Urreligionen_; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_; Codrington, _The Melanesians_; W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_; Hartland, article "Bantu" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Callaway,
_Amazulus_; Featherman, _Races of Mankind_; Grünwedel,
"Lamaismus" in _Die orientalischen Religionen_ (I, iii, 1 of
_Die Kultur der Gegenwart_); Brinton, _Myths of the New
World_, p. 149; Matthews, Dorsey, Teit, Boas, Hill-Tout,
opp. cit. (on American Indians).
[715] § 34.
[716] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_ and _E[´w]e_. Ellis does not say
that the cult exists in Ashanti, where we should expect it
to be found; its absence there is not accounted for. On
phallic worship in Congo see H. H. Johnston, in _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xiii.
[717] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 453, 470.
[718] Cf. Crooke, article "Bengal" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.
[719] Griffis, _Religions of Japan_; Aston, _Shinto_;
Buckley, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d
ed.; Florens, in _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_.
[720] Herodotus, ii, 48 f.
[721] _Isis and Osiris_, 51.
[722] An example of naïve popular festivities is given in
Herodotus, ii, 60.
[723] The Gilgamesh epic (Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria_, p. 477); Amos ii, 7; Deut. xxiii, 17 f.;
Herodotus, i, 199; Strabo, xvi, 1, 20; Epistle of Jeremy, 42
f.; Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 6 ff. But Hos. ii, Ezek. xvi,
xxiii, Isa. lvii, 8, are descriptions of Hebrew addiction to
foreign idolatrous cults.
[724] Isa. lvii, 8: "Thou didst love their bed, the yad thou
sawest." The renderings in the English Revised Version are
not possible.
[725] Lucian, op. cit., 28, cf. 16.
[726] The Aramean Atargatis, properly Attar-Ate, is
substantially identical with Ashtart and Ishtar.
[727] Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 15.
[728] J. P. Peters, _Nippur_, Index, s.v. _Phallic symbols_;
Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine_, p. 136;
Macalister, _Bible Side-lights_, p. 72 f.
[729] These objects (Hebrew _masseba_) are denounced by the
prophets because they were connected with the Canaanite
non-Yahwistic worship. The same thing is true of the sacred
wooden post (the _ashera_) that stood by shrines; Deut. xvi,
21 f., etc.
[730] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v. _Priapos._ Diodorus Siculus,
iv, 6, mentions also Ithyphallos and Tychon.
[731] Roscher, _Lexikon_.
[732] S. Seligmann, _Der böse Bück und Verwandtes_, ii, 191
ff.
[733] Diodorus Siculus, i, 88.
[734] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v. _Indigitamenta_. _Muto_ is
'phallos.'
[735] So Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, iv, II, 34 al.
[736] S. Seligmann, _Der böse Blick und Verwandtes_, ii, 196
ff.
[737] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 490, n. 4.
[738] On the yoni as amulet see Seligmann, _Der böse Blick
und Verwandtes_, ii, 203.
[739] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii,
491 f., and the references there to Gait's _Assam_ and other
works.
[740] III Rawlinson, pl. i, no. 12155, and IV Rawlinson,
col. 2, II. 25-28. The androgynous sense is maintained by
G. A. Barton, in _Journal Of the American Oriental Society_,
xxi, second half, p. 185 ff. Other renderings of the first
inscription are given by Thureau-Dangin in _Revue
d'Assyriologie_, iv, and Radau, _Early Babylonian History_,
p. 125.
[741] Text in Craig, _Assyrian and Babylonian Religious
Texts_, i, pl. vii, obv. 6, and by Meek, in _American
Journal of Semitic Languages_, xxvi; translation in
Jastrow's _Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_, i, 544 f.,
and discussion by him in article "The 'Bearded' Venus" in
_Revue archéologique_, 1911, i.
[742] See for Lenormant's view _Gazette archéologique_, 1876
and 1879, and Jastrow's criticism in the article cited in
the preceding note.
[743] Lajard, _Recherches sur le culte de Vénus_. He is
followed by A. Jeremias, _The Old Testament in the Light of
the Ancient East_ (Eng. tr.), i, 123.
[744] _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, l, i, p. 13.
[745] 1 Sam. xii, 28; Deut. xxviii, 10. The angel in whom is
Yahweh's name (Ex. xxiii, 21) has the authority of the
deity.
[746] Cf. Dillmann, in _Monatsbericht der Akademie der
Wissenschaften_ (Berlin, 1881). The feminine form given to
Baal in Rom. xi, 3 f., may refer to the disparaging term
'shame' (Heb. _boshet_, for which the Greek would be
_aischun[=e]_) often substituted by the late editors of the
Old Testament for Baal. Saul's son Ishbaal ('man of Baal')
is called Ishbosheth, Jonathan's son Meribbaal is called
Mephibosheth, etc.
[747] Dillmann (loc. cit.) combines _sham[=e]_ with Ashtart,
as if the sense were 'the heavenly Ashtart of Baal'--an
impossible rendering; but he also interprets the phrase to
mean 'Ashtart the consort of the heavenly Baal.' Halévy,
_Mélanges_, p. 33; Ed. Meyer, in Roscher's _Lexikon_,
article "Astarte."
[748] _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, i, i, no. 195; i,
ii, no. 1, al. Tanit appears to be identical in character
and cult with Ashtart.
[749] See below, § 411 f.: cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., p. 478.
[750] A similar interpretation is given by Bæthgen in his
_Semitische Religionsgeschichte_, p. 267 f. His "monistic"
view, however, that various deities were regarded as
manifestations of the supreme deity is not tenable.
[751] Servius, Commentary on Vergil, _Æn._ ii, 632;
Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, iii, 8 on the same passage.
[752] There are manuscript variations in the text of
Servius, but these do not affect the sense derived from the
two authors, and need not be considered here.
[753] Cf. Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_ p. 428 ff.
[754] Servius, "they call her"; Macrobius, "Aristophanes
calls her." But who this Aristophanes is, or where he so
calls her, we are not informed.
[755] So Jastrow, in the article cited above. Remarking on
the statement of Lydus (in _De Mensibus_, ii, 10) that the
Pamphylians formerly worshiped a bearded Venus, he calls
attention to the Carian priestess of Athene (Herodotus, i,
175; viii, 104), who, when misfortune was impending, had (or
grew) a great beard--a mark of power, but presumably not a
genuine growth. Exactly what this story means it is hard to
say.
[756] Pausanias, vii, 17; Amobius, v, 5.
[757] Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Agdistis," "Attis";
Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p.219 f.; H. Hepding,
_Attis_; cf. Pseudo-Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 15 (Attis
assumes female form and dress).
[758] This practice seems to be an exaggerated form of the
savage custom of self-wounding in honor of the dead (to
obtain their favor), interpreted in developed cults as a
sacrifice to the deity or as a means of union with him.
[759] On the wide diffusion of cults of mother-goddesses see
below, §§ 729, 734, 762, etc.
[760] Cf. Pseudo-Lucian, _De Syria Dea_ 15; Ed. Meyer,
_Geschichte des Alteriums_, 2d ed., i, 649, 651; Lagrange,
_Études sur les religions sémitiques_, 2d ed., p. 241;
Hepding, _Attis_, p. 162.
[761] See above, § 411.
[762] In Theophrastus, _Characters_, article 16 (Roscher,
_Lexikon_, 8. v. _Hermaphroditos_).
[763] Roscher, article cited.
[764] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 447, 492.
[765] H. Ellis, _Psychology of Sex_, i, passim.
[766] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, chap. xliii.
[767] Cf. § 251 ff.
[768] Dulaure, _Des divinités génératrices_. Cf. Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_, chap. ii.
[769] See below, Chap. XI.
[770] J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_; Frazer,
_Totemism and Exogamy_; A. Lang, _Social Origins_; A. E.
Crawley, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tylor_; N. W. Thomas, ibid.
[771] Fraser (_Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 135), thinks it
possible that exogamy of totemic clans is always exogamy in
decay.
[772] L. H. Morgan (the discoverer of the system), _Ancient
Society_; W. H. R. Rivers in _Anthropological Essays
presented to E. B. Tylor_.
[773] For the supposition of promiscuity are Morgan (op.
cit., p. 54), Spencer and Gillen (_Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 100 ff.), and others; against are Westermarck
(_Human Marriage_, chap. iv), Crawley (_The Mystic Rose_, p.
479 ff.), and others.
[774] Cf. Morgan, op. cit., p. 27, and part ii, chap. i.
[775] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p.
269 ff.
[776] Gen. xx, 12; the rule was later abrogated (Ezek. xxii,
11; Lev. xviii, 9).
[777] J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_, first
series, p. 90 ff.; second series, chap. vii.
[778] L. H. Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 424 ff.; Frazer,
_Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 164 ff.
[779] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, chaps. xiv-xvi;
Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 222. Cf. Darwin, _Variation
of Animals and Plants under Domestication_, ii, 103 f.
[780] J. J. Atkinson, _Primal Law_ (in volume with Lang's
_Social Origins_, p. 210 ff.).
[781] E. Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, i, 1-70.
[782] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 75 ff.
[783] See references in § 426.
[784] H. Ellis, _Psychology of Sex_, i, 36 f.; Crawley, in
_Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_.
[785] See above, § 431.
[786] See above, § 429, and compare Howard, _History of
Matrimonial Institutions_, i, 121 ff.
[787] Details are given in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_.
[788] Cf. below, § 442.
[789] On two supposed human totems, Laughing Boys and
Nursing Mothers, see Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 160,
253; ii, 520 f.
[790] § 436.
[791] So, apparently, among the Nandi (Hollis, _The Nandi_,
pp. 6, 61).
[792] As among the Australian Arunta (Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 116, 125 ff.).
[793] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 136; iii, 321;
Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 328 ff.
[794] Haddon and Rivers, _Expedition to Torres Straits_, v,
158 ff.; Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
pp. 51, 320.
[795] Fraser, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 200; iii, 40, 227,
267, 281, 322.
[796] Swanton, _Tlingit Myths_ (_Bulletin 39_, Bureau of
American Ethnology).
[797] See below, § 544 ff.
[798] For the details of totemic customs reference may be
made, once for all, to Frazer's encyclopedic _Totemism and
Exogamy_.