An Act carried through Parliament by Mr. Ritchie, establishing County
Councils, to which were entrusted the various administrative functions
previously exercised by committees of the county magistrates. The larger
boroughs were exempted from their jurisdiction, being left under the
control of their own municipalities, while a special County of London
was created, comprising all the newer suburbs.
Local Government Act, 1894.
An Act completing the Local Government Act of 1888 by the creation of
Parish and District Councils. One of the most important provisions of
this Act is that giving the newly established bodies power to acquire
land, compulsorily if necessary, for the purpose of providing labourers’
allotments.
Locofocos.
The name given in 1835 to the Radical section of the Democratic party in
the United States. At a meeting of this wing of the party, an opponent
present turned off the gas, whereupon candles were procured, and lit by
“locofoco” matches, from which time the faction was dubbed by its
opponents the “Locofocos.”
Lodi, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1454 by the Republic of Venice and Duke Sforza of
Milan, by which Sforza secured the whole of the Milanese.
Lœt.
In Saxon times labourers dependent on the feudal lord on whose land they
worked. They are, however, not to be confounded with the theows, or
slaves.
Lögretta.
Among the Norsemen, the Law Court, the highest authority of the State
under the King. It consisted of thirty-six members, partly _ex-officio_,
and partly elected.
Loi Bérenger.
A law passed in 1891 in France, by which, in the case of first
offenders, the tribunal might suspend the sentence for five years. If
during that period the culprit did not again make himself amenable to
the law, the sentence lapsed. If again convicted, however, he had to
serve the old sentence as well as the new.
Lollards.
A religious sect, followers of Wycliffe, which arose in Edward III’s
reign. They attacked the abuses of the Church, and especially the
wealthy religious orders, and claimed the right of private
interpretation in matters of doctrine. They are said to have numbered,
at one time, fully one-third of the population of England. In spite of
continued persecution, the sect remained powerful through several
reigns, and they doubtless paved the way for the ready acceptance by
England of the Reformed Doctrines in the reign of Henry VIII.
Lombard League, First.
A league of sixteen cities of Northern Italy, headed by Milan, and
including Venice, formed in 1167 against Frederick Barbarossa. The
league defeated the Emperor at Legnano in 1176, and in 1183, by the
Peace of Constance he granted practical independence to the cities,
subject to the recognition of his suzerainty, and the payment of certain
small dues.
Lombard League, Second.
A league formed under the Marquis d’Este in 1255, to resist Pope
Alexander IV. This league consisted mainly of the Guelf cities of
Lombardy, while Alexander’s principal supporters were Ezzelino of Verona
and his brother Alberic of Treviso. Ezzelino was disastrously defeated
at Cassano in 1259.
Lombards.
The Italian merchants who spread over Europe during the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries were known as Lombards. They were the first bankers
of modern Europe.
London Company.
A company formed in 1606, under charter from James I, with the object of
colonizing Virginia.
London Convention, 1832.
A convention between Great Britain, France and Russia on the one side,
and Bavaria on the other, by which Greece was erected into an
independent kingdom, under the guarantee of the Powers, and Prince Otto
of Bavaria placed on the throne, with the proviso, however, that the
crowns of Greece and Bavaria should never be united in the person of one
sovereign.
London Convention, 1862.
An instrument signed in London by Great Britain, France and Spain,
agreeing to demand from Mexico a guarantee for the better protection of
the subjects of the signatories, and at the same time undertaking not to
seek for any territorial acquisitions, nor to interfere in the internal
government of Mexico. It soon became evident that Napoleon III was
determined to force Mexico into a war, with the object of placing
Maximilian of Austria on the throne, whereupon Great Britain and Spain
withdrew from the convention.
London Convention, 1884.
A convention between Great Britain and the Transvaal, amending the
Convention of Pretoria of 1881. All direct reference to the suzerainty
was omitted, but it was expressly stipulated that no treaties should be
negotiated with Foreign Powers (excepting the Orange Free State), or
with native chiefs, without the consent of Great Britain. The suzerainty
was thus maintained in fact, as Great Britain retained full control of
the foreign relations of the Transvaal. Provision was also made for the
presence of a British Resident at Pretoria, and certain questions of
frontier were re-adjusted.
London, Treaty of, 1674.
The treaty between England and Holland closing the war of 1672, which
arose out of England’s claim that foreign ships should salute her flag
wherever it was met in the narrow seas. Holland accepted the principle
involved, and agreed to pay an indemnity of 2,000,000 guilders. (_See_
Honour of the Flag.)
London, Treaty of, 1827.
A treaty between England, France and Russia, during the Greek War of
Independence. The contracting parties bound themselves to take action
for the purpose of securing the independence of Greece under Turkish
suzerainty. The destruction of the Turkish and Egyptian fleets at
Navarino followed closely the signature of this treaty.
London, Treaty of, 1833.
An agreement between Great Britain and France on the one hand, and
Holland on the other, providing for the erection of the Flemish and
Walloon provinces into an independent kingdom, to be known as Belgium.
This treaty was confirmed by the five Great Powers in 1839.
London, Treaty of, 1839.
A treaty signed by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia,
confirming the provisional treaty of 1833, with regard to the separation
of Belgium from the Netherlands, subject to certain small changes as to
the navigation of the Scheldt and the boundaries of Luxemburg.
London, Treaty of, 1841.
_See_ Dardanelles.
London, Treaty of, 1852.
A treaty signed by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia and
Sweden, settling the succession to the Danish throne upon Prince
Christian of Schleswig Holstein and his issue. The integrity of the
Danish monarchy was acknowledged, but the rights of the German
Confederation over the Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg were not in any
way touched by the treaty.
Lone Star State.
The popular name for the State of Texas, derived from the single star
in its coat of arms.
Long Diet.
A Diet which met at Zurich in 1813, and after declaring the Constitution
of Mediation extinct, proceeded to evolve a new Federal Constitution,
known as the Federal Pact, which was accepted by the Powers at the
Congress of Vienna in 1815.
Long Parliament.
The Parliament which met in the reign of Charles I, in 1640, and lasted
till 1653, when all that was left of it, known as the Rump, was forcibly
expelled from the House by Cromwell.
Long Parliament of Versailles.
The first Parliament of the Third French Republic, which was not
dissolved till December 31, 1875.
Longjumeau, Paix de.
A treaty between Catherine de’ Medici and the Huguenots, signed March
20, 1568, by which various concessions were granted the Huguenots. It
was signed by the Queen to save Chartres, which was in danger of
falling, and was broken within six months. It is known as the _Courte
Paix_, or the _Paix Fourrée_.
Longshanks.
The nickname of Edward I of England.
Longsword.
The sobriquet of William, Earl of Salisbury (1196-1226), the natural son
of Henry II, and also of his son (died 1250).
Loo, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1701 by England, Holland and the Emperor, to oppose
the designs of Louis XIV. The signatories aimed at the conquest of
Flanders, to be given to Holland, of Milan, Naples and Sicily, to be
added to the Empire, and of the French and Spanish West Indies, to be
divided between the two maritime Powers.
Loose-Coat Field.
The name given to the battle near Erpingham, in Rutlandshire, in 1470,
where Edward IV defeated the rebels under Sir Thomas Wells.
Lorcha “Arrow.”
The boarding of this vessel, flying the British flag, in the Canton
River in 1856, and the arrest of twelve of her crew on a charge of
piracy, led to the war with China in 1857-8, when the English were aided
by the French. The war resulted in the reception of British and French
legations at Peking, and the concession of certain additional privileges
to traders and missionaries.
Lord Paramount.
Under the feudal system the Sovereign was so called, as the owner of the
whole of the land, the great nobles holding under him as
tenants-in-chief.
Lords Appellant.
A body of peers, in the reign of Richard II, who impeached, as guilty of
high treason, the Archbishop of York, the Duke of Ireland, and other
favourites of the King, in 1386. They afterwards convened the Merciless
Parliament, in 1388.
Los von Rom.
A movement started about 1899 by the Austrian Pan-German Deputies, to
detach their followers from the Roman Catholic Church. The object of the
movement is to make the German States of Austria more acceptable members
of the German Empire than they would be as rigidly Catholic countries,
in the event of the break up of the Austrian Empire.
Louis, Code.
A codification of the laws relating to criminal procedure and evidence,
issued as an edict by Louis XIV in 1667.
Louisiana Purchase.
The purchase from France by the United States in 1803 of New Orleans and
the territory West of the Mississippi, extending to the eastern spurs of
the Rocky Mountains and to the British frontier on the North. The price
was 15 million dollars.
Louvain, Articles of.
A confession of the Catholic Faith, drawn up by the University of
Louvain by order of Charles V in 1544. All Charles’ subjects in the
Netherlands were required to conform to these articles, under pain of
death, and that this was not an idle threat was shown by the burning at
the stake, at Tournay, in February, 1545, of Peter du Breuil, a
Calvinist preacher, who refused to obey the proclamation.
Loyale Epée, La.
A sobriquet of Marshal Macmahon (1808-1893).
Lübeck Law.
The law administered in the law courts and in the foreign factories of
the Hanseatic League.
Lübeck, Treaty of.
A treaty between the Emperor Ferdinand II and Christian IV. of Denmark,
signed in 1629, after the latter had been driven out of Germany by Tilly
and Wallenstein. Christian retained all his possessions, and agreed to
interfere no further in German affairs, except in his capacity of Duke
of Holstein. He made no stipulations in favour of any of his German
allies, none of whom, in consequence, were parties to the treaty.
Luddite Riots.
A series of outbreaks in the manufacturing districts of England, and
especially about Nottingham, in 1811, as a protest against the
introduction of machinery into the factories. The rioters, or rather
conspirators, for their proceedings were secret, used to assemble at
night, break into a factory, destroy the machinery, and then disperse,
as a rule unmolested. They took their name from an idiot lad, named
Ludd, who thirty years previously had gone about in the Nottingham
district breaking stocking-frames.
Ludlow’s Code.
A code of laws compiled by John Ludlow in 1650, for the colony of
Connecticut.
Lügenfeld.
The camp of Lothair, son of Louis the Pious, near Basle, where Louis
surrendered to his revolted sons in 833. The false pretences by which
the surrender was obtained, led to the incident being called the “Field
of Lies,” or Lügenfeld.
Lumber State.
The State of Maine, U.S.A., is so called, on account of its valuable
forests.
Lunéville, Treaty of.
A treaty between France and Austria, following on the disasters to the
Austrian arms at Marengo and Hohenlinden. By its provisions France
obtained an extension of territory on the north, as far as the Rhine
from the Swiss to the Dutch frontiers, together with the cession of the
Belgian provinces. In Italy Austria retired from the Milanese and the
Venetian provinces, up to the line of the Adige, while Tuscany was taken
from the Austrian Grand-Dukes, and conferred upon the House of Parma,
with the title of the King of Etruria.
Luxemburg Treaty.
A treaty signed in 1867 by Great Britain, Austria, Belgium, France,
Italy, Holland, Russia and Prussia, agreeing to maintain on the throne
of Luxemburg the House of Orange-Nassau, and constituting the Duchy a
perpetual neutral State under the guarantee of the Powers. It was
further agreed that the fortress of Luxemburg should be demolished and
the Prussian troops withdrawn, and that the Duchy of Limburg should form
part of the Netherlands.
Lydford Law.
A phrase having the same signification as “Jedburgh Justice.”
Lynch Law.
The substitution of an irregular trial for the regular process of law,
common in the Western States of America during the wilder days of the
fifties and sixties, and now rife in the Southern States, in the case of
negroes charged with offences against white women. The name is supposed
to be derived from James Lynch, of Piedmont, Virginia, who introduced it
in 1688, to enable criminals to be promptly dealt with when the proper
officers of the law were scattered and hard to come at.
Lyons, Council of, 1245.
A council summoned by Innocent IV in 1245. It deposed the Emperor
Frederick II, and absolved his subjects from their allegiance, thus
endorsing the claim of Gregory VII that the Church could appoint and
depose Sovereigns.
Lyons, Council of, 1275.
An Œcumenical Council, held in 1275 under Gregory X, at which the rules
governing the election of the Pope by the Cardinals were amended by the
provision that the Cardinals, within ten days of the death of the late
Pope, should be shut up in conclave until his successor was elected.
M
Maamtrasna Murders.
The murder of a family named Joyce in Ireland in 1882. Ten men were put
on their trial for the crime, of whom two turned Queen’s Evidence, and
the remainder were convicted, three being hanged. In 1884 Casey, one of
the informers, declared that he had given false evidence against Myles
Joyce, one of the men who had been hanged, and that he had been ordered
by the officials, on pain of capital punishment, to swear away this
man’s life. A searching inquiry confirmed the justice of the sentence,
but the case was made the pretext for a violent attack in Parliament
upon the Irish Secretary.
McKinley Tariff.
A Tariff Act passed in the United States in 1890. Large increases were
made in the import duties, and the measure as a whole was one of
thoroughgoing protection. It was repealed in 1894.
McMillanites.
The Cameronians were so called, after the Revolution, from the name of
their minister, McMillan.
Mad Cavalier.
The sobriquet of Prince Rupert of Bavaria, nephew of Charles I.
Mad Parliament.
A Parliament of Henry III, which met in June 1258. It was by this
Parliament that the Commission was appointed which drew up the
Provisions of Oxford.
Madame Véto.
_See_ Monsieur Véto.
Madman of the North.
A sobriquet of Charles XII of Sweden (1682-1718).
Madras Mutiny.
A mutiny of the officers in the Madras Army of the East India Company in
1809. It was caused by the action of the Board of Directors in depriving
the officers of some of their perquisites. Sir George Barlow appealed to
the sepoys, who supported the authorities against their officers, and
the latter were forced to give in. With the exception of twenty-one of
the ringleaders, the mutinous officers were forgiven, and allowed to
resume their posts.
Madras, Peace of.
A treaty between Haidar Ali and the British, closing the first Mysore
War in 1769. It provided for mutual restoration of all conquered
territories, and a mutual guarantee of the integrity of each other’s
dominions.
Madrid Conference.
A conference of the Powers, held in 1880, to consider the affairs of
Morocco, and especially the treatment of Jews, and the right of foreign
nations to protect their subjects. An agreement was arrived at, and a
joint Note addressed to the Sultan, insisting on the necessity of
respecting liberty of conscience, and of enforcing toleration on the
part of his subjects.
Madrid, Treaty of.
A treaty between Charles V and Francis I, putting an end to the
captivity of Francis, signed in 1526. The French King ceded Burgundy to
Charles, and renounced the sovereignty of Flanders and all his rights in
Italy.
Maffia.
A secret society which largely controlled the appointment of officials,
and practically governed Sicily. The disclosures following the murder of
Signor Notarbartolo, deputy for Palermo, in 1899, caused the Italian
Government to institute a searching inquiry, which led to the
suppression, temporarily at least, of the Maffia.
Magdeburg, Sack of.
At the capture of Magdeburg by the Austrian General, Tilly, in 1629,
during the Thirty Years’ War, the Protestant inhabitants were put to the
sword with ruthless barbarity.
Magna Charta.
The Great Charter of English liberty, extorted from John by his Barons
in 1215. It prescribed the constitution of the Great Council of the
Kingdom, the members whereof were to be summoned by writ; it defined and
limited the feudal obligations of the Barons and other tenants of the
Crown; restricted the powers of the sheriffs and other royal officers,
and secured the liberties of the free towns. It further declared the
right of an accused person to be tried by his peers.
Magnum Concilium.
The Great Council of the Realm, which in Norman times took the place of
the Anglo-Saxon Witanegemot, and was the forerunner of the Parliament.
It consisted in the main of the King’s great vassals, and with the King
exercised legislative functions and initiated taxation. Its constitution
was defined, and the mode of summoning it prescribed in Magna Charta.
Magyars.
The original Turanian invaders of Pannonia, the modern Hungary. The name
is now applied to Hungarians generally, whether of pure Turanian descent
or not. It is often erroneously used as referring to the Hungarian
nobles or magnates only, but it carries with it no idea of rank or
dignity.
Mahdi.
The expected Messiah of the Moslems, said to have been promised by
Mohammed. The title has been claimed by several pretenders, the best
known being Mohammed Ahmed, who headed a rising in the Eastern Soudan in
1881, and afterwards captured Khartoum.
Maid of Norway.
The daughter of Eric, King of Norway, and grand-daughter of Alexander
III of Scotland. On the death of her grandfather in 1286, she succeeded
to the Scottish throne, but died on her voyage to Scotland, leaving the
throne open to numerous claimants, of whom Balliol was eventually
chosen. Had she lived she was to have become the wife of Edward, son of
Edward I of England, thus uniting the two crowns.
Maid of Orleans.
The name given to Jeanne d’Arc, after the relief of Orleans in 1429.
Maid of Saragossa.
The name given to Agostina Zaragoza, in consequence of her bravery at
the siege of Saragossa in 1808, where she took her part with the
soldiers in fighting the guns on the ramparts.
Maiden King.
The sobriquet of Malcolm IV of Scotland (1153-1165).
Maiden Queen.
Elizabeth of England is so called.
Maillotins, Insurrection of the.
A rising in Paris in 1382, against a tax on the sale of provisions and
merchandise. The name is derived from the heavy iron maces with which
the majority of the insurgents were armed.
Main Plot.
_See_ Bye-Plot.
Maine Liquor Law.
A law passed in the State of Maine, U.S.A., in 1851, prohibiting the
trade in intoxicants. It has since been incorporated in the constitution
of the State, rendering repeal impossible without previous recourse to a
popular vote.
Maintainers.
Bodies of retainers in the service of the great feudal lords. It was to
check the abuses arising from the system of maintenance that the Star
Chamber was originally established.
Maire du Palais.
The prime ministers of the later Merovingian Kings, and the _de facto_
rulers, as these monarchs took no part in the Government. The last Maire
du Palais was Charles Martel, the father of Pepin, and founder of the
Carlovingian dynasty.
Maison du Roi.
The military household of Louis XIV of France. It consisted of the
Gardes du Corps and the Mousquetaires du Roi, all gentlemen by birth,
numbering twelve thousand.
Majestäts Brief.
An edict issued by the Emperor Rudolph II in 1609 granting to all
Bohemians of certain recognized religions freedom of conscience,
admission to the University of Prague, and the right to build churches
on Crown lands. The edict further declared that any subsequent
ordinances issued in contravention of this charter were null and void.
Major-Generals, Cromwell’s.
Twelve officers, commanding the twelve military districts into which
Cromwell divided England in 1655. They were given command of the
militia, and their functions were to suppress any Royalist rising, and
to supervise the collection of the 10 per cent. tax levied from
Royalists. The plan was abandoned in 1651, Parliament refusing to vote
the money for the militia.
Majuba Hill.
The scene of the defeat of General Colley’s force by the Boers on
February 27, 1881, which virtually closed the Boer War of that year. The
surrender of the British Government to the Boer demands is generally
known as the “Majuba Surrender,” and the bitter feeling thereby aroused
caused “Remember Majuba” to be a sort of war-cry at the outbreak of the
war of 1899-1902. The Paardeberg surrender on the anniversary of Majuba
in 1900 was hailed as in some degree wiping out the disgrace attached to
the word.
Malcontents.
In 1578 the Walloon troops of the Netherlands, being irritated by the
promulgation of the Religious Peace, and by their pay being in arrear,
mutinied under the leadership of the Seigneur de Montigny. Attempts to
appease them were fruitless, and eventually, with the support of the
nobles of Hainault and Artois, the mutiny ended in the formation of a
confederacy of the Walloon provinces, pledged to support the
Pacification of Ghent, and owning allegiance to Philip II.
Malet’s Plot.
A plot contrived by General Malet and the Abbé Lafone, in 1812, to
dethrone Napoleon. By means of forged papers Malet persuaded a section
of the Paris garrison that Napoleon was dead, and that he was entrusted
by the Senate with the command of the troops. He then proceeded to the
police ministry, where he arrested Savary, the minister, and the prefect
of police. Attempting, however, to dispose in the same way of General
Hullin, the Commandant of Paris, he was overpowered by the General’s
orderlies, and the plot came to an abortive end.
Maletolte.
An additional tax of forty shillings the sack on the export of wool
imposed by Edward III in 1337.
Malignants.
During the latter part of the Civil War and under the Commonwealth,
those who had borne arms on the King’s side were so called by the
Parliamentarians.
Malisset, Société.
A company under the control of the French Government, formed about 1767
to keep up the price of breadstuffs. The company took advantage of the
scarcity to make enormous profits, and it seems clear that Louis XV was
pecuniarily interested in its transactions. About 1774 it became known
as the Pacte de Famine.
Malta, Knights of.
An order of religious chivalry, established in Malta in 1104. In 1310
they captured Rhodes, and were known as the Knights of Rhodes until they
were expelled from that island by the Turks in 1503, when they returned
to Malta. They are now known as the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of
Jerusalem, and have become an English order, interesting themselves
specially in ambulance work.
Malus Intercursus.
The name given by the Dutch to the Treaty of Commerce between England
and Philip of Burgundy signed in 1506. By this instrument British ships
were admitted free of harbour dues to the Ports of Antwerp, Bruges,
Berghem and Middelburg, and English merchants were permitted to sell
cloth throughout the Netherlands. In return Henry VII. agreed to
surrender to Philip all rebels and fugitives from the Burgundian States
captured in his dominions, a provision which was of no benefit to the
Dutch.
Mamelucos.
Bands of half-breeds who raided the missions of the Jesuits in Paraguay
in the seventeenth century, carrying off the converts as slaves. The
word is generally applied in Brazil to those of mixed Indian and Negro
blood.
Mamelukes.
The bodyguard of the Egyptian Sultans, chiefly composed of Circassian
and Georgian slaves. In 1250 they mutinied, murdered the Sultan, and
founded a dynasty of their own, nominating and removing the Sultans at
their will. The Mameluke Dynasty lasted till 1517, when they were
finally suppressed by the Sultan Selim.
Mamelukes.
The name given to the Savoy party in Geneva in the sixteenth century.
Manchester Martyrs.
Allen, Larkin and O’Brien, who were executed for the murder of a
policeman in the attempt to rescue the Fenian prisoners at Manchester in
1867, are so called by the disloyal Irish.
Manchester Massacre.
A cavalry charge through a crowded meeting which was being held in St.
Peter’s Field, Manchester, in connexion with the Reform agitation in
1819. Many persons were injured. The accident, for it practically
amounted to no more, was entirely due to the mismanagement of the
magistrates, who attempted to arrest the agitator, Hunt, while on the
platform in the centre of the meeting. This affair is also called,
derisively, “Peterloo.”
Manchester School.
A political and economic school, which was responsible for the formation
of the Anti-Corn Law League, under Cobden, in 1838. They believed in the
principle of _laissez faire_, in free competition and freedom of
contract, and looked upon Government interference with, or control of
trade, as an economic heresy.
Mandamus Councillors.
A council of thirty-six members, formed by Gage, the Governor of
Massachusetts, after the subversion of the constitution in 1774. As no
one of any standing would accept an appointment to this council. Gage,
in whom was vested the whole of the administrative and judicial
authority, appointed those whom he selected by writ of mandamus.
Mandarins.
The name given by Europeans to the Chinese official classes. The word is
of Portuguese origin, and means “officer” or “commander.”
Mandeshwar, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1818, by which Holkar of Indore, after his defeat at
Mahidpore, renounced his claim to suzerainty over the Rajput States, and
placed himself under British protection.
Mangalore, Treaty of.
A treaty between the British and Tippu Sahib, at the close of the second
Mysore War in 1784, by which a return was agreed upon to the _status quo
ante_.
Manoa.
The fabled capital city of El Dorado, said to be situated to the East of
the Andes, near the equator. It was the objective of an expedition led
by Gonzalo Pizarro from Quito in 1539, who had many imitators, both
Spanish and English, as unsuccessful as himself. According to the Indian
tales, gold was so plentiful in the district of El Dorado that it was
used for the gates and roofs of the houses in Manoa.
Manor Court.
In Anglo-Saxon times the court of a township built on the land of a
lord, and not on public land. Such townships were known as manors, and
the lord undertook the duties, and enjoyed the privileges which in other
townships were in the hands of the freeholders.
Mantua, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1791 by Austria, Spain and Sardinia, by which the
contracting parties bound themselves to provide forces to act on the
French frontiers, with the object of overawing the revolutionists, and
to issue a manifesto to the French nation, calling upon them to submit
to the authority of their King, failing which the allies would take
active steps to coerce them.
Marathon Murders.
The murder by brigands, near Athens, of a party of Englishmen, including
Mr. Herbert, a secretary of the British Legation, in 1870. The Greek
Government were greatly blamed for the action they took in moving troops
against the brigands, contrary to their express undertaking, before the
required ransom, which had been provided, had been handed over to the
brigands and the prisoners released.
Mark System.
A system of land tenure, apparently of a communistic nature, which
prevailed in Germany in very early times. It seems to have been
introduced into England by the Saxon invaders, and traces of it are
found in the common lands.
Marlborough, Statute of.
A re-enactment by the Parliament of Marlborough in 1267, after the
Barons’ War, of the Provisions of Oxford, with some slight changes,
giving the King the power of appointing the Ministers of the Crown and
the sheriffs.
Maroons.
The fugitive slaves in Jamaica, who, after the conquest of the island by
England in 1655, took refuge in the mountains, and maintained a guerilla
warfare against the colonists, which lasted until 1795.
Marranos.
The Spanish Moors who, after the conquest of Granada, accepted
Christianity.
Marriage Act.
_See_ Hardwicke’s Act.
Married Women’s Property Act.
An Act passed in 1882, by which, in all marriages subsequent to the
passing of the Act, a wife’s property is vested in herself, and is not
subject to her husband’s control, as was previously the case.
Martian Law.
A code of British Law translated by Alfred the Great into Anglo-Saxon.
It is said to have been compiled by Martia, the wife of Guithelin,
great-grandson of Mulmutius, King of the Britons, in 300 B.C.
Martin Mar-Prelate.
The pseudonym of the author of certain pamphlets advocating Puritan
doctrines, which appeared between 1588 and 1590. The suspected author, a
Welshman named Penry, was brought to trial, condemned and executed.
Maryland, Charter of.
A charter for the colonisation of Maryland, granted to Lord Baltimore by
Charles I in 1629. It was similar in its provisions to the Charter of
Virginia.
Masaniello, Revolt of.
A revolt of the Neapolitans, under a fisherman named Tommaso Aniello,
against the Spanish Viceroy in July, 1647. The revolt was completely
successful, and the Viceroy was compelled to come to terms with
Masaniello, whose head, however, seems to have been turned by his
success, as he was guilty of the most extraordinary excesses, and was
murdered by his former followers in the course of the month in which the
rising took place.
Mason and Dixon’s Line.
The line delimiting Delaware and Maryland, drawn by Mason and Dixon in
1764-67. It is often erroneously referred to as the line between the
freesoil and the slave States, but as a matter of fact both the States
in question were slave-holding States.
Mason and Slidell.
_See_ Trent Incident.
Massachusetts, Charter of.
A charter issued by Charles I in 1629, providing for the government of
the colony by a governor, deputy, and eighteen assistants, to be elected
annually by the freemen of the plantation. They were entrusted with both
legislative and executive functions, but it was provided that no laws
should be made which were not in harmony with the law of England. The
charter was revoked in 1684, after a dispute on the subject of the
navigation laws.
Massacres.
_See_ Abencerrages, Amboyna, Armagnacs, Armenian, Barmecides, Blood
Bath, Boston, Bulgarian, Cawnpore, Chastisement, Custer, Dragonnades,
Farquharsons, French Fury, Fusillades, Glencoe, Jaffa, Lebanon,
Magdeburg, Manchester, Mountain Meadow, Noyades, Privas, St.
Bartholomew, St. Brice, Scullabogue, September, Sicilian Vespers,
Sinope, Spanish Fury, Tenth of August, Ulster, Valtelline, Vassy,
Veronese.
Match Tax.
An impost proposed by Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke), Chancellor of the
Exchequer in 1871. The proposal was excessively unpopular, and was
withdrawn.
Mau-brulez, Journée des.
April 27, 1562, when two Protestant ministers. Mallard and Faveau, were
to be burnt at the stake by order of Granville, Bishop of Arras. They
were rescued by the populace.
May, Constitution of.
The constitution established by the Polish Diet on May 3, 1791. It
abolished the elective monarchy, and named the Royal House of Saxony as
successors to Poniatowski. It abolished the Liberum Veto, and vested the
legislative authority in the King, the Senate and the Chamber of
Nuncios, and the executive in the King, with a council of six Ministers.
Mayflower.
The ship that carried the first colonists of New England, the Pilgrim
Fathers, to the shores of America. They were chiefly Independents from
the neighbourhood of Scrooby, in Lincolnshire, who under stress of
persecution determined to leave England. They went first to Holland, and
then, deciding to make their home in America, finally sailed from
Plymouth on September 6, 1620. They landed on the shores of Cape Cod,
and named their first township Plymouth.
Maximum.
By a decree of May 4, 1793, the French Convention established a maximum
price for food stuffs, obliging farmers to state the quantity of grain
in their possession, bring it to market, and accept a price fixed by the
commune in which it was offered, such price to be based on the average
price ruling in the district during the four previous months. Heavy
penalties were enacted for concealment of grain supplies, and for taking
more than the authorised price.
Maynooth Grant.
A grant to the Roman Catholic College of Maynooth, in Ireland, made in
the face of strong Protestant opposition by Sir Robert Peel’s Government
in 1845. It was abolished in 1869, at the time of the Disestablishment
of the Irish Church.
Maynooth, Pardon of.
The name given ironically to the suppression of the revolt of the
Geraldines in 1535, when Maynooth Castle, the seat of the Earl of
Desmond, was captured, and out of thirty-seven prisoners taken,
twenty-six were executed.
Meal Tub Plot.
A pretended plot, fabricated by Dangerfield in 1679, in emulation of
Titus Oates, the inventor of the Popish Plot. Dangerfield averred that a
Presbyterian plot existed to depose the King, and establish a Republic.
After arrest he stated that this was only a blind to conceal a plot of
the Papists, documents relating to which would be found hidden in a meal
tub in the house of Mrs. Cellier, a Roman Catholic. This lady was tried
for high treason and acquitted. Dangerfield was condemned to be flogged
from Newgate to Tyburn and back, and died under the lash.
Measures, Assize of.
An edict issued in 1197, with the object of securing uniformity in
weights and measures throughout England. It was, however, found
impossible to obtain acceptance for this reform, and the edict remained
a dead letter.
Mediation, Constitution of.
A constitution in which an attempt was made to harmonise the old
Cantonal system with the new Helvetic Constitution, and which was
imposed upon the Swiss by Napoleon in 1803.
Mediatized Princes.
Members of the old ruling families of the smaller German States, who
have at various times been deprived of their sovereign rights.
Meersen, Treaty of.
A treaty, signed in 870, by which Lewis the German and Charles the Bald
divided the territories of their nephews, Lewis II and Charles. The
former took Alsace and the Rhine Provinces, the latter Burgundy and
Provence, thus finally separating Germany and France.
Mellanriks Law.
The decree confirming the Union of Sweden and Norway, accepted by the
Norwegians in November, 1814, and defining the financial and other
relations between the two kingdoms.
Melun, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1593, between Queen Elizabeth and Henri IV of France,
providing for an offensive and defensive alliance against Philip II of
Spain.
Mercatoribus, Statute de.
A statute of Edward I, passed in 1283, giving protection to foreign
merchants settled in England.
Merchandise Marks Act.
An Act passed in 1887, inflicting penalties for the use of false trade
descriptions, and enacting that, in all cases of imported goods, when
any question is likely to arise as to the country of origin, the same
shall be clearly marked on the goods.
Merchant Adventurers.
A guild of merchants established in Brabant in 1296. They received
special trading privileges in England from Henry VII, and in 1564 were
given a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth.
Merchant Shipping Act.
_See_ Plimsoll’s Act.
Merchants, Charter of the.
A charter granted by Edward I in 1303, to foreign merchants trading in
England, which at the same time imposed import and export duties on wool
and other commodities passing through their hands.
Merciless Parliament.
_See_ Wonderful Parliament.
Merry Monarch.
A sobriquet of Charles II of England.
Mestizos.
In Spanish America persons of mixed European and Indian blood are so
called.
Métayage.
A system of land tenure in France, prior to the Revolution, by which the
tenant was supplied by the landlord with stock and farming implements,
and the produce of the land, after payment of taxes, was divided equally
between them. Farmers holding land on this tenure were called métayers.
Methuen Treaty.
A treaty between England and Portugal, signed in 1703, whereby the
latter was induced to join the Grand Alliance. It contained only two
clauses, one admitting English woollen goods into Portugal, the other
providing that Portuguese wines imported into England should only pay
one-third of the duty levied on French wines. This treaty was abrogated
on the signing of a commercial treaty between England and France in
1786.
Middle Kingdom.
China is so called by the Chinese, who believe it to be the centre of
the inhabited world.
Mignon.
A nickname of Henri III of France (1574-1589).
Mikado.
The name by which the hereditary sovereign of Japan was known to
Europeans, in the early days of intercourse with that country. From the
time of the Shôgun Iyeyasu, in the early part of the seventeenth
century, the functions of the “Mikado” as a temporal ruler were usurped
by the Shôguns, or Commanders-in-Chief, though he was always recognized
as the _de jure_ head of the State. Since the revolution, however, he
has resumed his rightful position as Emperor of Japan. The title is now
in disuse, the Emperor being known as the Tenno.
Milan Decree.
A decree issued by Napoleon in 1807, as a reply to the Orders in
Council, declaring that every vessel, of whatever nationality, sailing
to or from a British port or colony, had forfeited her neutrality, and
was a lawful prize.
Mile Act.
An Act of the Scottish Parliament, passed in 1662, forbidding any
minister who had failed to comply with the provisions of the Episcopal
Ordination Act to reside within five miles of a royal borough, or within
twenty of his own parish.
Military Septennate.
A compromise, introduced by Bismarck in the Reichstag, between an annual
vote for military purposes, and a vote for an indefinite period. It
fixes the military establishment and the requisite supplies for a period
of seven years.
Millenary Petition.
A petition presented to James I by certain Puritan clergymen of the
Church of England, said to have numbered a thousand, asking to be
relieved from the celebration of certain ceremonies to which they were
conscientiously opposed. The petition was rejected.
Million Act.
An Act passed in 1692, authorising the raising of one million sterling
by means of tontine annuities, in aid of the expenses of the French War.
This is the first instance of the English Government raising money by
means of annuities.
Ministère de Trois Jours.
The ministry of the Tiers Parti in France, under the Duc de Bassano, in
1834. It held office for three days only.
Ministry of All the Talents.
A ministry under Lord Grenville, with Fox as Foreign Secretary, formed
on the death of Pitt in 1806. It is so called because it was not formed
exclusively from Grenville’s supporters, but was an attempt to bring
together the best men of various political shades. Thus Earl Spencer
and Mr. Windham, who had been members of Pitt’s first administration,
held office in it.
Mints, Indian.
These were closed to the free coinage of silver in 1893, and the value
of the rupee for exchange purposes fixed at 1s. 4d.
Minute Men.
A militia of 12,000 men enrolled during the American Civil War by the
State of Massachusetts. They bound themselves to be ready for service at
a moment’s notice.
Mir.
The Russian village commune, holding and tilling land in common. The
land is divided into plots, of which a certain number are allotted to
each family, in proportion to its size. These plots are farmed by the
family in common, and they pay into the coffers of the Mir a certain
fixed sum, retaining the rest for the general use of the family. The Mir
is responsible to the Government for the payment of the taxes of the
community, which are in the nature of a poll-tax on the adult males. The
division of the land is periodically revised, to meet changes in the
circumstances of the different families. The affairs of the Mir are
controlled by the village Elder, or Selski Starosta, who is elected by
the heads of families.
Mirabeau of the Mob.
A sobriquet of Danton, the French revolutionary leader.
Miracle of Nature.
Christina, Queen of Sweden (1632-1654), was so called.
Mise of Amiens.
_See_ Amiens.
Mise of Lewes.
_See_ Lewes.
Mississippi Scheme.
A wild scheme, not unlike the South Sea Bubble, propounded by John Law
in Paris in 1718. A company was formed, which was permitted to establish
a Bank of Issue, the shares of which were offered to the national
creditors in exchange for their stock. The company was also granted a
monopoly of the trade with Canada and the Mississippi. The usual
inflation of values followed, and subsequently the inevitable collapse,
which almost amounted to national bankruptcy. It is also called “Law’s
Bubble.”
Missouri Compromise.
An agreement between the slavery and anti-slavery parties of the United
States in 1821, arising out of the admission of Missouri to the Union as
a free-labour State. It was determined that slavery should only be
lawful south of 36° 30´ north latitude. This arrangement was maintained
until 1854, when it was violated by the admission of Kansas and Nebraska
as territories, with the right to decide the slavery question for
themselves.
Mitad.
In South America, under Spanish rule, the bodily service to which every
Indian from fifteen to fifty was liable. Those upon whom the lot fell
had to work for six months in the mines, and such were the conditions of
servitude that barely a fifth survived the ordeal. It is estimated that
over eight millions perished from this cause in Peru alone.
Mitchelstown Riot.
A riot at Mitchelstown, co. Cork, at a Land League meeting in August,
1887. The Government reporter and his police escort endeavoured to force
their way through the crowd to the platform, which the crowd resented.
The police lost their heads and fired on the people. “Remember
Mitchelstown” was for some time afterwards the watchword of the
Land-leaguers.
Mixed Pickles.
The name given to the Liberal Imperialist party in the first Reichstag
of the German Empire.
Model, The.
The Constitution of Carolina, prepared by John Locke in 1670. It was the
only constitution in America providing for an hereditary nobility, and
recognizing different classes of citizens. It was in some respects
feudal in its character, as the small cultivator was _adscriptus glebæ_,
and had no franchise. North Carolina objected to the model, rose in
revolt, and formed itself into a separate colony.
Modern Gracchus.
A sobriquet of the Comte de Mirabeau (1749-1801).
Modern Messalina.
A name given to Catherine II of Russia (1762-1796), referring to her
vicious and cruel character.
Moldavian Capitulation.
A treaty signed in 1512 between Bogdan, Voivode of Moldavia, and Selim
I, Sultan of Turkey, by which Bogdan recognized the suzerainty of
Turkey, and agreed to pay tribute.
Molinists.
The followers of Molina, the Spanish Jesuit, who was the principal
antagonist of the Jansenists and Port Royal.
Mollahs.
In Turkey, the name given to the principal judges, who, the law being
more ecclesiastical than civil, exercise functions of almost a priestly
character. In less civilized Moslem communities, as in Arabia, and among
the Afridis and Afghans, the mollahs are priests or holy men.
Molly Maguires.
An agrarian society formed in Ireland in 1843, to resist distraint for
rent. They took their name, originally “Maguires,” from Cornelius
Maguire, a leader in the Irish Rebellion of 1641, the word Molly being
afterwards added because they usually dressed in women’s clothes when
engaged in their raids.
Molly Maguires.
An Irish secret society, which terrorized the mining districts of
Pennsylvania from 1867 to 1877. Its object was, apparently, to control
the State and municipal politics. In the latter year, owing to
informers, its leaders were discovered and convicted, and the society
broken up.
Molokáni.
A Russian sect who model their institutions on the early Apostolic
Church, as depicted in the New Testament. They are strong upholders of
the right of private judgment, allowing considerable latitude to
individual opinion within the fold.
Monastic Orders.
_See_ Benedictines, Carmelites, Carthusians, Dominicans, Franciscans,
Jesuits, Theatins.
Monçon, Treaty of.
A treaty between France and Austria, signed in 1626, after the French
invasion of the Valtelline. It provided for a return in the Grisons and
Valtelline to the _status quo_ before 1617. Only Catholicism was to be
tolerated in the valley. The Valtelline was to have the right of
electing her own magistrates, subject to the veto of the Grisons, and
was to pay the Grisons an annual tribute. The forts in the Valtelline
and Chiavenna were to be razed.
Monetary Conference, International.
A conference held at Brussels in 1892, to discuss the question of a
bimetallic standard. Great diversity of opinion was shown by the
delegates, and the conference dissolved without making any
recommendations.
Monroe Doctrine.
A statement of policy in the message to Congress of President Monroe in
1825, to the effect that the United States could not regard with
indifference any further territorial expansion on the part of European
Powers on the American Continent. The occasion for the pronouncement was
the suspected intention of the Holy Alliance to interfere on behalf of
Spain in her struggle with her revolted colonies. Various
interpretations have been given to this doctrine, some, like that of Mr.
Olney, going much further than President Monroe’s words warrant, but it
is now generally held to mean that the United States will consider her
interests involved, if any European Power seeks territorial
aggrandisement in any part of America, or interferes with the internal
affairs of any American State.
Monsieur Véto.
A nickname of Louis XVI, referring to the power given him by the
Constitution of 1791 to veto the acts of the Legislative Assembly. Marie
Antoinette was known as Madame Véto, as it was believed that it was
largely her influence which induced the King to exercise his right.
Montesa, Knights of.
A Spanish order of religious chivalry, established in 1317. They
succeeded the Templars in Aragon.
Montpelier, Treaty of.
A treaty between Louis XIII and the Huguenots, after their last
appearance in arms in 1622. The King undertook to observe the Edict of
Nantes, and gave the Huguenots two towns. La Rochelle and Montauban, as
places of safety.
Montrouge Club.
A club composed of friends of the Duc d’Orléans (Philippe Egalité),
which was formed about 1789. Its object was to supplant the reigning
dynasty by the Orleans branch. Among its prominent members were
Mirabeau, Siéyès and Sillery.
Montsioa War.
In 1884 the Transvaal Boers attacked Montsioa, a Bechuana chief under
British protection, and forced him to make a treaty with them, in
defiance of the London Convention. In the following year a force under
Sir Charles Warren occupied the disturbed territory, which was brought
under the British administration, and the Boers were forced to withdraw.
Montt-Varistas.
The extreme reactionaries of the Pelucones, or Conservative party, in
Chile in 1850. They took their name from President Montt, and his
Secretary of State, Varas.
Moonlighters.
An agrarian secret society, similar in its constitution and methods to
the Whiteboys, which was guilty of numerous outrages in Ireland in 1881.
Moors, Expulsion of.
The final overthrow of the Moorish power in Spain was accomplished by
the capture of Granada in 1492, under Ferdinand and Isabella. The terms
of capitulation provided that the Moors, while remaining under Spanish
dominion, should preserve their own laws, language and religion, with
the right to hold property free of molestation. The non-Christian Moors
were, however, expelled from Spain by Philip III in 1610.
Morant Bay Riots.
An outbreak of negroes in Jamaica in 1865, which was promptly
suppressed, and is only noteworthy as leading to the long controversy
with regard to the action of Governor Eyre, whose repressive measures
led to his recall. Several attempts were made to bring him to trial, but
the case never got beyond the Grand Jury, who always declined to find a
true bill.
Moravians.
A Protestant sect, having its origin in the Hussites, which was very
numerous in Bohemia and Moravia in the sixteenth century. In 1627 they
were expelled from these countries, and, later, settled in Saxony.
Morey Letter.
A letter purporting to be written by Garfield, on the eve of the
Presidential Election in the United States in 1880, to a large employer
of labour named Morey. It advocated free admission of Chinese labour,
and it was hoped by the Democrats would seriously injure the Republican
cause on the Pacific Slope. It was of course a forgery.
Mormons.
A sect founded by Joseph Smith, the son of a Vermont farmer, in 1830, at
Fayette, New York State. The Mormons moved westward and, after several
years’ wanderings, settled on the Great Salt Lake in 1847, under Brigham
Young. Their advocacy of polygamy was for a long time a bar to the
admission of Utah to the Union, but the enforcement of the Edmunds Act
of 1882 led to the formal abandonment of polygamy as a tenet by the
Mormons in 1890, and Utah was admitted a State in 1896.
Mortmain, Statute of.
A statute passed in 1279, to put a stop to the growing practice of
giving landed property to the Church, and receiving it back as tenants,
thus evading feudal obligations. To prevent land thus passing into a
dead hand (_mortuum manum_), all such alienations were forbidden, except
with the King’s consent.
Morton’s Fork.
The scheme devised by Morton, the Minister of Henry VII, to increase the
revenues of the State. He exacted contributions from those who lived
well on the plea that they were obviously rich, and from those who lived
plainly on the ground that their economy had made them wealthy.
Mossbacks.
The name given to an old-fashioned section of the Democratic party in
the United States, most numerous in Ohio. The word is derived from the
popular name for the snapping turtle, which is so called from the growth
of a species of aquatic moss on its shell.
Most Holy Synod.
A body charged with the administration of the Russian National Church.
Its members are appointed and removed by the Czar, and its head, the
Procurator, is practically an autocrat in all matters of Church
discipline. It has however no jurisdiction over matters of dogma.
Mother Ann.
The leader of the Shakers in Sussex, at the end of the eighteenth
century. Her name was Ann Lee.
Mother of Presidents.
The State of Virginia is so called, as having furnished no less than six
Presidents of the United States.
Mother of States.
A name given to the State of Virginia, either as the oldest colony, or
as having had five States, namely, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and
West Virginia, formed out of her original territories.
Moujik.
The Russian peasant.
Moulins, Edict of.
An edict issued in 1566 by the Chancellor, de l’Hôpital, after a
conference of Notables representing both the Huguenot and the Catholic
parties. It dealt with the reform of judicial procedure.
Mountain.
The Jacobins, or ultra-revolutionary party in the Convention during the
French Revolution. Its leaders were Danton and Robespierre. The Mountain
came to an end with the fall of Robespierre and his followers on the 9th
Thermidor (July 28, 1794). It was so called because its members occupied
the upper tiers of seats in the Convention.
Mountain Meadow Massacre.
The massacre by Indians, under Mormon leadership, of a party of 140
emigrants, who were crossing Utah on their way to California in 1857.
The Mormons had been for some time in difficulties with the United
States Government, and Federal troops were in the neighbourhood of Salt
Lake City, but no hostilities had taken place. The leader of the band,
J. D. Lee, a Mormon Bishop, was executed for the crime on the actual
site of the massacre in 1877.
Mountain Men.
A name given to the Cameronians.
Mugwumps.
A section of the Republican party in the United States who, in 1884,
supported Cleveland, the Democratic candidate for President, owing to
his advocacy of Civil Service Reform. The word is also applied to those
who for various reasons decline to attach themselves definitely to
either of the great political parties.
Mulmutine Laws.
A code of laws said to have been drawn up by Mulmutius, King of the
Britons, circ. 400 B.C. They were translated by Alfred the Great, and
remained the basis of English law until the Conquest.
Mundebunde or Mundium.
Among the Franks the protection afforded by the King or a feudal lord to
an ecclesiastic or other person not being an ordinary vassal.
Municipal Reform Act.
An Act passed in 1835, dealing with 178 municipalities. In the majority
of these the election to municipal offices had been entirely in the
hands of the freemen, often a very small minority of the inhabitants.
The Act instituted an electoral qualification of three years’ residence,
and the payment of poor and borough rates. It also established town
councils, and provided for an independent audit.
Mustafiz.
The second line of reserve, or militia, of the Turkish army.
Mutiny Act.
This Act was passed for the first time in 1689, for one year only, and
has since that time been passed annually. It gives disciplinary powers
to the officers of the army and navy, apart from the ordinary process of
law, and neither service could be maintained without it.
Mutualists.
A secret association of the _chefs d’ateliers_, or middlemen, of the
Lyons weavers, which ordered a strike of workmen in April, 1834. The
strike resulted in a rising, which was promptly suppressed, and the
leaders were prosecuted under the Associations Law.
N
Nag’s Head Controversy.
A controversy which arose over an allegation of the Roman Catholics, in
1599, that Archbishop Parker’s consecration, forty years previously, had
taken place in the most informal manner at the Nag’s Head Tavern, in
Cheapside. The statement was proved to be entirely devoid of foundation.
Nanking, Treaty of.
A treaty between Great Britain and China, signed in 1842, at the close
of the Opium War. By its terms England secured Hong Kong in perpetuity,
and Shanghai and other ports were opened to foreign trade.
Napoleon of Peace.
A sobriquet of Louis Philippe, whose peaceful reign of eighteen years
was a marked contrast to the constant wars of the Napoleonic era.
Natal, Republic of.
A republic founded by emigrant burghers from Cape Colony in 1838. It
stretched from the Drakensberg to the sea, and from the Tugela to the
Umzimvubu river, while Zululand, under Panda, was tributary to it. The
British Government never recognized the republic, and in 1842 steps were
taken to obtain possession of the country, in which a regular colonial
government was established in 1845.
Nation of Shopkeepers.
A phrase first applied to England by Samuel Adams, the American
politician, in 1776. It is generally attributed to Napoleon, but was
probably taken by him from a translation of the speech in which it
occurs.
National Association for King William.
An association formed on the discovery of the Assassination Plot in
1696, at the suggestion of Sir Rowland Gwyn. The signatories declared
their loyalty to the King, and bound themselves to take vengeance on all
who might attempt his life.
National Debt.
The origin of the National Debt was a loan raised by Montague,
afterwards Lord Halifax, in 1693. The lenders were life-annuitants, and
as each died his annuity was divided among the survivors till only seven
remained; after which, on the death of each of the seven, his portion
was absorbed by the Government.
National Guard.
An urban militia raised in Paris in 1789 by Flesselles, Prévôt des
Marchands. It took a leading part in the destruction of the Bastille.
National Guards.
A body of volunteers raised by Napper Tandy in Ireland in 1792. They
were promptly suppressed by the Government.
National Scouts.
A force recruited from surrendered Boers, for service as scouts with the
British Army, during the latter stages of the Boer War of 1899-1902.
Nationalverein.
An association formed in 1859, the declared object of which was to
substitute for the Confederation the German constitution of 1848, under
the hegemony of Prussia, and to the complete exclusion of Austria. Its
founder was Baron Benigsen of Hanover.
Nations, Battle of the.
The Battle of Leipsic, fought on October 16, 17 and 18, 1813, is so
called. Five nations--France, Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden, were
engaged.
Naturalia.
The contributions in kind exacted for the support of the royal household
among the Franks.
Naturalization Act.
An Act of Congress passed in 1870, which, while authorizing the
naturalization of the African negro, declined to admit to the
citizenship Indians and Chinese.
Naundorff Claimant.
A claim was brought before the French courts in 1874 by the son of a
clock-maker of Delft, named Naundorff. The claimant, who called himself
Adalbert de Bourbon, demanded to be recognized as the grandson of Louis
XVI, on the ground that his father, Naundorff, was in reality the
Dauphin, who had been imprisoned in the Temple, and of whose escape he
told a marvellous story. The courts dismissed his claim.
Navigation Act.
An Act passed in 1651, under the Commonwealth, prohibiting the
importation of goods into England except in British ships, or in ships
belonging to the country of origin of the goods. The Act was renewed in
1672, and, with the modifications then introduced, continued in force
till the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, when the English Government agreed to
suspend its operation so far as concerned vessels of the United States.
Neck Verse.
A verse of the Psalms, read by condemned criminals who claimed “benefit
of clergy,” as a test of their clerkship. It was so called because those
who succeeded in reading it in clerkly fashion were handed over to the
ecclesiastical authorities, and saved their necks.
Negus.
The title of the King of Abyssinia or Ethiopia.
Nemours, Edict of.
An edict issued by Henri III in 1785, withdrawing all the privileges
accorded to the Huguenots by previous edicts, and giving them six months
to conform to the Roman Catholic Church or to leave the realm.
Nepaul Treaty.
A treaty signed in 1815, at the end of the Ghoorka war, between the
British and Nepaul. By its provisions Nepaul relinquished all rights
over the Hill Rajahs west of the Kali river, ceded the major portion of
the Terai, restored the territory conquered from the Rajah of Sikkim,
and agreed to receive a British resident at Khatmandu.
Neri.
_See_ Bianchi.
Nertchinsk, Treaty of.
A treaty between Russia and China signed in 1689, and notable as being
the first convention between China and a European Power. This treaty put
a stop for nearly 150 years to Russia’s eastward expansion in Siberia.
Nestor of Europe.
Leopold I, King of the Belgians (1831-1865) was so called.
Neuf Thermidor.
July 27, 1794, the day on which the Decree of Accusation was launched
against Robespierre, Couthon, St. Just and the other extremists of the
Revolution, thus putting an end to the Reign of Terror.
New Custom.
A system of granting to foreign merchants the privilege of trading with
English ports in return for a subsidy. This system was introduced by
Edward I in 1303, and is the origin of Customs Duties.
New Departure.
A change of programme on the part of a section of the Democratic party
in the United States in 1871. They admitted that all, including negroes,
were entitled to equal rights and full citizenship, but demanded a
universal amnesty for the Southerners, condemned protective duties as
levied solely in the interests of the Northern manufacturers, and
strongly protested against the Force Bill of 1870.
New England Confederation.
A union of the four New England Colonies, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth,
New Haven, and Connecticut, formed in 1643 for mutual protection against
the Dutch and the Indians.
New Learning.
The name given in England to the revival of learning in the West, the
first manifestation of which was the Italian Renaissance.
New Model.
The name given to the Parliamentary Army as reformed by the Self-denying
Ordinance of 1645.
New Republic.
A republic formed in 1884 in what was later the Vryheid district of the
Transvaal, the territory having been given by Dinizulu to certain Boers
in return for their help in his war with Usibepu. Lucas Meyer was
elected president, but the republic was short-lived, being absorbed by
the South African Republic in 1887.
New Roof.
A nickname given to the Constitution of the United States shortly after
its promulgation.
New Style.
The name given to the Gregorian Calendar, introduced into England by the
Calendar Act of 1752.
New Tipperary.
A township started in 1890, under the Plan of Campaign, with the object
of bringing to terms the owner of the land on which the town of
Tipperary stands. The scheme was a complete fiasco, and collapsed in
1891.
New Unionism.
This form of trade unionism had its rise about 1884. It differs from the
old unionism in that it is frankly Socialistic in its tendencies, and
demands State interference between workmen and employers, whereas the
old demanded only to be left alone and to be allowed the right of
combination for the advancement of the interests of the workers.
New Zealand Centralization.
By an Act passed in 1876, during the premiership of Sir Julius Vogel,
the nine provinces of New Zealand were united, with one Parliament
sitting at Wellington. The nine provincial Parliaments were abolished,
their administrative functions being entrusted to road boards in the
country districts and municipalities in the towns.
Newcastle Programme.
The platform of the Liberal party at the general election of 1892,
based on resolutions passed at the meeting of the National Liberal
Federation at Newcastle in October, 1891. The “planks” of the platform
were Abolition of the House of Lords, Home Rule, Disestablishment of the
Church in Wales, Taxation of Ground Values, and One Man One Vote.
Newfoundland Fisheries.
_See_ French Shore.
Newport, Treaty of.
The final attempt of the Parliament to come to terms with the King in
1648. Negotiations were opened at Newport, but the King contested every
demand of the Parliament, and the Independents, supported by the Army,
lost patience, and confined the King in Hurst Castle.
Nicæa, Second Council of.
An Œcumenical Council held during the reign of the Empress Irene, at
which the decrees of the Council of Constantinople with regard to
image-worship were reversed.
Nichan-Sherif.
A decree of the Sultan Ahmed I in 1604, granting the Venetians certain
trading and navigating facilities in the Ottoman dominions.
Nightmare of Europe.
A sobriquet of the Great Napoleon.
Nihilists.
The Russian revolutionary society, an important section of which is in
favour of physical force. Their position is perhaps best explained by
the manifesto issued after the assassination of the Czar Alexander II in
1881, in which they declare their object to be the amelioration of the
condition of the peasantry, and the introduction of more civilized
methods of government. They go on to say that Russia demands a new
system, and that, their peaceful efforts having only met with
repression, they have been driven to adopt violent means to gain their
ends.
Nimeguen, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1678, following the five years’ war of Louis XIV
against Holland and Spain. Louis obtained Franche-Comté and sixteen
fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands.
Nîmes, Edict of.
An edict issued in 1629, shortly after the fall of La Rochelle, which,
while confirming the religious freedom granted to the Huguenots by the
Edict of Nantes, deprived them of their special political status, and
thus broke up the Huguenot League.
Nine Articles, Constitution of.
A constitution drawn up at Winburg in 1837 by the emigrant burghers who
had settled between the Orange and the Vaal rivers after the Great Trek.
A Volksraad was elected, and the burghers bound themselves to observe
the old Roman-Dutch law, except when inconsistent with the articles of
the constitution.
Ninety-eight.
The Irish rebellion under Lord Edward Fitzgerald and Wolfe Tone in 1798.
The rebellion had been carefully planned for some years before the
outbreak, and, the sympathies of the French having been enlisted, a
landing by Hoche was attempted at Bantry Bay. This was unsuccessful, and
a little later Humbert, who landed at Killala, was forced to surrender
to Lord Cornwallis. Horrible outrages were perpetrated by the rebels,
and the consequent reprisals gave a most bloodthirsty character to the
whole affair. The rebels were finally defeated at Vinegar Hill, which
put an end to all organized resistance, though there were a few isolated
risings from time to time. Wolfe Tone was captured and condemned to
death, but escaped the scaffold by suicide. Fitzgerald was killed a few
days before the outbreak, resisting the military who were about to
arrest him.
Nine Worthies.
This title was given to nine members of the Privy Council of William
III, namely, the Duke of Devonshire, the Earls of Nottingham, Dorset,
Monmouth, Orford, Pembroke and Marlborough, Lord Caermarthen, and Sir
John Lowther.
Nizam.
The regular infantry of the Turkish Army.
No Popery Agitation.
An agitation against the action of the Pope in creating Cardinal Wiseman
Archbishop of Westminster in 1851. To appease the Protestant party the
Government brought in the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill.
Nobles’ War.
The rising of Rhenish knights under Franz von Sickingen in 1522. They
were bitterly hostile to the Suabian League and to the new institutions,
such as the Reichskammergericht. The rising was suppressed in the
following year.
Noces Vermeilles.
“The blood-red wedding” was the name given afterwards to the marriage
between the Protestant Henry of Navarre and the Catholic Marguerite de
Valois in May 1572, only three months before the massacre of the
Huguenots on the eve of St. Bartholomew.
Noche Triste.
The night of June 20, 1520, when the Spaniards under Cortes were
attacked by the Mexicans as they were evacuating Mexico, and suffered
very heavy losses.
Noir, Code.
The code of laws promulgated by Louis XIV in 1685 to be enforced in the
West Indian colonies of France. It had special reference to the
treatment of negroes, whether slaves or freedmen.
Nomansland.
The district south of the Basuto country, now known as Griqualand East,
was so called in 1860. It was settled in 1861 by the migration of Adam
Kok and his tribe of Griquas from the country they had previously
occupied between the Orange and the Riet Rivers.
Nomansland.
A district lying between Kansas, New Mexico, Texas, and the Indian
territory, which now forms part of the territory of Oklahoma.
The same name is given to a strip of land in dispute between the States
of Delaware and Pennsylvania.
Nominees, Assembly of.
Barebone’s Parliament is sometimes known by this name.
Non-Compounders.
_See_ Compounders.
Non-Jurors.
The clergymen, between three and four hundred in number, who refused to
take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy on the accession of William
III in 1689.
Non-Resistance.
The doctrine that it was a deadly sin to oppose the will of the King as
being sovereign by Divine right. This tenet was preached by the Anglican
clergy in the times of the Stuarts. It was also called the “Doctrine of
Passive Obedience.”
Nore, Mutiny at the.
The name usually given to the mutinies in the fleet at the Nore and
Spithead, which broke out in 1797. The discontent, due to real
grievances, first showed itself at Spithead, where Lord Howe, who was in
command, succeeded by his tact in arranging matters satisfactorily, and
nothing very serious occurred. At the Nore the mutiny assumed a
political character, the men demanding a revision of the Articles of War
and other impossible concessions. Their demands being refused the
mutineers seized the fleet, but gradually yielded, and finally Parker,
the ringleader, was arrested and hanged, with four or five others.
Norman Reconciliation.
_See_ Baiser de Lamourette.
North, Council of the.
A council established by Henry VIII in 1536, after the Insurrection of
the North, to deal with questions arising out of that event. In the
reign of Charles I it was reorganized by Wentworth on the lines of the
Star Chamber, and it was finally abolished by Act of Parliament in 1641.
North, Society of the.