_See_ Illicit Diamond Buying.
Iconoclasts.
This name was first given to the followers of Leo III, Emperor of the
East, who in 726 interdicted the worship of images. The opposition of a
considerable section of his subjects did not deter him from carrying his
principles into effect, and what is known as the Iconoclast War was the
result. The same title is applied to the more militant Huguenots in
France in 1560 and 1561, who, wherever they obtained the upper hand,
ruthlessly destroyed the statues which adorned the churches and
monasteries, and also to a section of the Puritans during the English
Civil War.
Iglau, Treaty of.
A treaty between the Hussites and the Emperor Sigismund, signed in 1436,
putting an end to the Hussite War. It was based upon the Compactata of
Prague, and secured to the Hussites the free exercise of their religion
on the lines of that document.
Ilbert Bill.
A bill introduced in the Legislative Council of India by Mr. Ilbert in
1883 “to amend the criminal jurisdiction over British subjects.” It
largely extended the jurisdiction of native magistrates in the trial of
Europeans, and was most bitterly criticised by the Anglo-Indian
community, especially by planters and others living in remote districts.
Illicit Diamond Buying.
An illegal trade in diamonds carried on by certain speculators in
Kimberley, who purchased from the employés of the Diamond companies
rough diamonds which they had secreted in the process of washing. It was
largely checked by the Diamond Trade Act of 1882. This illicit trade is
generally known as I.D.B.
Illuminati.
A famous sect of German mystics, founded at Ingolstadt by Adam
Weisshaupt in 1776. It undertook a crusade against Jesuitism and Church
domination generally, but did not hold aloof from politics, its higher
initiates being professed Republicans. It was suppressed by the Elector
of Bavaria in 1785.
Immigrants Restriction Bill.
A bill passed in 1901 by the Federal Parliament of Australia in response
to the outcry for a “White Australia.” It prohibits the immigration of
all coloured labour, including the South Sea Islanders, or Kanakas. This
restriction has caused much concern in Northern Queensland, where the
climate is not suitable for white labour, and its enforcement will
destroy the sugar and other industries and render the country almost
valueless.
Imparani, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1866 after the Basuto War of 1865-66 between the
Orange Free State and Molapo, the son of Moshesh. Molapo surrendered to
the Free State the greater part of his country, and became a vassal of
the State. He further bound himself to render no assistance to any other
Basuto chief who might rise against the Free State.
Imperial Chamber.
_See_ Reichskammergericht.
Imperial Federation Enabling Act.
An Act passed in 1885 to facilitate the federation of the Australasian
Colonies. (_See_ Federal Council.)
Importants.
The party who supported the Regent, Anne of Austria, during the minority
of Louis XIV. They strongly opposed Mazarin’s policy, but the cardinal
succeeded in embroiling them with the queen, thanks to feminine
intrigues, and their leaders were imprisoned or banished.
Impositions.
Illegal additions to the authorized customs duties, levied by James I
without the consent of Parliament. They were among the grievances
detailed in the Petition of Grievances in 1610.
In Cœna Domini, Bull.
A Bull issued at intervals during the Middle Ages, and annually on Holy
Thursday from 1627 to 1770. It was a summary of the offences against the
Church and the priesthood, and of the ecclesiastical censures pronounced
against them. The sovereigns of Europe regarded this Bull as an
infringement of their rights, and it was in consequence of their
continued protests that Clement XIV ceased to promulgate it.
In Eminenti, Bull.
A Bull of Urban VII, issued in 1642, condemning the “Augustinus” of
Jansen as heretical.
Incas.
The ruling family of the ancient Peruvians up to the conquest of Peru by
Pizarro in 1531. They claimed to be descended from the Sun-God.
Incident, The.
A plot, discovered during the visit of Charles I to Scotland in 1641, to
kill or kidnap Argyle and Hamilton. The king was suspected of being
privy to it, though he strenuously denied it.
Incorruptible, The.
The name given by his followers to Robespierre.
Indemnity and Oblivion, Act of.
An Act passed at the Restoration in 1660, granting a free pardon to
those who had been in arms against the king, with the exception of the
Regicides and Sir Harry Vane and General Lambert, and settling in favour
of _bonâ fide_ holders all claims to land acquired during the
Commonwealth.
Independence.
_See_ Declaration.
Independents.
A sect of extreme Puritans, originally identified with the Brownists.
They afterwards became a political party, holding more advanced views
than the Presbyterians, who represented a conservative form of
republicanism, and ultimately, under the leadership of Cromwell and with
the aid of the army, which was mainly officered by them, they became the
predominant party in the state.
Index Expurgatorius.
The list of books the perusal of which is forbidden to devout Catholics.
The first index was drawn up by Paul IV in 1555 to prevent the diffusion
of heretical opinions through the writings of the Reformers.
India Act, Pitt’s.
An Act passed in 1784 by which all political power was taken from the
East India Company and vested in a Board of Control nominated by the
Government. The Company retained all its patronage, excepting the
appointment of Commander-in-Chief and some other high posts, and their
commercial rights under their Charter were not interfered with.
Indian National Congress.
An annual congress of natives of India, with some few Europeans, whose
object is to promote the extension to India of Western political
institutions, such as representative government. The first congress met
at Allahabad in 1888, and was attended by a few Mohammedans, but it has
now fallen almost entirely into the hands of the Bengali Babus.
Indians, Apostle of the.
The name given to Bartolomeo de las Casas (1474-1566), the Spanish
ecclesiastic who devoted his life to the amelioration of the condition
of the South American Indians.
Indies, Apostle of the.
St. Francis Xavier, the famous Jesuit missionary to India in the
sixteenth century is so called.
Indies, Council of the.
A supreme court for American affairs, established in Spain by Ferdinand
in 1511 and reorganized by Charles V in 1524. The council promulgated
all the laws relating to the government of the colonies and appointed to
all colonial offices under the Crown.
Indulgence.
A measure of toleration granted to the Scottish Presbyterians in 1669,
by which their ministers were permitted to preach in vacant parishes and
received some pecuniary aid from the Government. This measure, however,
did nothing to reconcile the more bigoted members of the Church, who
continued their resistance to all State control. The Indulgence was soon
withdrawn.
Indulgence.
_See_ Declaration.
Indulgences.
Forms of absolution granted by Leo X, which were openly sold by his
agents, the proceeds of the sale being devoted to the completion of St.
Peter’s at Rome. It was the sale of these by Tetzel in 1517, in the
dominions of the Elector of Saxony, which called forth Luther’s vehement
protest, and was the beginning of the Reformation in Germany.
Ineffabilis Deus, Bull.
The Bull of Pius IX, issued in 1854, by which the doctrine of the
Immaculate Conception of the Virgin was proclaimed as an article of the
Catholic faith.
Inexorable Families.
The old aristocratic families of Virginia, who were expected, during the
War of Independence, to show British sympathies, but earned the name of
“Inexorable” by their staunch adherence to the national cause.
Infallible.
A title assumed by the Pope Pelagius (578-590).
Infante.
The title of the eldest son of the Spanish Sovereign.
Infernal Legion.
A body of irregular troops, composed of desperadoes of all nations,
organized by Bover on the side of the Royalists during the revolt of the
Spanish American Colonies in 1814.
Initiative.
Under the Swiss Constitution, the right of the people to initiate
proposals for the enactment, repeal or amendment of a law. Fifty
thousand signatures are required to make the demand operative.
Inquisition.
A tribunal to inquire into and suppress heresy, established by Innocent
III at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. It was introduced into
Germany in 1231, but abolished in 1234, and never again restored. In
Italy it was successful in stamping out heresy, but it is in Spain that
its tyranny was most notorious, an auto-de-fé having been held in that
country as late as 1826. Its administration was entrusted to the
Dominican Order.
Instrument of Government.
A document issued by Cromwell in 1653 by which he took the title of
Protector. He was to be assisted by a Council of State of fifteen
members, and a new Parliament was to be elected, to number 400, with a
£200 qualification both for members and electors. No Parliament was to
be dissolved unless it had sat for five months, and Parliaments were to
be triennial.
Insurrection Act.
An Act passed by the Irish Parliament in 1796 empowering the Government
to declare any county to be in a state of insurrection, whereupon the
officials had the right to search for arms and to imprison persons found
abroad between sunset and sunrise.
Insurrection of Women.
An outbreak of the women of Paris on October 5, 1789. They broke into
the armoury of the Hôtel de Ville, and, having armed themselves, marched
to Versailles, to demand speech of the king. The result of the rising
was the return of the king to Paris, which took place on the following
day.
Inter Gravissimas, Bull.
The Bull of Gregory XIII, issued in 1582, ordaining the use of the new
calendar throughout Christendom.
Interdict.
The proclamation issued by Innocent III in 1208 against John and the
realm of England. It forbade all services of the Church, except Baptism
and Supreme Unction, and only permitted the burial of the dead in
unconsecrated ground. In the following year the Interdict was followed
by the excommunication of John.
Interim of Leipsic.
A modification of the Interim of Ratisbon, issued by Charles V in
December, 1548, and accepted by Melancthon on behalf of the Lutherans.
Interim of Ratisbon.
A system of doctrine issued by Charles V in May, 1548, as an attempt to
reconcile the differences dividing the religious world. While retaining
all the salient doctrines of Catholicism, it permitted certain
modifications in practice and ritual calculated to conciliate the
Protestants. It did not, however, succeed in pleasing either party.
Intermarriage Act.
One of the laws of the Irish Penal Code, which provided that a man who
married a Catholic should be regarded as a Papist and subject to all
their disabilities, while a woman so marrying should be dead to the law.
International African Association.
An international commission formed at the Brussels Conference in 1876,
with the object of exploring Central Africa. It resulted in the
formation of the Congo Free State in 1885.
International, The.
An association of working men, founded in London in 1864, the original
statutes of the society being drawn up by the German Socialist leader
Marx. It was intended as a centre of combination for all workmen’s
societies and unions of every nation, but disclaimed any desire to
interfere with them individually. In 1872 a split occurred in the
society between the Marxists and the followers of the Anarchist Bakunin,
and the International soon after ceased to exist as an organization.
Intransigentes.
The extreme revolutionary party in the southern towns of Spain in 1873.
Invincible Armada.
The name given by the Spaniards to the great Spanish and Portuguese
fleet dispatched by Philip II for the conquest of England in 1588. After
being harried by the English ships under Howard of Effingham, Drake,
Frobisher and others, it was finally dispersed by violent storms in the
North Sea, and out of 130 ships only 53 returned to Spain.
Invincibles.
An Irish secret society, with headquarters in America, which became
notorious in 1882 as having provided the assassins of Lord Frederick
Cavendish and Mr. Burke. Those immediately concerned in the murder were
brought to justice, but the heads of the society, including Tynan, the
famous No. 1, were never made amenable.
Ionian Islands, Cession of.
By a treaty between Great Britain and Greece, signed in 1864, these
islands were ceded to Greece.
Irish Board of Agriculture.
A new department established in Ireland in 1897, independent of the
Castle and the Irish Office. Its first president was Mr. Horace Plunket.
Irish Charter.
The Charter granted to the Irish settlers by Henry III on his accession.
It was practically a recital of the clauses of Magna Charta, with such
variations as were rendered necessary by the different conditions.
Irish Church Act, Althorp’s.
An Act passed in 1833 abolishing the Church fees, which were paid by
all, whether Churchmen, Catholics or Dissenters, and reducing the number
of Irish bishops from twenty-two to twelve.
Irish Church Disestablishment.
An Act for the disestablishment and partial disendowment of the Irish
Church was passed by Mr. Gladstone’s Government in 1869. The Irish
bishops lost their seats in the House of Lords, the Irish Ecclesiastical
Courts were abolished, and the union between the English and Irish
Churches dissolved. The future government of the Irish Church was
entrusted to a synod elected by the clergy and laity. Of the Church
property, valued at about sixteen millions, seven millions were used to
compensate incumbents and to replace the Maynooth Grant and the Regium
Donum.
Irish Land Act, 1870.
An Act passed by Mr. Gladstone’s Government giving for the first time a
legal status to the Ulster custom and extending it to all tenancies in
Ireland. The Act provided for compensation for disturbance and
compensation for improvements in the event of the landlord determining a
tenancy, and enacted that improvements should be deemed to be the
tenant’s, the onus of proof to the contrary being thrown upon the
landlord.
Irish Land Act, 1881.
This Act, passed in 1881, introduced the principle of judicial
interference between landlord and tenant. It permitted the sale of
tenant right and allowed the tenant to apply to the Court to fix a
judicial rent, such rent to hold good for fifteen years. It made certain
alterations, in the tenant’s favour, in the law relating to compensation
for improvements. It further established a Land Commission with power
(1) to advance money to tenants for the purchase of their holdings, and
(2) under certain conditions to purchase whole estates from the
landlords.
Irish Land Act, 1885.
An Act known as Lord Ashbourne’s Act, giving additional facilities for
the purchase by tenants of their holdings. An advance of £5,000,000 was
made to the Land Commissioners for this purpose, while the terms to
purchasers were more generous than those of the Bill of 1881. The
purchase money was to be advanced at 4 per cent., and be repayable in
forty-nine years, while the surplus of the Disestablished Church funds
was to be used as a guarantee to the State against loss.
Irish Land Act, 1896.
An Act amending and consolidating the previous Land Acts and dealing
specially with the case of “Town Parks.” It introduced no new principle,
and though the Nationalists tried to secure the valuation of these
holdings at prairie value, the Government carried in the main their plan
for an equitable division between landlord and tenant of any increase of
value due to situation.
Irish Land Conference.
A conference held in Dublin in January, 1903, known also as the Dunraven
Conference, between representatives of the Irish Landlords and the
tenants, under the presidency of Lord Dunraven. The conference issued a
unanimous report recommending the abolition of dual ownership by means
of a comprehensive scheme of land purchase. They proposed that the
landlords should be bought out at a price based on their present income
from rent, and that the tenants should purchase at from 15 per cent. to
25 per cent. less, the balance being found by the State, which would
also advance the purchase money, to be repaid by instalments.
Irish National League.
An association formed in Dublin in 1882, after the suppression of the
Land League, to unite all sections of Irish Nationalists.
Irish Society.
A society formed by twelve of the City Companies of London to colonize
lands in Ulster forfeited from O’Neill and O’Donnell. They were granted
a charter by James I in 1613, which was suspended in 1637 but restored
in 1670.
Irish Volunteers, Society of.
_See_ Friends of Ireland.
Iron Chancellor.
A sobriquet of Prince Bismarck.
Iron Chest.
A secret closet in the bedchamber of Louis XVI. Its existence was
revealed by Gamain, the king’s locksmith, who had constructed it, and it
was searched immediately by order of the National Convention, when
certain compromising documents were found.
Iron Cross.
A Prussian decoration conferred for bravery in the field. It was
established in 1813.
Iron Crown.
The royal crown of Lombardy, said to have been forged from a nail of the
true cross. It was first used in 591 at the coronation of Agilulf, King
of the Lombards, and is now the royal crown of Italy.
Iron Duke.
The sobriquet of the great Duke of Wellington.
Iron Emperor.
Nicholas I of Russia (1825-55) was so called.
Iron Hand, Götz of the.
The sobriquet of Götz von Berlichingen, the leader in the German
Peasants’ War of 1525. His right hand, which he had lost in battle, was
replaced by an artificial hand made of iron.
Iron Mask, The Man with the.
A mysterious personage whose face was always covered with an iron mask,
who was confined in the Bastille and other State prisons in France
during the reign of Louis XIV. Many theories have been advanced as to
his identity. It has been contended that he was an elder brother, a twin
brother, and a natural son of the king, Count Matthioli, minister of the
Duke of Mantua, and M. de Marchiel, the head of a wide-spread conspiracy
against Louis XIV, while many other solutions of the problem have been
put forward.
Iron Tooth.
The nickname of Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713).
Ironclad Oath.
The oath of office established by the United States Congress in 1867 at
the conclusion of the Civil War. It was designed to prevent the
assumption of office by any possible enemy of the Union.
Ironside.
The nickname of Edmund, King of the English in 1016.
Ironsides.
Cromwell’s Regiment of Horse was so called.
Iskander Beg.
The sobriquet of George Castriot, the Albanian patriot (1414-67).
Iskander is Alexander.
Isabella Catolica, Order of.
A Spanish order of knighthood, instituted in 1815, to reward those
Spanish-Americans who remained faithful to the Crown during the Wars of
Independence.
Island of Saints.
Ireland was so called in the Middle Ages.
Italia Irredenta.
Unredeemed Italy consists of those provinces and islands not included in
the Kingdom of Italy which are racially or linguistically Italian. They
are the Austrian provinces of Southern Tyrol, Görz, Trieste, Istria and
Dalmatia, the Swiss Canton of Ticino, the British island of Malta and
the French island of Corsica. The Irredentists are a party whose aims
are similar to those of the Pan-Slavists and Pan-Germans, and who desire
to see these provinces, especially those belonging to Austria, added to
the kingdom.
Italy, Unification of.
The work of Victor Emmanuel and his minister Cavour, aided by Garibaldi
and his volunteers. The Treaty of Zurich in 1859 left Victor Emmanuel in
possession of the whole of Northern Italy excepting the Venetian states
east of the Mincio. The central states, Parma, Modena, etc., applied to
be united to the kingdom in 1860, while in the same year the South
revolted against Francis II of Naples, and with the aid of Garibaldi the
Bourbons were expelled, Victor Emmanuel being crowned King of Italy in
1861. The Venetian provinces were added to the kingdom by the Treaty of
Prague in 1866, and in 1870, France withdrawing her support of the Pope,
the King entered Rome and completed the emancipation of Italy.
J
Jacobites.
The supporters of the House of Stuart after their expulsion from Great
Britain.
Jacquerie.
The peasant rising in France in 1358 is so called from Jacques Bonhomme,
the familiar name for a peasant. The revolt was most sanguinary, the
peasants burning over 200 châteaux, and murdering indiscriminately all
who refused to join them. Equally cruel reprisals followed the
suppression of the insurrection.
Jaffa Massacre.
The massacre by Napoleon in 1799 of the Turkish garrison of Jaffa, who
had surrendered as prisoners of war.
Jamaica Bill.
A bill suspending the constitution of Jamaica, brought in by the
Melbourne Ministry in 1839, in consequence of the House of Assembly
refusing to put in force an Act for the better regulation of prisons in
that island. The bill only passed the House of Commons by a majority of
five, and Lord Melbourne resigned.
Jameson Raid.
An invasion of the Transvaal by the forces of the British South Africa
Company in January, 1896. Jameson acted on an undated letter, signed by
certain members of the Johannesburg Reform Committee, summoning him to
the aid of the Uitlanders. His raid, however, was ill-timed, the
Johannesburgers being unable to give him the assistance he counted on,
and he was defeated by the hastily summoned Boer commandos. Cecil Rhodes
was a party to the scheme, which was designed to overthrow the corrupt
Boer Government. The Boers made the raid an excuse for increasing their
armaments.
Janissaries.
A military force established about the middle of the fourteenth century
by Amurath I, Sultan of Turkey. They were recruited from Christian
youths captured in war, who were brought up in the Mohammedan faith and
trained to arms.
Jansenists.
A sect or schism of Catholics, founded in France in the seventeenth
century, who strongly opposed the doctrinal and ethical teachings of the
Jesuits. Their doctrines were based on the _Augustinus_ of Cornelius
Jansen, Bishop of Yprès, published after his death, which took place in
1638. Its adherents included such men as Arnauld and Pascal. Jansenism
was finally declared heretical by the Bull Unigenitus in 1653.
January, Edict of.
An edict issued by Charles IX of France in January, 1562, setting forth
the terms of pacification between the Huguenots and the Catholics as
arrived at by a conference between the leaders of the two parties.
Jarl.
In the early Norse times the Jarl was a dignity conferred by the king
upon chiefs of conspicuous ability as leaders in war. The title was not
hereditary.
Jassy, Peace of.
A treaty signed in 1792 by Catherine II of Russia and the Sultan Selim
III after a war rendered memorable by the successes of Potemkin and
Suwarrow. Turkey surrendered Oszakov, and the Dniester was fixed as the
boundary line between the two empires.
Jay’s Treaty.
The name given to the treaty between Great Britain and the United States
in 1794, which provided for the surrender to the latter of the British
military forts in the North-East and settled certain boundary and
financial questions pending between the signatories.
Jedburgh Justice.
The prompt measures taken by the Earl of Dunbar in the reign of James I
and VI to punish border raiders at Jedburgh and other Scottish towns
gave rise to this phrase. Raiders were hanged always, and tried if
circumstances permitted. “Cupar Justice” and “Burlaw” have the same
meaning.
Jehad.
A holy war of Mohammedans against Christians is so called.
Jenkin’s Ear.
One of the many stories of the ill-treatment by the Spanish Guardia
Costa of British subjects in the employment of the South Sea Company.
These stories were utilized by the war party in Parliament to force the
Government into war with Spain in 1738. War was in fact declared the
following year.
Jesuits.
A religious order founded in 1534 by Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, and
sanctioned by Paul III in 1540. They have always endeavoured to lead and
control public opinion, and to that end have taken an active part in
education and in political intrigue, as well as in missionary work. The
order was suppressed by Papal Bull in 1773, but revived in 1814.
Jerrymandering.
The manipulation of electoral divisions in such a way as to give an
undue advantage to one political party. The word is said to be rightly
Gerrymandering, and to be derived from Elbridge Gerry, Governor of
Massachusetts in 1812, who was the originator of the idea.
Jerviswood Plot.
A plot entered into by certain Scottish Presbyterian gentlemen, under
the leadership of Lord Melville, the Earl of Tarras and Baillie of
Jerviswood, to prevent the Duke of York succeeding to the throne on the
death of Charles II. The plot was discovered owing to the failure of the
Rye House Plot, and though Melville and other leaders made good their
escape, Baillie was seized and executed in 1634.
Jeu de Paume, Séance du.
The famous session of the Tennis Court, on June 22, 1789, when the
Deputies of the National Assembly, excluded from their regular place of
meeting, took an oath that they would not separate, but would continue
to meet when and where they could until they had promulgated the new
constitution.
Jeunesse Dorée.
The gilded youth, or young men of Paris, who endeavoured to bring about
the counter-revolution after the fall of Robespierre in 1794.
Jewish Disabilities Acts.
A series of Acts passed during the reign of Queen Victoria by which the
disabilities under which the Jews laboured were gradually removed. In
1845 they were admitted to office in municipalities; in 1846 they were
placed on the same footing as Protestant Dissenters in respect of their
schools, while by the alteration in the form of the Parliamentary oath
in 1858 they were enabled to sit in Parliament.
Jews’ Exchequer.
A special court established by Richard I in 1194 to hear cases in which
Jews were concerned and to supervise their contributions to the revenue.
Jingoes.
The war party in England during the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 were so
called by their political opponents. The name arose from a music-hall
song, sung by “The Great Macdermott,” the chorus of which began “We
don’t want to fight, but by Jingo if we do.” The term “Jingoism” is now
applied to aggressive Imperialism.
Jo-I.
The ultra-nationalist party in Japan in the early days of the new
régime. They were strongly opposed to the invasion of Western ideas. The
name signifies “Expel the Barbarians.”
Jockey of Norfolk.
The sobriquet of Sir John Howard, an adherent of Richard III.
John Company.
The East India Company was so called.
Joinville, Treaty of.
A secret treaty between the Guises and Philip II of Spain in 1584,
providing that the Cardinal de Bourbon should succeed Henri III, and
that no heretic should ascend the throne or hold office in France.
Philip undertook to advance 50,000 crowns monthly for the purposes of
the League, to be repaid on the accession of the Cardinal.
Joyeuse Entrée.
The ancient charter of Brabant, granted by Wenceslas of Luxemburg in the
latter part of the fourteenth century. It provided that no one should be
prosecuted except before the ordinary courts of law; that no foreigner
should hold office in the State; that no alteration should be made in
the status of the Church without the consent of the Estates, and that
any breach of the Constitution by the prince should absolve his subjects
from their allegiance. The charter was abrogated by Joseph II in 1789.
Judicature Acts, 1873 and 1875.
By these Acts a Supreme Court of Justice was created, in place of the
various courts in existence dealing with various branches of the law.
These Courts were made branches of the High Court of Justice. In the
same way the various appeal courts were brought into one general Court
of Appeal. Certain provincial jurisdictions were abolished, such as the
Courts of Pleas of the Palatine counties of Lancaster and Durham.
Probate, Divorce and Admiralty were united in one division by the latter
of the two Acts.
Judenhetze.
The anti-Jewish campaign, started in Berlin in 1880. See Anti-semitism.
July, Government of.
The reign of Louis Philippe (1830-48) is so called, as having been
inaugurated by the Revolution of July.
July Laws.
Two laws passed in July, 1883, modifying certain of the severer
provisions of the Falk Laws.
July, Revolution of.
The revolution of 1830, which overthrew the Government of Charles X and
established Louis Philippe on the throne, is so called.
July, Treaty of.
A treaty signed on July 15, 1840, by Great Britain, Russia, Austria and
Prussia, dictating terms to Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, which terms he
was given ten days to accept. He was to retain the Pashalic of Egypt for
himself and his descendants, and Acre for life, withdrawing from the
rest of Syria and the Holy Land. This treaty was confirmed in 1841 by
the Treaty of the Dardanelles.
Junkers.
The younger members of the aristocratic Conservative party in Prussia
with whom Bismarck acted at the beginning of his political life.
Junius, Letters of.
A series of letters issued anonymously from 1769 onwards, attacking the
King and the Grafton Ministry with extraordinary vigour, and full of
literary merit. The authorship of these letters remains a mystery, but
they are generally attributed to Sir Philip Francis.
Junta.
In Spain, an assembly of persons, whether legally summoned or
self-constituted, exercising legislative or administrative functions.
The Junta of 1808, which represented those portions of Spain not under
the rule of Joseph Buonaparte, is one of the best known.
Junta Apostolica.
A Junta formed in Spain in 1824, under Saez, to carry out to the full
the principles of absolutism and ecclesiastical domination. For some
time the Junta practically ruled Spain.
Junto.
The chiefs of the Whig party, and leaders of the Ministry formed in
1696. They were Somers, Russell, Halifax and Wharton.
Junto, Presbyterian.
The name given to the Sons of Liberty by the Royalist party in America
in 1765.
Jurandes.
Committees of the trade guilds in France, appointed to supervise the
operations of the members of the guild, with special reference to the
granting of apprenticeships and the payment of the necessary fees
thereupon. The regulations of these guilds were often exceedingly
oppressive.
Jury, Trial by.
The origin of the system is probably to be found in the Assize of
Clarendon in 1166, by which it was enacted that twelve men should be
appointed from each hundred to present criminals for trial by ordeal.
They were sworn to determine the value of the charge, and could commit
or release the accused. By Magna Charta, the right of every Englishman
to be tried by his peers is expressly stipulated.
Jus Magdeburgicum.
The local law of Magdeburg, a free city of Germany. It was composed
partly of Saxon custom and partly of ancient local usages, and was
adopted in many of the Slav countries.
Justice, Charter of.
A charter issued by Canning’s Government in 1828 providing for the
reorganization of the judicial system in Cape Colony, and regulating
other matters connected with the Government. It abolished the Heemraden,
and instituted courts in which all the pleadings were to be in English.
It was superseded in 1834 by an amended charter, whereby, among other
changes, ignorance of English was no longer to be held a bar to jury
service.
Justiciary.
Under the Norman kings this functionary was the President of the Curia
Regis and the king’s representative and regent during his absence from
the realm.
Justinian, Code of.
A codification of the Roman law, carried out by Tribonianus by order of
Justinian in 529.
Justiza.
The supreme judge in the kingdom of Aragon. He was appointed by the
Cortes, and was the final interpreter of the laws, even the king being
obliged to consult him in doubtful cases. He was the ultimate court of
appeal in all cases, and had himself the right to initiate prosecutions.
Jutland, Law of.
The code of law presented to a Danish National Assembly by Waldemar II
(Seir) of Denmark, and confirmed in 1241. This remained the law of the
whole of Denmark till the reign of Christian V (1670-1699).
K
Kabbeljaws.
The party of the towns, in the Netherlands, in the fourteenth century.
The word signifies “Codfish-jaws,” and the opposing party, that of the
nobles, was known as the “Hooks.”
Kaiser Kläs.
The German nickname for Napoleon.
Kalf-vel.
A document issued by Charles V curtailing the privileges of the city of
Ghent.
Kanaka Labour Traffic.
In the early eighties attention was attracted to the methods of the
“Blackbirders,” or ships engaged in supplying Kanaka labourers for the
Queensland sugar plantations. The captain of the _Hopeful_ was brought
to trial for kidnapping, and the disclosures in the case caused the
Government to appoint a commission in 1884 to investigate the whole
question. It was found that kidnapping was much more general than was
thought, and in all the instances which were brought to light the
natives were returned to their islands, and the planters compensated for
the loss of their services.
Kansas-Nebraska Act.
An Act of Congress passed in 1854 by which Kansas and Nebraska were
admitted to the Union as territories. This Act was a breach of the
Missouri Compromise, as it left it to each of the new territories to
settle the question of slavery within its borders.
Karl.
Among the Norsemen the holders of Odal or freehold land were so called.
Karmathians.
A Moslem sect, taking their name from Karmath, a disciple of Babek,
whose leading tenets were the indifference of all human actions and the
non-existence of private property. The Karmathians first appeared in
890, and it is said that a hundred battles were fought before they were
exterminated. They were at one time in possession of Mecca.
Keate Award.
The award, in 1871, of Mr. R. W. Keate, Lieutenant-Governor of Natal, on
the territorial questions pending between the South African Republic and
various native chiefs, amongst others Waterboer, Mankoroane, and
Montsiwa. It practically endorsed the native claims, and is specially
important as having enabled Great Britain at a later date to annex
Bechuanaland, thus opening a way to the centre of the continent, and
rendering possible the colonization of Rhodesia.
Kenilworth, Dictum of.
A proclamation of Henry III in 1267, after the final overthrow of Simon
de Montfort, wherein the king reaffirmed Magna Charta and restored to
their lands those of the barons who had been dispossessed, on payment of
a solatium to the then holders.
Kelly Gang.
A famous gang of bushrangers which infested the north-eastern part of
New South Wales from 1878 to 1880. Towards the end of the latter year
they were hunted down by the police. In the fight which followed the
whole gang were killed except their leader, Ned Kelly, who was captured
and hanged.
Kentish Petition.
A petition from the Grand Jury of Kent, presented to Parliament in 1701,
praying the House to abstain from the prosecution of personal vengeance
and to give its attention to the needs of the country.
Kentucky Resolutions.
A series of resolutions passed by the Kentucky Legislature in 1798,
declaring the Alien and Sedition Laws unconstitutional, and asserting
the doctrine of State Rights.
Kenyon-Slaney Clause.
A clause introduced into the Education Act of 1902, on the motion of
Colonel Kenyon-Slaney. It provides that in all voluntary schools taken
over by the new education authority the religious teaching shall be in
accordance with the provisions of the trust deed, and be under the
control of the managers. The object of the clause is to prevent a
clergyman of extreme views forcing upon a school a form of doctrinal
instruction contrary to the generally received teaching of the Church of
England.
Kerns.
Mercenary troops, partly Irish and partly Scotch, maintained by the
petty Irish chieftains, and employed in their inter-tribal wars up to
the time of Elizabeth. They were also known as “Gallowglasses.”
Ket’s Rebellion.
A rising of the peasantry against the landed gentry, led by Ket, a
tanner, in 1549. He collected some 16,000 followers in a camp near
Norwich, and established a tribunal, on which he sat, with the Mayor of
Norwich, to try obnoxious gentlemen. The rebellion was suppressed by the
Earl of Warwick, and Ket and other leaders hanged.
Keys, House of.
The Lower House of the Isle of Man legislature.
Keystone State.
A name given to the State of Pennsylvania, as being the central State of
the thirteen originally forming the Union.
Khalsa.
The Sikh Commonwealth in the Punjaub was known by this name.
Khozain.
The head of a household in the Russian Mir or village community. Before
the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 the family generally owned all
property in common, those who went to work in the towns sending a
proportion of their wages to the common stock. The Khozain was the
administrator of the general fund.
Kiel, Peace of.
A treaty between Sweden and Denmark signed in 1814, after the expulsion
of the Danes from Holstein by Bernadotte. Denmark surrendered Norway to
the Crown of Sweden, reserving, however, Greenland, Iceland and the
Faroë Islands, which had been considered appanages of the Norwegian
Crown.
Kilkenny, Convention of.
A convention of the prelates, nobles and commons of Ireland held in
1338. It presented a petition of grievances to Edward III, complaining
of the neglect by his lieutenants of the fortified places, whereby they
suffered from the raids of the Irish; of the corruption prevailing
amongst the royal officers; of their absenteeism, and of the
misrepresentation which the petitioners had suffered at their hands.
Kilkenny, Council of.
A council of twenty-four members formed in 1642 to organize the Irish
Catholics in support of the royal cause during the Civil War.
Kilkenny, Statute of.
A statute passed in 1367 by which the English colonists in Ireland were
forbidden under penalty of high treason to intermarry with the Irish, to
present an Irishman to a Church living, or to offer hospitality to an
Irish bard or minstrel.
Kilkenny, Synod of.
A synod of the Irish bishops and other Church dignitaries, held in 1642
at the commencement of the Great Rebellion, to form a provisional
government. It established the Council of Kilkenny.
Kilmainham Treaty.
A supposed agreement between Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Parnell (then a
prisoner in Kilmainham Gaol), negotiated by Mr. O’Shea in 1882, by which
Parnell undertook, if released, to use all his influence in the
suppression of agrarian crime. Both parties stoutly denied the existence
of any compact, but the matter gave rise to stormy debates in the House
of Commons, and many wild stories were current as to the terms of the
agreement.
Kimberley Riots.
A series of disturbances in 1884 due to the opposition of the employés
in the diamond mines at Kimberley to the Search Act, passed in 1882 with
the object of checking illicit diamond buying.
King of the Commons.
A sobriquet of James V of Scotland.
King Philip’s War.
The name given to a rising of the Wampanoags, an Indian tribe, in 1675,
with the object of exterminating the white settlers in New England. The
war lasted over a year, with much destruction of property, but finally
the Indians were defeated and their leader, Philip, shot.
King’s Friends.
The name given to the secret advisers of George III in his attempts to
restore the royal prerogative to its old position in the State. They
were mainly Tories, though drawn from both parties, and their leader was
the Earl of Bute.
King’s Prymer.
A book of the ritual of the Church of England, issued in 1545 by the
authority of Henry VIII, and containing the Services for the Hours. It
is the basis of all subsequent prymers, including those of Edward VI and
Elizabeth.
Kingmaker, The.
The sobriquet of Neville, Earl of Warwick (1428-71), the most prominent
figure in the Wars of the Roses.
Kinmont Willie.
The nickname of William Armstrong, the famous border raider. He was the
hero of a celebrated rescue at the hands of the Lord of Buccleugh in
1596, having been captured by the English and confined in Carlisle
Castle.
Kirke’s Lambs.
The troopers of Colonel Kirke, who was in command at Bridgwater after
the suppression of Monmouth’s rebellion. Their barbarous treatment of
their prisoners and of suspected adherents of Monmouth hardly fell
behind the judicial cruelties of Jeffreys. Their name was ironically
derived from the Lamb, their regimental badge.
Kit-Kat Club.
A club formed by certain prominent Whig politicians in 1793 to promote
the principles of the French Revolution. Walpole, Steele and Addison
were among its members.
Kitchen Cabinet.
The name given by their political opponents to the unofficial advisers
of Andrew Jackson, President of the United States from 1829 to 1837.
Among them were Amos Kendall, Isaac Hill and F. P. Blair.
Knighthood, Orders of.
_See_ Alcantara, Alexander, Annunziata, Bath, Black Eagle, Calatrava,
Dannebrog, Elephant, Garter, Golden Fleece, Holy Sepulchre,
Hospitallers, Iron Cross, Isabella, Legion of Honour, Livonian, Malta,
Montesa, Our Lady, Rhodes, St. Andrew, St. Esprit, St. Hubert, St.
Lazare, St. Patrick, Santiago, Templars, Teutonic, Thistle.
Knight’s Fee.
The extent of land the holding of which qualified for knighthood in
feudal times. The amount is uncertain, but it is thought to have been an
annual value of twenty pounds.
Knights of Labour.
A society for the protection of workmen, founded in 1869 at Philadelphia
by Uriah S. Stevens. It has become one of the most powerful labour
organizations of the world, and claims a membership of 200,000.
Knights of the Shire.
The representatives of the counties in the early Parliaments. They were
elected in the Shire Courts, which all the freeholders of the county
were entitled to attend.
Know-Nothings.
A political party formed in America in 1855. Their essential tenet was
the necessity of keeping the Government in the hands of genuine
Americans, and with this object they proposed a twenty-one years’
residence as a qualification for naturalization. The party was
short-lived, scarcely surviving the presidential election of 1856.
Kongelov.
The Royal Law, a new Danish Constitution promulgated in 1660,
proclaiming an hereditary instead of an elective monarchy. The
administration was confided to certain bureaux whose members were
appointed by the king.
Kossuthists.
The modern National party in Hungary. They take their name from the
famous patriot of the War of Independence of 1848, and his son, who is
one of the leaders of the existing party.
Kreuz Partie.
The party of the Cross, under whose influence Frederick William IV of
Prussia lay during the latter years of his reign. Their policy included
a closer union with Russia and Austria, and a tacit resistance to the
more liberal ideas of Western Europe.
Kshatriya.
The second or military caste among the Hindoos.
Ku Klux Klan.
An organization formed in the Southern States, after the American Civil
War, to coerce the coloured people and their sympathisers and prevent
them recording their votes. It became so powerful that a stringent Act,
known as the Ku Klux Act, was passed by Congress in 1871, inflicting
heavy penalties on all convicted of belonging to this and similar
associations.
Kuldja Treaty.
A treaty between Russia and China, negotiated in 1880 after the
suppression of the Mohammedan revolt in Western China, during which the
Russians had held and administered Kuldja. It provided for the retention
by Russia of the most valuable part of Kuldja, including the Tekes
Valley and the passes into Kashgaria and Yarkand. It further stipulated
that Russia should enjoy the use of an overland route to Hankow for
Russian merchants, and the free navigation of the Sungari River, which
practically opened the whole of Manchuria to Russian trade. Chang How,
who had negotiated this treaty, was disgraced, and China refused to
ratify it. In 1881, however, a second treaty was concluded, and
eventually ratified, by which Russia retroceded the whole of Kuldja, the
other stipulations of the treaty of 1880 remaining practically
unaltered.
Kulterkampf.
The crusade in Germany against the Pope and the Ultramontanes, who were
looked upon as the foes of civil as well as religious liberty. After the
issue of the Vatican Decree on Papal Infallibility many of the bishops
attempted to force the dogma upon university professors and others
holding State appointments, and their high-handed interference in this
and other ways led to the enacting of the Falk Laws. The conflict lasted
over ten years.
Kurucz.
The name given to the followers of Dózsa, Tököli and Rákóczy in the
various risings of the Hungarians against Austrian rule which they
headed. It means the wearers of the Cross, or Crusaders.
Kutchuk-Kainardji, Treaty of.
A treaty between Catherine II of Russia and the Sultan Abdul-Hamed,
signed in 1774, after the occupation by the Russians of Crim-Tartary,
Moldavia and Wallachia. Turkey surrendered the Crimea, Azov and
Taganrog, and by the seventh clause of the treaty undertook to protect
the Christian religion and its churches, and to permit the Russian
Minister to make at all times representations on behalf of the new
church in Constantinople, such representations to be taken into
consideration as proceeding from a sincerely friendly Power. In this
clause lay the germ of the Crimean War, for Russia interpreted it as
giving her the right to interfere for the protection of all Christians
of the Greek Church in the Turkish Empire.
L
La Granja, Revolution of.
The revolution by which Queen Christina of Spain was compelled in 1836
to restore the constitution of 1812 which had been abrogated by
Ferdinand.
Labancz.
The name given to their opponents by the Hungarians under Tököli and
Rákóczy in 1678 and 1704 respectively. It signifies the “foot people,”
the Magyars being almost all mounted men.
Labour, American Federation of.
A labour organization founded at Columbus, Ohio, in 1886, and now
claiming to have over 600,000 members.
Labourers, Statute of.
A statute passed in the reign of Edward III, after the Black Death in
1348. This pestilence had made labour scarce, and labourers were
demanding exorbitant wages. It was enacted that all labourers should be
compelled to serve their former masters and for the same wage that they
had received before the plague.
Lackland.
The nickname of King John, given him because he received no fiefs from
his father.
Lady of the Mercians.
Æthelfled, daughter of Alfred the Great, was so called.
Lagthing.
_See_ Storthing.
Lahore, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1846, at the end of the first Sikh War, by which
Dhulip Singh was recognized as Rajah of the Punjaub. The Sikhs
surrendered the Doab to the British.
Laibach, Congress of.
A congress of the European Powers held in 1821, at which armed
intervention to suppress the Republican risings in Naples and Piedmont
was decided upon.
Laissez Faire.
A phrase used by a French merchant to Colbert, who asked him in what way
he could aid trade. The meaning of the reply is “Leave us alone,” and
the phrase has become the watchword of the freetraders and those who
oppose Government interference.
Lake State.
The popular name of the State of Michigan, U.S.A. It is so called
because it borders on Lakes Michigan, Huron, Erie and Superior.
Lambeth Articles.
A series of nine articles, embodying the Calvinistic doctrine, drawn up
in 1595 by Archbishop Whitgift. They were not, however, approved by the
Queen, and were consequently never enforced.
Lambeth, Treaty of.
A treaty between Henry III and Louis the Dauphin, signed in 1217, after
the Fair of Lincoln. It provided for the immediate departure of Louis
and his troops for France, an interchange of prisoners, and a general
amnesty.
Lancaster, County Palatine of.
Lancaster was created a Palatine County by Edward III in 1351, and
granted by him to John of Gaunt. It became Crown property on the
accession of Henry IV, and has so remained. The Judicature Act of 1873,
however, withdrew all the existing judicial privileges excepting those
of the Chancery Court. The Chancellor of the Duchy is a member of the
Government, and is frequently in the Cabinet.
Land Act, 1864.
An Act passed by the Legislature of New South Wales, by which half the
land in the occupation of the squatters was reserved to them on a
twenty-one years’ tenure and the remaining half thrown open to selection
by _bonâ fide_ settlers.
Land Commission.
A Commission established by the Irish Land Act of 1881. It was empowered
to appoint sub-commissioners to sit as land courts for the purpose of
fixing fair rents.
Land Convention.
An association formed in Victoria in 1857 to oppose the Haines Land Bill
and advocate Free Selection. Its leaders were Wilson Gray and Sir George
Stephen.
Land League.
An Irish organization, founded by Michael Davitt in 1879, with the
object of driving out the landlords and establishing a peasant
proprietary in Ireland. The agrarian outrages in which its members were
implicated led to its being proclaimed an illegal association, and it
was suppressed in 1881.
Landamman.
The chief magistrate in the Forest Cantons of Switzerland, elected by
the Landsgemeinde.
Landdrost.
A local magistrate in Dutch South Africa. The first official bearing
this title was appointed to Stellenbosch in 1685. In addition to his
judicial duties, he had the superintendence of the Dutch East India
Company’s farms and outlying stations. He also presided over the
Heemraden. The office was abolished in British South Africa in 1832, but
in the independent Dutch States it has existed up to the present time
(1903).
Landeyda.
The raven banner of the Danes. The word means “Desolation of the
Country.”
Landfriede.
In mediaeval Germany the peace of the land, or freedom from private war,
was so called. Many edicts were issued to secure it, but it was rarely
attained.
Land-fyrd.
The general levy of fighting men in Anglo-Saxon times. The origin of the
Militia.
Landrecht.
The codification of Prussian law, otherwise known as the Code Frédéric,
published in 1751 under the auspices of Frederick the Great.
Landrica.
In Saxon times, a wealthy landowner, who acted as the King’s
representative within the limits of his district, and had jurisdiction
over the smaller freeholders. His position was in fact somewhat similar
to that of a feudal baron.
Landsgemeinde.
The ancient popular assembly in the Forest Cantons of Switzerland. Every
male above the age of sixteen had access to it. It elected the chief
magistrate (Landamman), levied taxes, and exercised judicial functions.
Landstag.
The Prussian Parliament.
Landsturm.
The final reserve of the German and Austrian armies. It can only be
called out in times of emergency.
Landsthing.
_See_ Rigsdag.
Landtmanna Party.
The country party in the Swedish Parliament. Originally it was composed
almost entirely of landowners, but latterly the peasants have become the
more powerful section of it.
Landwehr.
The first reserve of the German and Austrian armies.
Langue d’Oc.
In old France the language of the southern provinces, from which the
province of Languedoc took its name. In its modern form of Provencal it
is little better than a _patois_, though there has been some attempt to
revive it as a literary language during the nineteenth century.
Langue d’Oïl.
The language of the northern provinces of France, and the parent of
modern French. It contains a much larger admixture of Teutonic roots
than the Langue d’Oc, though its grammatical form is Latin.
Last Battle.
The Battle of Culloden, fought in 1746, is so called as being the last
battle fought on British soil.
Last of the Barons.
A sobriquet of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (1428-1471).
Last of the Knights.
A nickname of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany (1493-1519).
Last of the Stuarts.
Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, the last male descendant of the Stuart
Kings, was so called. He died in 1807.
Last of the Tribunes.
Colas de Rienzi, who was chosen tribune by the citizens of Rome in 1347,
was so called. He was also known as the “Last of the Romans.”
Lanterne, La.
The Extremists or Robespierre Section of the Mountain, in the French
Convention. Their denunciation by Danton and Camille Desmoulins led to
the condemnation and execution of the Dantonists in April 1794.
Lateran Council, First.
A Council summoned by Calixtus II in 1123. It is notable as being the
first Œcumenical Council whose decrees were issued in the name of the
Pope, and not in that of the Council.
Lateran Council, Second.
An Œcumenical Council summoned by Innocent II in 1139, at which the
marriage of the priesthood was forbidden.
Lateran Council, Fourth.
A Council summoned to meet in Rome by Innocent III, in 1215, to consider
the most effectual means of suppressing heresy. It declared that any
prince protecting heretics or permitting the dissemination of heretical
doctrines in his dominions should be excommunicated. It further
established the Inquisition, to deal with heretics individually.
Lateran Council, Fifth.
An Œcumenical Council summoned by Julius II, in 1512, at which the acts
of the Council of Pisa were condemned.
Latin Union.
A confederation, for monetary purposes, of France, Italy, Switzerland
and Belgium, formed in 1865. It provided for the establishment of a
uniform and interchangeable coinage, on a bimetallic basis, for the
countries concerned. Greece joined the union in 1868. Belgium left it in
1885.
Latitudinarians.
A party in the English Church in the seventeenth century, who stood
midway between the extreme Episcopal and the Puritan parties. It was the
prototype of the modern Broad Church.
Latter Day Saints.
The proper name of the sect generally known as Mormons.
Lautero, Sociedad de.
A secret society formed in Spain at the beginning of the nineteenth
century, to aid the movement of the Spanish-American colonies in the
direction of independence.
Lawburrows, Writ of.
A writ, in Scottish law, by which any person who made oath that he went
in fear of violence from his neighbour, could have him bound over to
keep the peace. This legal form was used in 1678 against the gentry of
the West, who had refused to enter into a bond binding themselves and
all their dependents to abstain from active sympathy with the
Covenanters.
Law of Flanders.
A law of Charles the Good, Earl of Flanders, decreeing that any one who
married a serf became a serf.
Law’s Bubble.
_See_ Mississippi Scheme.
Lay Impropriator.
A layman in receipt of tithes, an ecclesiastical form of revenue. The
_lay impropriator_ originated in grants of lands made by abbeys and
other Church communities to powerful laymen, in exchange for their
protection.
League.
The League, also called the Catholic League, was formed by the Guises in
1577, ostensibly to promote the ascendency of Catholicism, and to oppose
the concessions granted to the Reformed Faith by Henri II of France.
Secretly, however, it contemplated the deposition of the Valois dynasty,
and the placing of a Guise on the throne. (_See_ Joinville, Treaty of.)
League above the Lake.
A league of the Cantons of St. Gall and Appenzell with the towns of the
Rheinthal, formed in 1405. It was broken up in 1408, Appenzell being
defeated at Bregenz by the burghers of Constance and the Suabian nobles.
Leagues, Associations, etc.
See Afrikander, Agrarian, Albanian, Anti-Corn Law, Anti-Semitism, Armed
Neutrality, Association, Australasian, Ballarat, Bar, Barons, British
Empire, Brunnen, Burgfrieden, Cambray, Catholic, Centro-Americana,
Chinandega, Clementine, Cognac, Coloured, Confederate, Eight Cantons,
Equador, Frankfort, Fürstenbund, Germanada, Germanic, Golden,
Gotteshausbund, Grey, Hanseatic, Hermandad, Holy, Irish National, Land,
Liberal, Lombard, Nationalverein, Perpetual, Pilsen, Poor Conrad,
Presburg, Protestant, Reformverein, Rense, Rhenish, Rhine, Rome,
Sandomierz, Santa Junta, Schmalkald, Seven Cantons, Six Cities,
Sonderbund, Suabian, Targowitz, Ten Jurisdictions, Thirteen Cantons,
Torgau, Triumvirate, Tuscany, United Irish, Utrecht, Venice, White,
Würtzburg.
Leap in the Dark.
This phrase was applied to Disraeli’s Reform Bill of 1867 by Lord
Cranbourne, and was afterwards adopted by Lord Derby as an accurate
description of the course the Government was taking.
Learned Fool.
James I of England was called by Sully the most learned fool in
Christendom.
Lebanon Massacres.
An outbreak between the Druses and the Maronites having occurred in
1860, the Turkish authorities compelled the latter to lay down their
arms, under promise of protection. This they failed to afford, and the
Druses attacked the Maronite villages, and massacred hundreds. Later in
the year, the fanatical anti-Christian spirit spread to Damascus, and
the Christian quarter of the town was sacked, over two thousand
Christians perishing at the hands of the Moslems, without any attempt at
interference on the part of the Turkish Governor. A European Convention
was held, and France and England were entrusted by the Powers with the
task of restoring order in the disturbed districts. This they
accomplished, and forced upon the Sultan the appointment of a Christian
Governor in the Lebanon.
Legacy of Iyeyasu.
A document left by the Shôgun Iyeyasu, founder of the Tokugawa dynasty
of Shôguns, in 1598, as a guide to his successors in the conduct of
affairs.
Legations.
The provinces of Bologna, Ferrara and Romagna, over which the Popes
claimed sovereign rights. They were surrendered to France by the Treaty
of Tolentino in 1797.
Legion Memorial.
A memorial drawn up by Defoe, in support of the Kentish Petition in
1701.
Legion of Despair.
An armed band of Frisian peasants, some thousands in number, who rose in
revolt in 1580, being exasperated beyond endurance by the license of the
States’ soldiery. Though well-drilled and led, they were unable to stand
against the veterans of the Count of Hohenlohe, by whom they were
defeated and dispersed.
Legion of Honour.
The only existing French order of knighthood, instituted by Napoleon,
when First Consul, in 1802. Though military in form, it is open to
civilians.
Legitimists.
The supporters of the claims of the Bourbon branch of the Royal House of
France from 1814 to 1883. On the death of the Comte de Chambord without
issue in the latter year, they transferred their allegiance to the
Orleans branch, with the exception of a small section, known as the
Blancs d’Espagne, who support the Spanish Bourbons as the rightful
occupiers of the throne of France.
Léman, République du.
The name assumed by the State of Vaud when she revolted from the Canton
of Berne in 1798.
Lesser Bull, The.
A Bull, the authenticity of which is somewhat doubtful, issued by
Boniface VIII against Philip IV of France, shortly before the issue of
the Bull “Ausculta Fili.” It is couched in somewhat milder terms than
the latter, but is of similar tenour.
Lessive du Panama.
_See_ Panama Scandal.
Letters of Marque.
Commissions granted by a belligerent to private individuals, authorizing
them to arm ships for the purpose of capturing merchant vessels flying
the enemy’s flag. This right was abolished by the Treaty of Paris in
1856.
Letters of the Sepulchre.
The laws and ordinances of Godefroi de Bouillon, King of Jerusalem, were
so called.
Lettres de Cachet.
Warrants of arrest, issued by the French Kings, or their Ministers,
under which persons obnoxious to the Court could be imprisoned
indefinitely without being brought to trial.
Levellers (England).
Originally a religious sect, but later a political organization under
the Commonwealth. They held extreme communistic views, and in 1649 their
propagandism in the ranks of the army led to numerous mutinies. They
were, however, ruthlessly suppressed by Cromwell, and after the loss of
their leaders gave little further trouble.
Levellers (Ireland).
The name given to agrarian bands, first formed in Limerick in 1761, who
tore down the fences with which the commons had been enclosed. They were
afterwards known as Whiteboys, from the white shirts they wore over
their other garments.
Lewes, Mise of.
An agreement between Henry III and Simon de Montfort, as leader of the
Barons, after the defeat of the King at Lewes in 1264, by which the
questions in dispute between the King and the Barons were to be
submitted to the arbitration of a court composed of two Frenchmen and
one Englishman.
Libel Act.
An Act passed in 1791, transferring from the judge to the jury the duty
of deciding whether a statement was libellous or not.
Liberal League.
A league formed in 1902, composed of Liberals who follow Lord Rosebery
in his attitude with regard to the Boer War, and on Imperial questions
generally.
Liberal Republicans.
A section of the Republican party in the United States, who favoured
more tolerant treatment of the Southern States, and opposed the
re-election of General Grant in 1872. They nominated Horace Greeley for
President, but were disastrously defeated at the polls, and ceased
thereupon to exercise any political influence.
Liberal Unionists.
The section of the Liberal party who seceded from Mr. Gladstone on the
introduction of the Home Rule Bill in 1886. They have since acted with
the Conservatives on most questions, and in 1895 their leaders accepted
office under a Conservative Prime Minister.
Liberator, The.
Daniel O’Connell was so called.
Libertador, El.
Simon Bolivar, the Liberator, was so called. He headed the revolt of the
Spanish-American colonies which broke out in 1810, taking the field in
1813. After successively freeing New Granada and Venezuela, he finally
drove the Spaniards from Peru, Callao, the last fortress in their hands
falling in January 1826.
Libertins (France).
A sect of free-thinkers and hedonists in France, circ. 1730.
Libertins (Switzerland).
The party who opposed the extreme stringency of the Calvinistic doctrine
in Geneva, in 1541. They were severely handled by the Consistorium.
Liberty, Apostle of.
The nickname of Henry Clay, the American statesman, who ardently
supported the South American States in their struggle for independence
in 1820.
Liberum Veto.
A provision in the ancient Polish constitution, giving every member of
the Diet the right of vetoing a proposition under discussion. In other
words, complete unanimity was necessary to effect any legislation
whatever.
Libro de Tasas.
A code of laws, based on the ancient system of the Incas, prepared by
Francisco de Toledo, Viceroy of Peru from 1569 to 1580. This code
determined the principles on which Peru was ruled by subsequent
viceroys.
Licensing Act, 1902.
An Act to amend the licensing laws, passed in 1902. Its most important
provisions are those dealing with habitual drunkards, who after
successive convictions are placed on a black list, which prevents their
obtaining any alcoholic liquor for three years, and those compelling the
registration of all clubs where alcohol is sold, and their subjection to
police supervision.
Ligurian Republic.
A republic, with Genoa as its capital, established by Napoleon in 1797.
It was made a French Department in 1802.
Likin.
A system of inland duties, levied at various points on the waterways and
trade routes of China, greatly hampering the inland trade. The duties
are farmed out to the Mandarins, who make large incomes out of their
collection. By the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1902, these duties are to
be abolished, subject to the consent of the other Powers having
commercial treaties with China.
Limerick, Pacification of.
The terms accorded to the Irish by William III after the second siege of
Limerick in 1691. To all Irish officers and soldiers who so desired,
permission was given to withdraw to France, while the others were
amnestied and allowed to return to their homes. To all other Catholics
William restored the privileges accorded them by Charles II, and granted
a complete amnesty, on condition of their taking the oath of allegiance.
Lincoln, Fair of.
The defeat of the revolted Barons and the forces of Louis, the Dauphin
of France, by Pembroke, in the streets of Lincoln in 1216.
Lincolnshire Insurrection.
A rising fomented by the priests in 1536, following closely upon the
dissolution of the monasteries. It was entirely a movement of the
peasants, and had no countenance from the gentry. It was easily
suppressed.
Lion of Sweden.
Johan Gustafsson Banér, the Swedish Field-Marshal (1595-1641), was so
called.
Lion of the North.
The sobriquet of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1611-32).
Lion Rouge, Le.
Marshal Ney was so called from his red hair.
Lion’s Mouth.
_See_ Bocca di Leone.
Liquidation, Law of.
A law passed in Egypt in 1881, on the recommendation of the
Commissioners of England, France, Italy, Germany and Austria, settling
the conditions on which the debts due by the State on December 31, 1880,
were to be regulated, and providing for the future apportionment of the
revenue to the service of particular debts, and to general purposes.
Lit de Justice.
A royal sitting of the States-General of France, when the King attended
to enforce by edict an ordinance or law to which the States had refused
their consent.
Literati.
In China those who have passed the public examinations in literature,
qualifying them for official positions under the State.
Lithsmen.
A guild of shipowners and merchants in London, which was in existence in
the time of the Danish Kings.
Little Gentleman in Velvet.
A favourite Jacobite toast in the reign of Queen Anne. The allusion is
to the death of William III, which was accelerated by an accident caused
by his horse stumbling over a molehill.
Little Parliament.
_See_ Barebone’s Parliament.
Little Rhody.
The popular name of the State of Rhode Island, U.S.A., the smallest
State in the Union.
Live Oak State.
A popular name for the State of Florida, U.S.A.
Liveries, Statute of.
A statute passed in 1461, in the reign of Edward IV, prohibiting the
granting of liveries and the maintenance of retainers. It confirmed
similar enactments of Edward I and Richard II.
Livonian Knights.
An order of chivalry, founded at Riga in 1201, by Albert of Buxhœwden,
Bishop of Riga. Their statutes were similar to those of the Templars,
and their special object was to spread Christianity among the Livonians
and neighbouring tribes. In 1237 a section of the Teutonic knights of
Lithuania was merged into the Livonian order. The order was dissolved in
the sixteenth century during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the Grand
Master ceding Livonia to Poland.