North German Confederation.
A confederation of twenty-two States north of the Maine, formed in 1867,
after the signing of the Treaty of Prague, under the perpetual
presidency of Prussia. Two assemblies were formed, one, the Reichstag,
being representative of the people, the other, the Bundesrath, being
composed of delegates from the Governments of the twenty-two States.
Northampton, Treaty of.
A treaty between England and Scotland, signed in 1328, by which Robert
Bruce was acknowledged as King of Scotland, and the independence of
Scotland was recognized, Edward III renouncing his suzerainty. Bruce
agreed to pay compensation for damage in the North of England, and to
reinstate the Scottish lords who had been dispossessed on account of
their supporting Edward.
Nottingham, Peace of.
A treaty signed between Æthelred and the Northmen in 868, by which
Mercia was saved from their depredations.
Noyades.
The Vendean refugees who had fled to Nantes in 1793 were, by order of
Carrier, crowded into boats, which were towed out into the middle of the
river and sunk. This wholesale murder is known as “The Noyades.”
Nuevas Ordenanzas.
A code of laws designed to ameliorate the condition of the Indians in
the Spanish Colonies, promulgated at Madrid in 1543. They were largely
due to the efforts of Las Casas.
Nullifiers.
The supporters of State Rights in the Southern States were thus called,
from the action of South Carolina, in 1832, in declaring
unconstitutional and “nullifying” an Act of Congress imposing import
duties on textile fabrics.
Number Forty-five.
The famous number of the _North Briton_, which appeared on April 23,
1763, and attacked the King’s Speech at the close of the previous
session. It led to the expulsion of John Wilkes from the House of
Commons.
Nun of Kent.
Elizabeth Barton, a woman of humble birth, who claimed to have the gift
of prophecy, and formed a rallying point for the discontented Catholics
after the divorce of Catherine by Henry VIII. She was in correspondence
with Catherine and with the Emperor, and although no treasonable
practices could be proved against her, she was an undoubted danger to
the State. She was arrested and executed in 1534.
Nutmeg State.
A name given derisively to the State of Connecticut in allusion to their
supposed large trade in wooden nutmegs.
Nystad, Treaty of.
A treaty between Russia and Sweden, signed in 1721, at the conclusion of
the prolonged war which had been commenced in 1700. Peter the Great
secured for Russia the provinces, of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Carelia,
and part of Finland.
O
O.P. Riots.
A series of riots which disturbed London in 1809, owing to Kemble having
raised the prices at Covent Garden Theatre. The mob demanded the “old
prices.” Clifford, a barrister, was charged with inciting to riot by
appearing in the theatre with the letters “O.P.” in his hat, but was
acquitted, whereupon Kemble gave way.
Oakboys.
An agrarian society in Ulster in 1763. It was formed to protest against
the action of the Grand Juries, who had decided upon the construction of
certain roads which the peasantry maintained were to be made solely in
the interests of the great landowners.
Oath of Allegiance.
A formula drawn up after Gunpowder Plot in 1606, which asserted the
supremacy of the Sovereign in ecclesiastical matters, and denied the
power of the Pope to relieve his subjects from their allegiance, or to
depose him.
Oath of Strasburg.
The oath of allegiance taken by Charles and Louis, the sons of Louis le
Débonnaire, to their brother Lothair, the Emperor, after the battle of
Fontenay in 841.
Oberstuhlherr.
The chief of the Westphalian Vehmgericht, as representative of the
Emperor. The post was usually filled by the Archbishop of Cologne.
Oblivion and Indemnity, Act of.
A proclamation under the Great Seal in 1603, by which James I promised a
complete amnesty to all those who had taken part in the rebellions in
Ireland during the reign of his predecessor.
Occasional Conformity Bill.
A bill introduced into Parliament in 1703 to render illegal the practice
of nonconformists receiving the sacrament according to the rites of the
Church of England, in order to qualify for municipal office, and then
returning to their own form of worship. The bill entailed heavy
penalties on all those who held office under these conditions. The bill
failed to pass, was reintroduced in the following session, and was again
thrown out, while a further attempt to pass it in 1704 was defeated by
the Lords. It at last became law in 1711.
O’Connell’s Tail.
The nickname given to the following of Daniel O’Connell in the House of
Commons, after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832.
October Club.
A club composed of Tories and Jacobites, formed in 1710. Among its
members were Bolingbroke and his followers.
Odal.
A system of land tenure among the Norsemen, by which property in the
land was absolute. It was probably land allotted to the warrior after
conquest, to be held by him and his descendants, though according to the
Gulathing’s law, it could not become Odal until it had been held for
three generations. The udallers of Orkney hold under this tenure.
Odalsthing.
_See_ Storthing.
Œcumenical Councils.
The General Councils of the Church accepted by ecclesiastical
authorities as genuinely Œcumenical are twenty-one in number, namely:
two of Nicæa, four of Constantinople, Ephesus, Chalcedon, five Lateran
Councils, two of Lyons, Vienna, Constance, Basle, Florence, Trent and
the Vatican.
Œil de Bœuf.
The name given to the antechamber in the Palace of Versailles. It was so
called from two bull’s-eye windows near the ceiling.
Ohio Company.
A company of Virginian settlers who colonised the Ohio Valley under a
charter from the British Government in 1749.
Old Abe.
A nickname of President Abraham Lincoln.
Old Catholics.
A section of the Roman Catholics in Germany who, under the leadership of
Dr. Döllinger, rejected the dogma of Papal Infallibility imposed by the
Vatican Council in 1870.
Old Czechs.
The Conservative section of the Czech or National party in Bohemia.
Old Dominion.
A name given to the State of Virginia, as the original English Colony in
America.
Old Glorious.
A sobriquet of William III of England.
Old Hickory.
Andrew Jackson, President of the United States from 1829 to 1837, was so
called on account of his obstinacy of character.
Old Hunkers.
The Conservative wing of the Democratic party in New York, 1824-1848.
Old Line State.
The State of Maryland is so called with reference to the Mason and Dixon
Line, which divides it from Pennsylvania.
Old Man of the Mountain.
_See_ Assassins.
Old Morality.
A nickname of Mr. W. H. Smith, leader of the House of Commons from 1887
1891.
Old Noll.
A nickname of Oliver Cromwell.
Old Pretender.
James Edward, son of James II, was so called by the adherents of the
Hanoverian succession.
Old Rough and Ready.
General Zachary Taylor, President of the United States in 1849, was so
called by his soldiers during the Mexican war.
Old Rowley.
A nickname of Charles II.
Old Style.
The old or Julian Calendar, superseded in England by the Gregorian in
1751, but still in use in Russia.
Oleron, Laws of.
A code of commercial and maritime laws founded on the Consolato del
Mare, issued in the reign of Louis IX of France.
Olive Branch Petition.
An appeal to the King by the Second American Congress, 1775, expressing
a desire for reconciliation, but offering no concessions. The King,
however, refused to receive it, on the ground that it was issued by an
unauthorized assembly.
Olmütz, Convention of.
Also called the Humiliation of Olmütz. A convention signed in 1850
between Prussia and Austria, by which the former Power renounced all her
projects of union, and recognized the restoration of the old Germanic
Diet, under the presidency of Austria.
Olney Doctrine.
An extension of the Monroe Doctrine put forward by Mr. Olney, President
Cleveland’s Secretary of State, in a despatch on the Venezuela boundary
question in July, 1895. He claimed that Great Britain had no right to
interfere on the American Continent, and that, if force was necessary,
British Guiana must rely on her own resources, without calling in aid
from Great Britain. He further maintained that the United States had a
right to insist upon all claims concerning questions of territory being
submitted to arbitration unreservedly, and was justified in taking steps
to satisfy herself that no territory had been or was being unwarrantably
annexed. Lord Salisbury absolutely repudiated this doctrine, and refused
in any sense to accept it as binding on Great Britain.
Omladina.
A secret society having its headquarters in Servia, whose object is the
establishment of a Pan-Slavic confederation on a republican basis. It
has from time to time caused Austria some trouble in Bohemia.
Open Door.
The declared English policy in China, as opposed to the policy of
“Spheres of Influence.” It is defined in the Anglo-German agreement of
1900 as the free access, under equal conditions, of all nations to the
ports, rivers and littorals of China.
Opium Commission.
A commission appointed in 1893 to inquire into the opium question in
India. The commission reported in 1895, eight out of nine members
signing the report, to the effect that the use of opium in India was
strictly moderate, that native opinion made no demand for restriction,
that any interference with the growing of opium in the native states
would be unjustifiable, and that the Government of China was perfectly
satisfied with the existing arrangements as to the opium trade. There
was, therefore, in the opinion of the commissioners, absolutely no
ground for legislative interference.
Opium War.
The war with China in 1840 is so called, because it arose out of the
action of the Chinese authorities, who in their efforts to stop opium
smuggling, insisted on the forfeiture of the stocks of opium in the
hands of British merchants in China. It resulted in the cession to Great
Britain in perpetuity of Hong Kong, and the opening of Canton, Amoy,
Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai as treaty ports.
Opportunists.
A school, rather than a party, in French politics who, unlike the
Doctrinaires, do not seek to enforce their views in season and out of
season, but allow due weight to considerations of expediency. Among them
may be named Gambetta and Jules Ferry.
Orange Peel.
A nickname given to Sir Robert Peel, when Chief Secretary for Ireland in
1812-18, on account of the strong anti-Catholic bias he is considered
to have displayed.
Orangemen.
A society of the Protestants of Ulster, founded in 1790, originally in
opposition to the Catholic Defenders. It has remained, however, a strong
and important body in the north of Ireland, firmly attached to the
Union, and bitterly anti-Catholic.
Ordainers, Lords.
A commission of twenty-one persons, to whom the Government of England
was confided for a period of eighteen months (1309-1310) during the
reign of Edward II. Their task was to propound a scheme for the reform
of the Government.
Ordeal, Trial by.
This is of Norse origin, and was practised in England in Anglo-Saxon and
early Norman times. The ordeal was of various kinds, one of the most
severe consisting in the accused walking barefoot and blindfold over
red-hot ploughshares. If within a given period the burns so caused were
not healed he was adjudged guilty. The ordeal was forbidden by the
Fourth Lateran Council in 1215.
Orders in Council, 1807.
England’s reply to Napoleon’s Berlin Decree, establishing the
Continental Blockade, was the issue of a series of Orders in Council.
They forbade vessels to trade between any ports in France or the
territories of the allies, granted the right of reprisals against
Tuscany, Naples, Dalmatia and the Ionian Islands, declared a blockade
against all ports from which the English flag was excluded, and finally
declared the sale of ships by a belligerent to a neutral illegal. These
orders had a very serious effect upon the American carrying trade, and
the irritation caused thereby was one of the causes of the outbreak of
war in 1812.
Ordinance of 1784.
An Act providing for the Government of the North-West Territory, passed
by the United States Congress in 1784.
Ordinance of 1787.
An Act of Congress making further provision for the government of the
North-West Territory, and decreeing freedom from slavery and religious
toleration.
Ordinances.
The articles of reform prepared by the Lords Ordainers in the reign of
Edward II and agreed to by the King and Parliament in 1311. They
provided that no war should be undertaken without the consent of
Parliament, that all customs duties imposed since the death of Edward I
should be removed; that the great officers of state should be nominated
with the consent of Parliament; that Parliament should meet annually,
and that the King’s undesirable companions should be removed and his
household reformed. Piers Gaveston in particular being banished from the
kingdom.
Ordonnance de Mai.
An edict issued in May, 1413, by Charles VI of France, reforming the
finances and abolishing numerous sinecures about the Court.
Ordonnances de Juillet.
The decrees issued by Charles X on July 24, 1830. The first suspended
the liberty of the Press, the second dissolved the Chamber of Deputies,
and the third ordained that the future Chamber should consist only of
Deputies from the Departments. A revolutionary outbreak, fomented by the
journalists, followed immediately on the promulgation of these
ordinances, and Charles fled from Paris, and abdicated on August 3.
Oregon Treaty.
A treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed in 1846,
defining the frontier between Oregon and British Columbia. It involved
the settlement of the claim to Vancouver Island in favour of Great
Britain.
Organic Statute.
A Russian ukase, issued in 1832, withdrawing constitutional government
from Poland.
Organizer of Victory.
Lazare Nicolas Carnot, the revolutionary leader, was so called during
the wars of the French Revolution.
Oriflamme.
The ancient standard of France: a crimson flag attached to a gilded
lance.
Orleanists.
The party among the French Royalists who supported the claims of the
Orleans Branch of the French Royal Family to the throne of France. On
the death of the last of the French Bourbons in 1883 the party was
augmented by the adhesion of the majority of the Legitimists.
Orléans, Edict of.
An edict issued in 1561 by the Chancellor, de l’Hôpital, proclaiming
certain reforms in the Church and the Justiciary. In the former category
were included the abolition of annates and of the sale of benefices, and
in the latter the abolition of all extraordinary Courts of Justice. It
further authorized the Government to take possession of the surplus
income of all religious communities, and to apply the sum thus obtained
to educational purposes.
Ormée.
The name given to the insurrectionary government established at Bordeaux
in 1652. It is derived from the fact of the leaders of the movement
holding their meetings under a large elm near the Fort du Ha.
Orphan of the Temple.
Marie Thérèse, Duchess of Angouléme, the daughter of Louis XVI, was so
called in allusion to her three years’ imprisonment in the Temple in
Paris.
Orsini Bombs.
A conspiracy to murder Napoleon III by blowing up his carriage as he was
on his way to the opera in 1858. The Emperor escaped unhurt, but ten
persons were killed and 158 injured by the explosion of the bombs.
Orsini, who was captured and executed, had been a refugee in London,
where the plot was hatched, a fact which led to an intensely hostile
feeling towards England on the part of the French.
Ostend Manifesto.
The outcome of a conference at Ostend in 1854 between Messrs. Buchanan,
Mason and Soulé, the representatives of the United States at the Courts
of Great Britain, France and Spain respectively. They were asked to
advise on the Cuban question, and advised their Government that the
proper course was purchase, or if Spain refused to sell, that the United
States were fully justified in using force if they felt themselves
sufficiently powerful.
Otokodaté.
In old Japan a friendly association of the Chônin, or wardsmen of the
large towns. They were very particular as to the character of their
members, their aim being mutual assistance against oppression and
wrong-doing of every kind, while among themselves they were a sort of
benefit society, aiding those of their members who through misfortune
were in need of assistance.
Ottawa Conference.
A conference of delegates from the British self-governing colonies, held
at Ottawa in 1894. The conference agreed to resolutions asking for
Imperial legislation enabling the Colonies to enter into treaties of
reciprocity with each other, and the denunciation of existing foreign
treaties which prevented this. The delegates further pronounced in
favour of preferential customs arrangements between the Mother Country
and the Colonies, of a line of fast steamers between Canada and
Australia, and of an “All Red” cable to Australia.
Oude Proclamation.
A proclamation issued by Lord Canning after the fall of Lucknow in 1858,
confiscating all proprietary rights to land in Oude, with the exception
of the estates of seven unimportant proprietors. All others must throw
themselves on the mercy of the British Government, and clemency would be
extended to them, if they had not been concerned in the murder of
Englishmen. This proclamation was considered by Lord Ellenborough unduly
severe, and a controversy arose which nearly led to Lord Canning’s
resignation.
Our Lady of Mercy, Order of.
A Spanish Order of Knighthood, instituted in 1218 by James I of Aragon.
Its special mission was to work for the deliverance of captives in the
hands of the Moors.
Outlawry.
Among the Norsemen certain crimes, such as the violation of a temple, or
secret or unprovoked murder, could not be atoned for by “weregild,” and
were punished by confiscation of all property and loss of all rights,
the criminal becoming an outlaw. A man was also outlawed if he or his
family were unable to pay “weregild.”
Overton’s Plot.
An abortive conspiracy to overthrow the Commonwealth and murder
Cromwell, Lambert and other leading men, in 1655. It was headed by
Major-General Overton, one of the most successful of the Parliamentary
generals.
Oxford Movement.
A movement, designed to bring the Church of England nearer to the Church
of Rome, which took its rise at Oxford in 1841. Its leaders were Keble,
Pusey and Newman, and their views were in the first instance published
to the world in a series of papers called “Tracts for the Times,” whence
it is also known as the Tractarian Movement. Its followers were
generally called Puseyites by their opponents.
Oxford’s Assault.
The attempted assassination of Queen Victoria by Edward Oxford in 1840
is so called. He fired twice at the Queen, but missed. At his trial he
was found to be insane, and was incarcerated in Bethlem Hospital, and
afterwards in Broadmoor.
Oyer and Terminer.
A commission specially nominated to hear and determine specific cases,
especially of high treason, in England. This legal form was extended to
Scotland in 1709, after the abortive trial of the Stirlingshire
Jacobites under the ordinary Scotch procedure in 1708.
P
Pacific, War of the.
The war between Chile on the one side and Peru and Bolivia on he other
in 1879-83 is so called.
Pacta Conventa.
The agreement entered into between the nobles and candidates for the
throne at the election of the Polish kings. The terms agreed upon at the
election of Henry in 1573 included the following: Henry undertook not to
influence the diet in the choice of his successor, not to declare war,
to marry or to divorce without their consent, not to impose taxes nor to
appoint ambassadors. These terms were known as the Articles of Henry,
and similar disabilities were imposed upon subsequent kings of Poland.
Pacte de Famine.
_See_ Malisset.
Pahlen’s Conspiracy.
A conspiracy of Count Pahlen, Governor of St. Petersburg, in 1801, to
dethrone Paul I. The Czarewitch gave his countenance to the plot, with
the stipulation that no bodily harm should befall his father. Paul was
nevertheless murdered by Pahlen and his accomplices.
Paix de Monsieur.
A treaty between Catherine de’ Medici and the Huguenots in 1576, whereby
the Huguenots were allowed the exercise of their religion in certain
towns which they held. Certain appanages were granted to their leaders,
Condé, Henry of Navarre and others.
Paix des Dames.
The Peace of Cambray, so called because it was negotiated by Louise of
Savoy, mother of Francis I, and Margaret, aunt of Charles V.
Paix Fourrée.
The name of the Patched-up Peace is given to the Peace between Jean
Sans Peur, Duke of Burgundy, and the Duc d’Orléans, the leader of the
Armagnacs in 1407. It was a device of Jean to get the Duc d’Orléans into
his power and three days afterwards Orléans was murdered by the Duke of
Burgundy’s agents.
The same title is sometimes given to the Peace of Longjumeau, between
Charles IX and the Huguenots in 1586.
Paladins.
A select band of knights in the service of Charlemagne, the most famous
of whom was Roland or Orlando. Most of them were killed at the Battle of
Roncesvalles, where Charlemagne’s troops were defeated by the Moors in
778.
Palatinate Catechism.
_See_ Heidelberg Catechism.
Palatines.
In Poland the generals of the forces raised in the various palatinates,
or provinces, were so called.
Pale, The.
The portion of Ireland subdued and settled by Henry II in 1175, within
which only the English law was in force.
Palisades, Burgesses of the.
_See_ Pfahlbürger.
Pallium.
The cloak or robe of office sent by the Pope to metropolitans and other
high dignitaries of the Church, without which they could not enter upon
the exercise of their functions.
Palmetto State.
A name given to the State of South Carolina, in allusion to the number
of palmettos growing within its borders. The palmetto is in the arms of
the State.
Pam.
The nickname of Lord Palmerston.
Pan-American Congress.
A congress of the various States of North, South and Central America,
organized by James G. Blaine during the term of office of President
Harrison, and held at Washington in 1890. Among the subjects discussed
were reciprocity treaties, and a uniform standard of coinage, weights
and measures for the American Continent. No practical results, however,
accrued.
Pan-Germanism.
A movement in Germany and the German provinces of Austria, to unite the
latter to the German Empire. The Austrian Pan-Germans make no secret of
their desire to break up the Austrian Empire with this end in view.
Pan-Islamism.
A secret movement fomented by certain fanatical Mohammedans, for the
freedom of all Moslems from Christian domination. It cannot be said to
be in any way organized, but its emissaries are from time to time found
at work in Mohammedan districts under Russian and British rule.
Pan-Slavism.
A Russian movement having for its ideal the confederation of all the
Slavonic nations under the hegemony of Russia. The Pan-Slavists are
naturally strong advocates of a forward policy in the political
relations of Russia and Turkey.
Panama Canal Treaty.
A treaty between the United States and Colombia, signed in January,
1903, providing for the acquisition by the former Power of the canal
rights of the new Panama Company. The United States secured a strip of
territory, six miles wide, along the route of the canal, against a
payment to Colombia of £2,000,000 and an annual subsidy. This is granted
on a lease for a hundred years, renewable at the option of the United
States. An arrangement is made for joint police and judicial control,
but the subjects of the United States can claim to be tried by their own
courts. The port dues are ceded by Colombia to the United States.
Panama Scandal.
During the investigation, in 1892, into the affairs of the Panama Canal
Company, which had become bankrupt, it was discovered that large sums of
money belonging to the shareholders were not properly accounted for. It
appeared that in order to get the Panama Lottery Bill passed in 1888,
the Baron de Reinach had distributed three millions of francs in bribes
to deputies and senators, and that over one hundred had accepted bribes
to vote for the bill. The directors of the company, including M. de
Lesseps and his son, were tried and found guilty of malversation of the
company’s funds, and several deputies and senators, including eight
ex-ministers, were prosecuted for receiving bribes. The Parisians called
this affair “La Lessive du Panama,” or the Panama dirty linen.
Panamino.
The bank scandal in Italy in 1893, in which several deputies were
involved, was known as the Panamino, or Little Panama.
Pandours.
A corps of Hottentots and half-breeds, raised by the Dutch East India
Company at the Cape in 1793.
Panthay Rebellion.
A rising of the Mohammedans of Yunnan against China, which broke out in
1855, under the leadership of Dow-Win-Sheou. The rising was successful,
and the Viceroy of Yunnan finally signed a treaty by which Dow-Win-Sheou
was given practically uncontrolled sway over Western Yunnan. After his
death the Peking Government at last determined to restore the Imperial
rule and dispatched a force for that purpose in 1867 which, after a long
conflict, defeated and almost exterminated the Mohammedans.
Papal Infallibility.
This was made a dogma of the Roman Catholic Church by a decree of the
Vatican Council in 1870. It is decreed that in all matters of faith and
morals the Pope is infallible when he speaks _ex cathedrâ_, that is to
say, officially as the vicegerent of God.
Paper King.
John Law of the Mississippi Scheme was so called from his issue of large
amounts of paper money without an adequate reserve in specie.
Parc aux Cerfs.
The harem of Louis XV of France in the Park of Versailles.
Paris Fund.
A fund raised by subscriptions from America for the support of the Irish
Home Rule agitation and of the evicted tenants. It was deposited in
Paris, and was under the control of Parnell. After his death in 1891, a
serious quarrel followed between the Parnellites and the
anti-Parnellites as to the disposal of the fund. Eventually, in 1894, it
was handed over to Mr. Justin McCarthy.
Paris Matins.
The name given to the massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Paris, Treaty of, 1763.
A treaty between England, France and Spain, at the close of the Seven
Years War. England obtained the whole of the French possessions in
America, except New Orleans and the territory west of the Mississippi,
together with Florida, ceded by Spain in return for Havana, which was
restored to her. The French fishing rights on the Newfoundland coast and
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence were formally recognized. Guadeloupe and
Martinique were restored to France, who also obtained St. Lucia. England
recovered Minorca, in exchange for which France ceded to Spain Louisiana
west of the Mississippi. In India, France retained her factories, but
agreed to withdraw her troops.
Paris, Treaty of, 1814.
A treaty between France and the Allied Powers, signed in 1814, after the
entry of the Allies into Paris. By its provisions France was restricted
to her frontier of 1790, with the exception of a slight increase of
territory, including some strong places, towards the Rhine, and about
half Savoy, towards the Alps. Mauritius was surrendered to England, who
retained Malta and the Cape of Good Hope. The independence of the German
and Swiss states, and of the Italian states outside the Austrian
dominions was proclaimed. Holland, under the rule of the Prince of
Orange, was to receive an accession of territory, which, by a secret
article, was declared to be Belgium. Sardinia received Genoa, in
compensation for the portion of Savoy ceded to France. These provisions
formed the basis for discussion at the Congress which met immediately
afterwards at Vienna to settle the affairs of Europe.
Paris, Treaty of, 1815.
A treaty between France and the Allies, signed in 1815, after the
Waterloo Campaign. France lost the advanced frontier accorded her by the
treaty of 1814, and was restricted absolutely to her frontier of 1790.
She was further mulcted in a sum of seven hundred million francs, to be
paid within five years, and pending payment an army of occupation was to
hold certain fortresses.
Paris, Treaty of, 1856.
A treaty signed by England, France, Russia, Turkey, Prussia and
Sardinia, after the close of the Crimean War. It provided for the return
of Kars to Turkey and of Sebastopol to Russia. The Powers agreed to
respect the integrity of Turkey, while the Sultan undertook to issue a
firman ameliorating the condition of his Christian subjects. The Black
Sea was neutralized, and the Bosphorus and Dardanelles closed to ships
of war in time of peace, while the navigation of the Danube was thrown
open to all nations. The treaty also dealt with the laws of maritime
war, and the following principles were accepted by the signatories: (1)
Privateering to be henceforth unlawful; (2) The flag to cover the
merchandise, except in the case of contraband of war; (3) Neutral goods
under an enemy’s flag not to be liable to capture, unless contraband of
war; (4) Blockades not to be binding unless effective. In 1870 Russia
took advantage of the Franco-German War to repudiate the clause
neutralizing the Black Sea.
Paris, Treaty of, 1857.
A treaty between Great Britain and Persia, by which Persia renounced all
her rights in Afghanistan, including Herat, and undertook to submit to
the arbitration of Great Britain any questions that might arise between
her and Afghanistan. By a clause in this treaty the slave trade in the
Persian Gulf was made illegal.
Parish School Act.
An Act passed by the Irish Parliament in 1537, providing that no person
should be appointed to any benefice in Ireland who was not acquainted
with the English language, and requiring every beneficed clergyman to
establish and maintain English schools in his parish, and to teach his
parishioners the prayers of the Church in the English tongue.
Parlement.
The judicial body which succeeded the Cours Plénières, or Baronial
Courts of the early French kings. It was organized by Louis IX, and was
at first without any fixed seat, though under Philip the Fair in 1302 it
was established in Paris and became known as the Parlement de Paris. It
was then composed of two prelates, two nobles, thirteen clerics and
thirteen laymen. Its earliest records are dated 1254. Later, similar
bodies, known also as Parlements, were established in the chief
provincial centres.
Parliament of 1265.
To this Parliament of Henry III, in addition to the knights of the
shires, who had been summoned intermittently since the reign of William
the Conqueror, there were summoned, for the first time in English
history, two burgesses from each of the principal cities. The first
regular Parliament, however, in which all the estates of the realm were
duly represented is generally held to have been that of Edward I, which
met in 1294.
Parliaments.
_See_ Addled, Barebone’s, Bats, Cavalier, Club, Convention, Devil’s,
Drunken, Dunces, Good, Grattan’s, Long, Mad, Merciless, Pensioned,
Reformed, Rump, Short, Unlearned, Useless, White Bands, Wonderful.
Parliaments, Foreign.
Althing, Bundesrath, Chambre, Congress, Cortes, Delegations, Folkething,
Junta, Landesgemeinde, Landstag, Long Diet, Odalsthing, Potchefstroom,
Reichsrath, Reichstag, Rigsdag, Skuptschina, Sobranje, States General,
Storthing, Thing, United Diet, Volksraad.
Parnell Commission.
A commission appointed by Act of Parliament in 1888 to try the charges
brought against Mr. Parnell by the _Times_ in their articles “Parnellism
and Crime.” The gravamen of these charges was that Parnell and other
Irish leaders were insincere in their condemnation of agrarian crime,
and they were based on a series of letters sold to the _Times_ by a
certain Pigott. In one of these letters Mr. Parnell wrote that Mr.
Burke, who was murdered in Phœnix Park, had only got his deserts. Under
cross-examination Pigott broke down, and confessed that the letters were
forgeries. The Commission cleared Parnell and the other Irish members of
the graver charges, but considered their complicity in much of the
lawlessness of the Land League clearly proved.
Parnellites.
The followers of Mr. Parnell in the House of Commons, especially the
small section of the party which remained faithful to him after his
deposition from the leadership in 1890, and which continued in
opposition to the Anti-Parnellites after his death, under the leadership
of Mr. Redmond.
Parsees.
Descendants of the ancient Zoroastrians of Persia, who, rather than
forsake their religion, fled to India, on the conquest of Persia by the
Caliph Omar in 651. They form a community of about 85,000, with their
headquarters in Bombay.
Parsons’ Emperor.
_See_ Pfaffen-Kaiser.
Parthenopæan Republic.
A short-lived republic, established in the kingdom of Naples in 1799, as
the result of a popular rising.
Partition Treaty, First.
A treaty between Great Britain, Holland and Spain, signed in 1698, with
the object of dealing in anticipation with the claims of the rival
pretenders to the Spanish succession. It was agreed that Spain, the
Netherlands, and the Spanish Indies should pass to the Elector of
Bavaria, the least powerful of the three claimants. France was to
receive Guipuscoa and the two Sicilies, and Austria the Milanese. The
terms of this treaty, though secret, leaked out, and Charles was
persuaded to execute a will leaving the whole of his dominions to the
Bavarian Prince.
Partition Treaty, Second.
The death of the Elector of Bavaria having rendered the First Partition
Treaty of no effect, a second treaty was signed by the same three powers
in 1700. By this instrument Spain, the Netherlands and the Indies were
assigned to the Austrian Archduke, while France, in addition to the two
Sicilies and Guipuscoa, was to receive the Milanese, to be exchanged
eventually for Lorraine, which was a German fief encroaching on the
natural dominions of France.
Pasquinades.
A series of satires on the authorities issued in Rome towards the end of
the fifteenth century by a witty tailor named Pasquino. The word is now
applied generally to political lampoons.
Passarowitz, Treaty of.
A treaty between Venice and Turkey, signed in 1718, by which the Morea,
which had been secured to Venice by the treaty of Carlowitz in 1699, was
restored to Turkey.
Passau, Treaty of.
A treaty between the Emperor Charles V and the Protestant Princes of
Germany, signed in 1552, after the surprise of Charles at Innspruck by
Maurice of Saxony. The Protestants of Germany secured thereby the free
exercise of their religion and freedom from Imperial interference.
Passive Obedience.
_See_ Non-Resistance.
Pastoureaux.
A band of shepherds and peasants, led by a Hungarian, who styled himself
the Master of Hungary, who rose in revolt in France in 1251. Their
avowed objects were the reform of the abuses of the Church and the
release of the Holy Land from Moslem rule. The outbreak, directed in the
first instance against priests and scholars, was accompanied by wild
excesses, but was soon suppressed, the Master being killed in an attack
on Bourges.
Patrimonia Sancti Petri.
The city of Rome and the surrounding district, handed over to Alexander
III by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1177 as St. Peter’s
Inheritance.
Patriots.
A section of Whig malcontents who, in 1733, under the leadership of
Pulteney strongly opposed Walpole’s Excise Bill. They were supported by
the “Boys,” the Young Whig party under William Pitt, and by the small
remnant of the Tories under Bolingbroke. Walpole, however, was too
strong for them, and, as a protest, the Patriots retired from Parliament
in a body.
Patrons of Husbandry.
A secret society formed for the promotion of agricultural interests in
the United States in 1870. Between that date and 1876, when the society
reached its zenith, the number of their lodges or “granges” increased in
number from 90 to 19,000. The discussion of political questions was
strictly forbidden at their meetings. The members of the society are
known as Grangers.
Pavia, Edict of.
An edict issued by the Emperor Conrad II in 1037, by which all lesser
fiefs throughout the Empire were made hereditary, while the feudal dues
payable to the greater Lords were reduced. This edict became the law of
German feudalism.
Pazzi, Conspiracy of the.
A conspiracy against the Medici in Florence in 1478, headed by the Pazzi
family, and supported by Pope Sixtus IV. The plan was to assassinate the
two brothers, Lorenzo and Giuliano, in the cathedral, but the assassins
failed to kill Lorenzo, whose prompt measures quickly put down the
rising.
Peace of 1782.
A treaty between Great Britain and the United States which closed the
American War of Independence. By its provisions Great Britain recognized
the independence of the United States, and their right to the whole of
the Northern Continent of America except Canada and Newfoundland. This
treaty was confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles of 1783, to which Spain
and France were also parties.
Peace Preservation Act.
An Act passed in the Queensland Parliament in 1894, to deal with the
terrorism rife in the pastoral districts owing to the action of the
Shearers’ Union.
Peace Society.
A society founded in London in 1816 to advocate the principle that war
is inconsistent with Christianity and humanity. It is entirely
unsectarian, though most of its earlier members were Quakers.
Peasant War.
A rising of the peasants of Suabia, Franconia, Alsace and Lorraine, in
1525, under the leadership of Görtz von Berlichingen. They issued a
manifesto demanding, among other concessions, the right to choose their
own pastors, the payment of tithes in kind only, the proceeds thereof to
be devoted to ecclesiastical purposes, the abolition of serfdom, and
free hunting and fishing. In the later stages of the war they were led
by the fanatic Münzer, who proclaimed community of goods. After much
bloodshed the rising was suppressed in the course of the year, Münzer
being killed in battle.
Pecquigny, Treaty of.
A treaty between Edward IV and Louis XI, by which the English King
agreed to withdraw his troops from France, on the payment by Louis of
the expenses of the war, a yearly pension, and 50,000 crowns as ransom
for Margaret of Anjou. This treaty, signed in 1475, was secured by Louis
mainly by large bribes administered to Edward’s advisers.
Pecsovics.
The name given by the Magyars, after the war of 1848, to those
Hungarians who were suspected of Austrian sympathies.
Peelites.
The followers of Sir Robert Peel in his departure from extreme Toryism,
on the lines of the Tamworth Manifesto of 1835.
Peep-o’-Day Boys.
Bands of Protestant peasantry, formed in Ulster in 1782, who made it
their business to eject Catholic tenants from their farms.
Peers, Trial of.
The establishment of the right of a peer to be tried by his peers in
Parliament dates from the reign of Edward III, when Stratford,
Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to answer the charges brought against
him before any other tribunal. He was supported by the Lords, and the
King was at last compelled to yield. The privilege thus secured was
embodied in a statute.
Pelagic Sealing.
The capture of seals in the open sea, and not on their breeding grounds.
_See_ Behring Sea.
Pelican State.
A name given to the State of Louisiana, from the pelican in its coat of
arms.
Pelucones.
The reactionary party in Chile in 1828 were known as the Pelucones or
Wigs.
Peking, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1860 by China, Great Britain and France, ratifying
the provisions of the Treaty of Tientsin. China also made certain
additional concessions, and paid an increased indemnity as compensation
for the treatment accorded to the plenipotentiaries on their way to
Peking to ratify the previous treaty.
Pembroke, Settlement of.
A settlement of Flemings at Haverfordwest and Tenby, under the Earl of
Clare, in 1107.
Penal Laws.
A series of Acts passed at various times from the reign of William III
to that of George II, and notably in the time of Queen Anne, imposing
various most harassing disabilities on the Irish Catholics. The first
relaxation of these Acts took place in 1778.
Pendleton Bill.
A bill to promote Civil Service reform, which was passed by the United
States Senate in 1882. Its principal provision was the throwing open of
appointments in the Civil Service to competitive examination.
Peninsular State.
A name sometimes given to the State of Florida, U.S.A.
Penny Post.
This great reform was introduced in the Budget of 1839, and became
operative on January 10, 1840. Its introduction is due to the
perseverance of Sir Rowland Hill, who after many years of argument, at
last succeeded in convincing the Postal authorities that the increase of
correspondence would more than compensate for the loss occasioned by the
lowering of the rates.
Pensioned Parliament.
The Parliament of 1661-79 was so called from the large number of its
members who were Cavaliers in receipt of Royal pensions. It was also
called the Cavalier Parliament.
Pentecôte Vivante.
This sobriquet was bestowed upon Cardinal Mezzofanti, who was said to
speak fifty-eight languages.
People’s Charter.
_See_ Chartism.
People’s Party.
_See_ Populists.
Perdita.
The name by which Mrs. Mary Robinson, the favourite of George IV, was
generally known.
Père des Lettres.
Francis I of France was called the Father of Letters.
Permanent Settlement.
The arrangement by which Lord Cornwallis finally adopted the Zemindari
System of land tenure in Bengal in 1793. (_See_ Zemindar).
Péronne, Treaty of.
A treaty between Louis XI of France and Charles the Bold of Burgundy, in
1468, by which Louis, who had been treacherously imprisoned by Charles,
obtained his release in return for certain important concessions.
Perpetual Edict.
A document issued at Brussels by Philip II in 1577, confirming the
Pacification of Ghent. Philip agreed to the withdrawal of the Spanish
Army, exchange of all prisoners, confirmation of the Charters and
Constitutions of the Netherlands, and the maintenance of the two
religions.
Perpetual League.
A league entered into in 1291 by the three Forest Cantons of
Switzerland, Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, for mutual assistance against
aggression. This league, which is also known as the League of Brunnen,
is the germ of the Swiss Confederation. A second Perpetual League was
formed in 1332, when Lucerne was admitted into the Federation.
Perpetual Peace.
A treaty of peace entered into between Austria and the Federated Swiss
Cantons in 1474, by which Austria renounced her claim to all the
territory won back from her by the Swiss, in return for which they
promised their aid in the war with Burgundy.
Perpetual Peace.
A treaty between England and Scotland in 1502, whereby Margaret,
daughter of Henry VII, was betrothed to James IV.
Perth, Convocation of.
An assembly summoned by Edward I in 1305, after the annexation of
Scotland, to elect members to represent Scotland in the English
Parliament of that year.
Peshwa.
The minister of the Mahratta princes of India. The Peshwas, who were
seven in succession, may be said to have formed a Mahratta dynasty, as,
though nominally ministers, they were actually rulers of the Mahratta
States. Their power came to an end with the treaty of Bassein in 1802.
Peterloo.
_See_ Manchester Massacre.
Peter’s Pence.
A tribute to the Pope which seems to have originated in an undertaking
by Æthelwulf (836-857) to find funds for the support of a Saxon College
at Rome. This tribute was later exacted by the Popes as a right, and was
so paid by William the Conqueror and later kings.
Petit Caporal.
Napoleon’s nickname among his soldiers, given to him after the battle of
Lodi.
Petition and Advice.
An enactment passed by Parliament in 1657, and accepted by Cromwell,
amending the Constitution. Among other provisions it restored the second
chamber, which had been abolished by the Long Parliament, and placed the
army under Parliament and the head of the executive jointly. It also
provided that Cromwell should take the title of King, a provision which
he refused to accept.
Petition of Grievances.
A petition presented by Parliament to James I in 1610, complaining of
the Impositions, of the Courts of High Commission and of Wales, and of
the free use of Royal Proclamations having the force of Statutes.
Petition of Right.
A petition presented to Charles I by his third Parliament in 1628. It
comprised four demands: (1) That no taxes should be levied without the
consent of Parliament. (2) That no subject of the realm should be
imprisoned unless due cause were shown. (3) That the forces of the Crown
should not be billeted on the people. (4) That no commission should
issue in time of peace to try a subject by martial law. The King gave a
qualified acceptance to the petition, but never adhered to its
conditions.
Petitioners.
The signatories to petitions to Charles II in 1679, urging him to call
Parliament together, he having prorogued the new Parliament for a year
before it had commenced to discuss business. The loyalist party, who
forwarded an address to the King expressing their abhorrence of the
petitions, were called Abhorrers.
Pétroleuses.
A band of women who, in the last hours of the Paris Commune, spread over
Paris with petroleum, setting fire to public buildings. When caught by
the Government troops, they were promptly shot.
Pfaffenbrief.
The Priests’ Charter, an ordinance issued in 1370 by the Federal States
of Switzerland, declaring ecclesiastics to be subject to the authority
of the State, and to have no special privileges.
Pfaffen-Kaiser.
Charles IV, the Emperor set up by the Guelf Party in 1346 in opposition
to Lewis IV, was called the Parsons’ Emperor.
Pfahl-bürger.
Burgesses of the Palisades, refugees from the tyranny of the feudal
barons, who established themselves outside the walls but within the
liberties of the free cities. These liberties were usually defined by a
line of palisades, from which the name is derived.
Philike Hetairia.
A Greek secret society established in 1814 for the purpose of fomenting
a rising against Turkish rule.
Phœnix Park Murders.
The murder in the Phœnix Park, Dublin, on May 6, 1882, by the
Invincibles, an Irish secret society, of Lord Frederick Cavendish, the
Chief Secretary, and Mr. Burke, the Under Secretary. The assassins
escaped, but were afterwards brought to justice through the disclosures
of an informer named Carey.
Piagnoni.
The Weepers, the followers of Savonarola, who was the guiding spirit of
the Florentine Republic established during the temporary eclipse of the
power of the Medici in 1493.
Pichegru’s Conspiracy.
A conspiracy to overthrow the Consulate and bring back the Bourbons,
planned by Georges Cadoudal, the Breton leader, and General Pichegru in
1804. The Comte d’Artois was privy to it, and the English Ministers at
the Courts of Bavaria and Würtemberg were also supposed to have had
knowledge of it. Certain information reaching the police, the
conspirators and many who were entirely innocent were arrested. Among
other innocent victims was the young Duc d’Enghien, son of the Prince de
Condé, who was shot by order of Napoleon. It is of this action that
Fouché said, “It is worse than a crime, it is a blunder.”
Piés Poudrées, Court of.
A special court established during the great fairs in Scotland and
England to try trivial offences, such as disturbances of the peace,
committed within the fair limits. It derives its name from the “dusty
feet” of the pedlars, who were the principal vendors at these
gatherings. In England it was called the Court of Pie Powder.
Pilgrim Fathers.
The Puritan emigrants who left England in the _Mayflower_, and were the
first colonists of New England in 1620.
Pilgrimage of Grace.
The Catholic rising in the North of England in the reign of Henry VIII
(1537).
Pilnitz, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in August, 1791, by the King of Prussia and the Emperor,
by which the former agreed to support the allies in their efforts to
suppress the French Revolution. The two monarchs subsequently issued a
manifesto, known as the Declaration of Pilnitz, declaring that the
position of the King of France was a matter of interest to all
sovereigns, and that if the European rulers united to aid Louis, they
would combine with them for the purpose. The price of Prussia’s
co-operation in this movement was a secret undertaking on the part of
Austria not to interfere with her proceedings in Poland.
Pilsen, League of.
A confederation of Hussites in 1422, sworn to resist Sigismund, and to
oppose any sovereign who would not permit communion in both kinds.
Pindaris.
A body of freebooters, or soldiers of fortune, in India, originally
formed as a body of irregular horse, with licence to plunder, by the
last Mohammedan dynasty of the Deccan. At the beginning of the
nineteenth century they were in the service of the Mahratta
Confederacy, and after the breaking up of this they continued to give
great trouble to the British by their predatory raids. They were finally
dispersed, and ceased to exist as an organized force in 1818.
Pine Tree State.
The state of Maine is so called, from the wide extent of its pine
forests.
Pisa, Council of.
A Council, summoned during the schism in 1409, which deposed Gregory XII
and Benedict XIII, and elected Alexander V as Pope. The two first named
declined to recognize the authority of the Council, with the result that
there were now three Popes.
Pitaux, Insurrection of the.
A peasant rising in Saintonge and Poitou in 1548, to obtain redress of
grievances in connection with the Gabelle, or salt-tax. The insurgents
held Bordeaux for some time, but were eventually overpowered, and their
leaders executed. The rising, however, led to a reduction in the
Gabelle.
Pitt’s India Bill.
_See_ East India Company.
Place Bill.
A Bill which, after several failures, became law in 1743, in spite of
the strong opposition of the King, rendering pensioners of the Crown and
holders of offices about the Court ineligible for seats in the House of
Commons.
Plague of London.
The pestilence which broke out in London in 1665, and was not completely
stamped out until the Great Fire of the following year. It carried off
nearly 100,000 persons out of a total population of half a million.
Plain.
The name given to the Girondins in the French Convention, because they
occupied the lower tiers of seats in the Assembly. The Jacobins, who sat
on the upper benches, were known as the Mountain.
Plan of Campaign.
A combination of tenants to refuse their rents on those Irish estates
where the reductions demanded were not conceded. The tenants bound
themselves to act together, and to make no separate arrangements with
the landlord. If the reduction was refused, they then paid their rent
into a common fund, to be used for the support of those who were
evicted. The Plan was put into operation on forty estates. In April,
1888, it was pronounced unlawful by the Vatican.
Platine States.
The name given to the South American Republics bordering on the River
Plate, namely, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay.
Plébiscite.
The submission of a question to the direct national vote, instead of to
a vote of the elected representatives. It was adopted by Napoleon III
after the Coup d’Etat of 1851, when he referred to the people the
question of his assumption of the Imperial dignity.
Plimsoll’s Act.
The Merchant Shipping Act of 1876, passed owing to the efforts of Mr.
Plimsoll on behalf of merchant seamen. It contains provisions preventing
unseaworthy ships from leaving English ports, and regulates the load
line and deck cargoes. The mark indicating the waterline of a fully
loaded ship is known as the Plimsoll Mark.
Plon-Plon.
The nickname of Prince Napoleon, son of Jerome Bonaparte. It was given
him during the Crimean war, and is a euphemism for Craint-Plomb (Fear
Bullet).
Pochi Danari.
The Penniless, a nickname given by the Italians to the Emperor
Maximilian I (1493-1519).
Podestà.
The chief magistrate in the Italian cities during the thirteenth
century. He was elected annually by the citizens. In some cases his
functions were purely judicial; in other cities he also exercised
certain executive functions, including the control of the military
forces.
Poire, La.
The nickname of Louis Philippe of France, whose face was usually
portrayed by the caricaturists of the day in the shape of a pear.
Poland, First Partition of.
An arrangement arrived at in 1772 by Frederick of Prussia, Catherine of
Russia, and Maria Theresa of Austria, by which Prussia obtained the
whole of Polish Prussia, except Dantzig and Thorn; Austria annexed
Galicia and Lodomiria; and Russia acquired all the territory between the
Dwina, the Dnieper and the Drutsch.
Poland, Second Partition of.
At the close of the Polish Civil War in 1793, Prussia and Russia invaded
Poland, and as a consequence added to their dominions--Russia 85,000
square miles of territory, and Prussia 21,000, together with the towns
of Dantzig and Thorn.
Poland, Third Partition of.
The small remnant of the Kingdom of Poland was divided between Prussia,
Austria and Russia after Kosciusko’s abortive rising in 1795.
Policy, Council of.
The local Council established at Cape Town in 1652 to govern the Colony
under the General Council of the Dutch East India Company. It consisted
at first of four members, but was enlarged to eight in 1685.
Polish Note.
A joint note presented to Russia by Great Britain, France and Austria in
1863, after the suppression of the Polish insurrection of that year. It
contained suggestions for an amnesty, national self-government, liberty
of conscience, and other liberal measures, but as there was obviously no
intention of backing it by force, Russia treated it with complete
indifference.
Polish Succession, War of the.
The war which broke out on the death of Augustus II in 1733. Stanislas
Leszczynski was supported for the throne by France, Spain and Sardinia,
Augustus III by Russia and Austria. The war was ended by the Treaty of
Vienna in 1738, Augustus obtaining the crown.
Political Assessments Act.
An Act of the United States Congress, passed in 1876, which forbids the
soliciting or receiving of assessments for political purposes from any
person holding an official position under the Government.
Politiques.
A party which came into existence in France after the massacre of St.
Bartholomew in 1572, under the leadership of the Montmorency family. It
was composed of Catholics who had no sympathy with the Huguenot
persecutions and desired to extend toleration to their heretic
fellow-countrymen.
Poll Tax.
A tax, graduated from £1 to 1_s._ a head, on every man or woman in
England, imposed in 1380. It caused great discontent, which culminated
in the rising of Wat Tyler and Jack Cade in 1381.
Pontage.
A tax imposed on all freemen in feudal times, for the repair and
maintenance of bridges.
Poonah, Treaty of.
A treaty between the British and the Peshwa signed in 1817, whereby the
Peshwa recognized the dissolution of the Mahratta Confederacy, and
renounced all his claims on Sindhia, Holkar, the Gaekwar and the Rajah
of Berar. He undertook to hold no communication with foreign princes,
and to provide for the maintenance of a force of 5,000 horse and 3,000
foot. He also relinquished all territorial rights north of the Nerbudda,
and undertook not to interfere in Indian affairs.
Poor Law Acts.
The first Act dealing with this question was passed in the reign of
Elizabeth in 1572, and was followed by other enactments which were
consolidated in the Act of 1601. By this Act rogues and vagabonds were
severely dealt with, but workhouses were provided for the relief of the
deserving poor, and parish officers, known as Overseers, appointed to
superintend the working of the Act. This Act of Elizabeth continued in
force till the Poor Law Act of 1832. By that time numerous abuses had
crept into the administration of the Poor Law, resulting in the complete
pauperisation of many parishes, owing largely to the stringency of the
regulations against vagabondage having been relaxed. By the new Act, the
separation between the two classes was rendered definite, relief was
only to be granted to the able-bodied in return for labour, and children
were separated from adult paupers. The machinery was in the main left
unchanged, but small parishes were formed into Unions, and a central
Board of Control was established.
Pope, Election of.
The present system of election to the Papal chair was established by
Nicholas II at the Synod of Rome in 1059, and amended by Gregory X at
the Council of Lyons in 1275.
Pope of Geneva.
A nickname of Calvin.
Popish Plot.
A pretended plot in the reign of Charles II, having for its object the
assassination of the King and the forcible establishment of the Roman
Catholic religion. The arch-informer, Titus Oates, was a renegade
English clergyman, who had been admitted into the Jesuit order. It is
possible that there may have been some such scheme on foot, but the
so-called revelations of Oates and his fellow-informers were nothing but
a tissue of absurdities. Unfortunately, the murder by some person
unknown of Sir Edmundbury Godfrey, before whom Oates made his first
deposition, so inflamed the popular mind that no justice could be
expected, and five Catholic peers denounced by Oates were sent to the
Tower, while many innocent priests and others were condemned and
executed.
Popular Sovereignty.
The political doctrine in the United States that the question of negro
slavery was one for each Territory or State to decide for itself. It was
perhaps better known as Squatter Sovereignty.
Populists.
A party formed at Cincinnati in 1891, under the style of the People’s
Party of the United States. Their “platform,” drawn up by Ignatius
Donnelly, consists of the following “planks” among others: Abolition of
National Banks, Free Coinage of Silver, Laws against Alien Landowners,
Graduated Income-tax, and National Control of Railways.
Porcari, Conspiracy of.
An attempt, under the leadership of Stefano Porcari in 1453, to restore
republican institutions in Rome. It was the final struggle of the Romans
against the temporal domination of the Popes.
Port Philip Association.
An association of Pioneers under John Pascoe Fawkner and John Batman,
who were the first colonists to settle on the shores of Port Phillip
Bay, and therefore the founders of Melbourne, in 1835.
Porteous Riots.
An outbreak in Edinburgh in 1736, when the mob broke into the Tolbooth
and hanged an officer named Porteous, who had been sentenced to death
for firing on the crowd at an execution where he was in command of the
guard, and afterwards reprieved. After executing their vengeance, the
mob dispersed, and none of the rioters were ever detected.
Portroyal.
A religious and literary community established in Paris circ. 1594 by
the Arnault family, the leaders of the Jansenists. Pascal was one of its
most famous members.
Portugal, Independence of.
In 1640 the weakness of Spain under Charles IV induced the Portuguese
nobles, headed by the Archbishop of Lisbon, to throw off their
allegiance to the Spanish Crown, and proclaim their legitimate
sovereign, the Duke of Braganza, King of Portugal by the title of John
IV. The Spaniards accepted the situation, without any effort to maintain
their authority.
Portuguese Mars.
Alfonso d’Albuquerque (1453-1515), the famous Indian Viceroy, was so
called.
Postal Convention, International.
A convention of the principal States of Europe and America, held at
Berne in 1874, at which a uniform rate of postage between the various
States was agreed upon.
Post-nati.
The name given to James I’s Scottish subjects who were born after his
accession to the English throne. The question arose as to whether they
were aliens in England, and a legal decision was given to the effect
that they were not aliens.
Potato Famine.
The failure of the potato crop in Ireland in 1847 is so called. It
caused terrible distress, notwithstanding all the efforts made to
relieve the sufferers, and thousands in consequence emigrated to
America. Its effects on population, land tenure and other Irish
questions have been very far-reaching.
Potchefstroom, Volksraad of.
The first Volksraad north of the Vaal River, established in 1840.
Poyning’s Act.
An Act introduced by Sir Edward Poyning, and passed in 1495, which
declared that no Irish Parliament should be convoked until its programme
of legislation had been sanctioned by the English Privy Council, and
attested by the Great Seal. It was afterwards a source of endless
complications between the Irish and English Governments, as it limited
the absolute power of the Lord Lieutenant, and rendered impossible any
policy of the English colony in Ireland to which the Mother Country was
opposed. This Act was temporarily repealed in 1689, re-enacted in 1691,
and finally rescinded in 1782.
Praemunire, Statute of.
A statute passed in 1392, finally confirming the Statute of Provisors of
the previous reign, and declaring the realm of England to be free of all
earthly subjection. The procuring of any Bull or other Papal instrument
was made punishable by outlawry and forfeiture.
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges.
A proclamation of Charles VII of France in 1438, declaring that the
authority of a General Council was superior to that of the Pope. It
further followed the terms of the Concordat of Aschaffenburg,
proclaiming that annates were abolished, and that the election of the
Bishops was to be free of Papal control.
Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI.
The fundamental law issued in 1724, settling the succession to the
Austrian throne on Maria Theresa and her descendants. This, the most
famous of the various Pragmatic Sanctions, was the cause of the War of
the Austrian Succession, and was not finally accepted by the European
Powers till the Peace of Aix La Chapelle in 1748.
Pragmatic Sanction of Frankfort.
A manifesto issued in 1338 by the Electors of the German Empire, in
reply to the anathemas of Boniface XII, maintaining the Emperor’s
independence of Papal control.
Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX.
A decree issued in 1269, against the privileges of the clergy and the
Papal usurpations. It forbade the sale of benefices and the levy of any
tax by the Pope.
Pragmatic Sanction of Mentz.
The decree issued in 1439 by Albert II, the first Hapsburg Emperor,
settling the throne of Germany upon the royal house of Austria.
Pragmatic Sanction of 1759.
The instrument by which Charles III of Spain settled the succession to
the throne of Naples upon his third son and his descendants.
Pragmatic Sanction of 1830.
The decree issued by Ferdinand VII of Spain, abolishing the Salic Law,
in order to secure the crown for his daughter Isabella. This document is
chiefly responsible for the Carlist wars.
Prague, Congress of.
A Congress of Panslavists held at Prague in 1848. It was the occasion of
an outbreak on the part of the Czechs, and led to the bombardment of the
city by Windischgrätz.
Prague, Peace of.
A treaty signed in 1635, to which all the sovereign States of Germany
were parties. Certain concessions were made to the Protestants, the
hereditary right of Austria to Bohemia was recognized, Pomerania was
given to the Elector of Brandenburg, and Lusatia to the Elector of
Saxony. The latter, in return, agreed to aid Austria in expelling the
Swedes from Germany, thus scandalously deserting his northern ally.
Prague, Treaty of.
A treaty signed by Prussia, Austria and Italy, after the defeat of
Austria at Sadowa in 1866. Prussia annexed Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein,
Hesse-Cassel and Nassau. Austria renounced all right of interference in
the North German States, as President of the Diet, and further ceded the
Venetian provinces to Italy.
Praguerie.
A revolt of the Dukes of Bourbon and Alençon and other great nobles
against Charles VII in 1439, owing to the imposition, by the Ordonnance
of Orléans, of a tax on their lands for military purposes. They were
joined by the Dauphin Louis, but were defeated by Charles in 1440, when
the war came to an end. It broke out again, but was finally suppressed
in 1441.
Prairie State.
The State of Illinois, U.S.A., is so called from the vast expanse of
level prairie it contains.
Precariae.
Grants of Church lands to laymen during the Middle Ages, often extorted
by force. They were generally for the life of the grantee, but were
sometimes renewed to his successor.
Predial Servitude.
The condition of villeinage under the feudal system. _See_ Villeins.
Preobajensky.
A secret political police, established by Peter the Great of Russia. It
was somewhat similar in constitution to the modern “Third Section.” It
was abolished by Peter III in 1762.
Presburg, Confederation of.
A confederation of the Austrian, Bohemian and Hungarian States against
the Emperor Rudolph II, formed by his brother Matthias in 1608. He
succeeded in wresting these possessions from Rudolph.
Presburg, Treaty of.
A treaty between France and Austria, signed in December, 1805, a few
days later than the Treaty of Schönbrunn. Austria, left at Napoleon’s
mercy by the defection of Prussia, was forced to accept what was
practically a measure of spoliation. She surrendered Venice and the
Adriatic provinces to Italy, and portions of her dominions to Bavaria,
Würtemberg and Baden, while she recognized the erection of Bavaria and
Würtemberg into kingdoms, and agreed to abstain from interference in the
affairs of Naples.
Pretoria Convention.
A convention signed in 1881, after the Majuba disaster, between Great
Britain and the Transvaal. The Transvaal was granted complete internal
independence, under British suzerainty, Great Britain to have control of
the foreign policy of the Transvaal, and to be represented by a Resident
at Pretoria.
Pretoria, Treaty of.
A treaty between Portugal and the Transvaal, signed in 1869, providing
for the delimitation of the frontier between their respective
territories.
Pride’s Purge.
The name given to the forcible removal from the House by Colonel Pride
and his troopers of over a hundred members of the majority of the Long
Parliament. The ejected members were imprisoned, and the remnant, known
as the Rump, fell completely under the domination of the army.
Priests’ Charter.
_See_ Pfaffenbrief.
Prince Florizel.
A nickname of George IV, derived from the name he assumed in his
correspondence with Mrs. Mary Robinson (Perdita).
Prince of Alchemy.
A sobriquet of Rudolph II, Emperor of Germany.
Princes Expulsion Bill.
A Bill passed by the French Chambers in 1886, expelling from French
territory all claimants to the throne and their immediate heirs. As a
consequence, Prince Napoleon and the Comte de Paris and his family left
France.
Princess Party.
The party headed by the Churchills, who supported the Princess Anne
during the reign of William III.
Principe de la Paz.
The Prince of the Peace, the title of Godoy, the minister of Charles IV
of Spain, in the last decade of the eighteenth century.
Prisoner of Chillon.
François de Bonnivard, a Frenchman who offended Charles III of Savoy,
and was imprisoned by him for six years in the Castle of Chillon on the
Lake of Geneva.
Prisoner of the Vatican.
Pope Pius IX was so called by his adherents after Rome became the seat
of the Italian Government in 1870.
Privas, Massacre of.
A massacre of Huguenots at the taking of Privas by Louis XIII in 1629.
Privilege of the Clan Macduff.
In ancient times any person within the ninth degree of kinship with the
Chief of the Macduffs who had been guilty of unpremeditated homicide
could, if he reached in safety Macduff’s Cross in Fife, escape the death
penalty, and go free on payment of a fine. This privilege is said to
have been granted by Malcolm Canmore (1057-93.)
Professio Fidei.
A profession of the Catholic Faith, issued by the Council of Trent in
1545, as a counterblast to the Protestant Confession of Augsburg. Its
acceptance was made obligatory on every aspirant to a degree throughout
the German Universities.
Promissory Oaths Act.
An Act passed in 1868, consolidating and amending the various Acts
dealing with the oath of allegiance and abjuration. It provides a
Parliamentary, an official and a judicial oath, of a nature that can be
taken by Roman Catholics and Jews, ending with the formula “So help me,
God.” The wording of the Parliamentary oath came into special prominence
in 1880-5, in the course of Mr. Bradlaugh’s attempts to take his seat in
the House of Commons.
Pronunciamiento.
In Spain and Spanish America a proclamation issued by a military leader,
backed by his troops, against the existing Government.
Propaganda, College of the.
The Congregatio de Propaganda Fide is a council of ecclesiastics,
founded by Gregory XV in 1622, to superintend the diffusion of the
Catholic Faith in distant lands. The Council has at present control of
all foreign missions and of a college at Rome for the training of
missionaries.
Protestant Duke.
James, Duke of Monmouth, the natural son of Charles II, who, though
brought up as a Catholic, afterwards adopted the Protestant faith, was
so called by his supporters.
Protestant Hero.
The name given by the English people to Frederick the Great of Prussia.
Protestant League.
A league of the Protestant Princes of Germany, formed in 1651, to
maintain their territorial rights and uphold the Peace of Westphalia.
Protestant Union.
A league of Protestants formed at a Congress held at Ahausen, in
Anspach, in 1608, in consequence of the course pursued by the Emperor
and the Catholic Princes in the Troubles of Donauwörth. Its object was
mutual defence, and its leading members were the Elector Palatine,
Christian of Anhalt, and John Frederick of Würtemberg. It was afterwards
joined by fifteen Imperial cities.
Provisions of Oxford.
A decree issued in 1258 by the Council of State. It provided for the
placing of the royal castles in the hands of English Governors, and for
the summoning of Parliament three times a year. This document is
noteworthy as being the first public document issued in the English
language.
Provisors, Statute of.
A statute passed in the thirty-eighth year of Edward III (1365), and
directed against the claim of the Pope to appoint to benefices in
England. It confirmed a previous statute which enacted that the King and
the Lords were to appoint to benefices of their own or their ancestors’
creation, and not the Pope of Rome, and further made the introduction of
Papal Bulls and Briefs into the realm illegal.
Prudhommes.
Notable citizens elected, in the French towns in the twelfth century, to
act as an advisory board to the provost or representative of the King.
Pruth, Peace of the.
A treaty between Russia and Turkey, signed in 1711, after the relief of
Peter the Great, who had been besieged in Hush. It provided for the
cession to Turkey of Azov, and the retirement of Charles XII to Sweden
unmolested. It is also called the Treaty of Falczi.
Pucelle, La.
A sobriquet of Joan of Arc.
Punishment Act.
An Act passed by the British Parliament in 1836, at the instance of Lord
Glenelg, which, after setting forth in the preamble that the Cape Colony
was inhabited by “uncivilized persons,” proceeded to give the officers
of the Crown power to arrest and bring to trial in Cape Town all British
subjects dwelling south of the twenty-fifth parallel of latitude. It
caused intense irritation in South Africa, especially in Natal, which
was claiming to be erected into a separate British Colony, and refused
to recognize the right of the Cape Government to enforce the law while
affording them no protection against Kaffir and other enemies.
Punjaub, Annexation of.
Following on the victory of Gujerat, which closed the second Sikh war,
the Punjaub was annexed in 1851, an arrangement being made to pay a life
annuity of £50,000 to the Maharajah, Dhuleep Singh. Among the treasures
which were surrendered to the British was the Koh-i-Noor.
Purandhar, Treaty of.
A treaty between the British and the Mahrattas, signed in 1776, by which
the Treaty of Surat was annulled, Salsette being surrendered and
Raghoba’s cause abandoned. This was due to the action of the Council of
Bengal, which declared that the Treaty of Surat was unjust and
inexpedient, and that the Bombay Council had acted _ultra vires_ in
agreeing to it.
Purveyance.
The right claimed by the followers of the early Norman Kings who
attended their lord during his progresses, to exact from the inhabitants
such supplies as they might think fit, without payment. The abuses which
grew out of this system were to some extent alleviated by Henry I, and
the right was afterwards restricted by Magna Charta, and by the Statute
of Stamford.
Puseyites.
The followers of Dr. Pusey, one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement in
1841.
Pyrenees, Treaty of the.
A treaty between France and Spain, signed in 1659, after the defeat of
the Spaniards by Turenne at Dunes. France acquired Artois and
Roussillon, and surrendered in return all the territory she held beyond
the Pyrenees. The duchy of Lorraine was restored to the Duke, but France
reserved the right of marching her troops through his country on their
way to or from Alsace.
Q
Quadrilateral.
The name given to four fortresses in Northern Italy, Peschiera, Mantua,
Legnago and Verona.
Quadrilateral, Bulgarian.
The four fortresses of Varna, Silistria, Rustchuk and Schumla are known
by this name.
Quadrilateral Treaty.
A treaty signed in 1840, by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia,
by which the signatories bound themselves to protect the Porte against
aggression.
Quadruple Alliance, 1718.
An alliance between England, France, Austria and Holland, formed to
prevent Spain recovering her former possessions in Italy. It became the
Quadruple Alliance through the adhesion of Austria to the Triple
Alliance of 1717. Its operations were completely successful, and Spain
gave way in 1719.
Quadruple Alliance, 1834.
An alliance of Great Britain, France, Spain and Portugal, effected by
Palmerston as a counterpoise to the Holy Alliance of Russia, Prussia and
Austria.
Quakers.
The name commonly given to the Society of Friends, a sect founded in
1648 by George Fox, a Leicestershire shoemaker. The sect was organized
into a Society in 1866.
Quarantaine le Roy.
An ordinance issued in the early part of the reign of Louis IX, designed
to put a stop to private warfare. It provided that in the event of a
crime being committed, a period of forty days should elapse before
vengeance was exacted, and that at any time during that period the
relatives of the murdered man might call upon the Bailli to execute the
justice of the King.
Quarterage.
A special tax levied in the reign of Queen Anne upon all Catholics who
established a business in Ireland.
Quebec Act.
An Act passed in 1775 by Lord North’s Government, authorizing the Crown
to throw open posts of honour to the Catholics in Canada, and restoring
the French system of law in the French Canadian provinces. It also
confirmed the Roman Catholic Clergy in their benefices.
Queen Anne’s Bounty.
The revenue derived from annates and tithes on Church property, which
had been transferred from the Church to the Crown by Henry VIII. In
1704, Queen Anne, with the consent of Parliament, retransferred these
revenues to commissioners, to be employed in supplementing the incomes
of benefices of less than £200 per annum. The amount annually
distributed is about £36,000.
Queen Dick.
A nickname of Richard Cromwell, having reference to the weakness of his
character.
Queen of the Adriatic.
The city of Venice is so called.
Queen of the Antilles.
A name given to the island of Cuba.
Queen of Tears.
The sobriquet of Mary of Modena, wife of James II of England.
Queen Sarah.
Sarah Duchess of Marlborough (1660-1744) was so called on account of the
ascendency she exercised over Queen Anne.
Queen’s Gold.
The right of the Queen Consort of England to every tenth mark paid to
the King on the granting or renewal of leases or charters. Charles I
bought the right from his wife for £10,000, and it has never since been
enforced. It was also called the _aurum reginæ_, and is probably the
_Gersamma Reginæ_ of Domesday Book.
Queensberry Plot.
A plot on the part of Lord Lovat, in 1703, to ruin Lord Athole, the
Keeper of the Privy Seal in Scotland, with whom he had a feud. The plan
was to implicate him in a pretended Jacobite rising in the Highlands.
Lord Queensberry, the Commissioner, who also had a grudge against
Athole, was drawn into the plot by the production of a letter from the
ex-Queen, purporting to be addressed to Athole, as a proof that he was
in correspondence with the exiled Stuarts. Athole had no great
difficulty in clearing himself of suspicion, and Queensberry was forced
to resign. This is known also as the Scots Plot.
Queensland, Separation of.
The erection of the northern portion of New South Wales into a separate
colony under the title of Queensland was effected by an Act passed in
1859.
Quia Emptores, Statute of.
A Statute passed in 1290, with the object of preventing the formation of
new manors. By this Statute land granted by a feudal lord ceased to
belong to him, and owed feudal dues to the superior lord of the estate.
Its result was to increase largely the number of gentlemen holding
direct from the Crown.
Quietists.
A sect which arose in France about 1780, under the leadership of Mme.
Guyon, who advocated a contemplative rather than an active religious
life. Fénélon was to a considerable extent influenced by these tenets.
Quixote of the North.
A nickname of Charles XII of Sweden (1697-1718).
Quo Warranto.
Commissions of Quo Warranto were issued by Edward I to enquire as to how
estates and judicial rights had passed from the Crown into the hands of
individuals and corporations, and to settle definitely which were the
Royal Manors.
R
Rabbling the Curates.
The expulsion of Episcopalian clergymen in the west of Scotland by the
Covenanters in 1689 is so called. These proceedings were subsequently
legalized by the Scottish Parliament.
Radicals.
A name given to the advanced wing of the Liberal Party about 1816. Its
leaders were Hunt, Cobbett, and Sir Francis Burdett.
Ragman Rolls.
A series of documents recording the progress of Edward I through
Scotland in 1296, with the names of the nobles and others who did homage
to him.
Raid of the Redswear.
A border fight between the English and Scotch in 1575, arising out of a
dispute at a meeting between the two Wardens of the Marches for the
surrender of criminals who had crossed the border. It is the last border
fight recorded.
Rail Splitter.
A nickname of Abraham Lincoln, who is said to have earned his living in
1830 by splitting rails.
Raipur Ghât, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1805 between the British and Holkar, by which the
latter renounced all rights to territory north of the Chambul, and all
his claims to Bundelcund and Poonah, while the East India Company agreed
not to interfere with Holkar’s enjoyment of the territories he possessed
to the south of the Chambul.
Rákóczy’s Rebellion.
A Magyar rising, headed by Rákóczy in 1704, against the Austrian
domination. The war which ensued lasted over seven years, and was at
last ended by the peace of Szatmar.
Ralliés.
Members of the Catholic and Reactionary parties in France who in 1890
declared their adhesion to the Republican Government, and their
abandonment of reactionary principles. The leader of the movement was
Cardinal Lavigerie, Archbishop of Algiers.
Rapparees.
Bands of Irish brigands who waged a guerilla warfare against the
Protestant settlers in Ireland circ. 1711.
Rappenkrieg.
The War of Farthings, a revolt of the peasants against the city of Berne
in 1594.
Raskol.
The great schism in the Russian Church in the seventeenth century. The
dissenters objected to certain innovations in ritual introduced by
Nikon, the Patriarch, in order to correct errors which had crept in
owing to careless copying of Liturgies and other religious books. The
dissenters were excommunicated, and thousands fled from the country.
Ratipole.
A nickname of Napoleon III.
Re Galantuomo.
The name given to Victor Emmanuel, the first king of United Italy.
Reason, Council of.
A council established by the States General summoned by Henri IV of
France in 1596. Its functions were to administer one half of the
revenues of the State, for the payment of all civil officials, the
remaining half being handed to the King for his private purse and for
the defence of the realm.
Rebellions, Mutinies, etc.
Arabi, Arima, Attalik, Barrackpur, Bengal, Bounty, Boxers, Bread and
Cheese, Cabanagem, Camisards, Commune, Communeros, Dorr, Dozsa,
Dysiefald, Emmett, Eureka, Fifteen, Forty-five, Frankfurter, Fronde,
Geraldines, Hungarian, Jacquerie, Ket, Lincolnshire, Madras, Maillotins,
Nobles’, Nore, Panthay, Peasants’, Pilgrimage, Poor Conrad, Praguerie,
Rákóczy, Red River, Riel, Santa Junta, Satsuma, Shays’, Slachter’s Nek,
Sonthal, Taeping, Tököli, Whiskey.
Rebecca Riots.
Riots in Wales in 1843, in protest against the excessive tolls exacted
on the Welsh roads. Mobs, led by a man in woman’s clothes, assembled and
pulled down the turnpike gates. The name Rebecca is taken from a passage
in Genesis: “And they blessed Rebekah and said unto her, let thy seed
possess the gates of those which hate them.” The riots were suppressed
and a commission appointed to inquire into the alleged grievances.
Recess of Colding.
A codification of the law of Denmark, promulgated during the reign of
Christian III, circ. 1540.
Reconcentrados.
The inhabitants of the country districts of Cuba which during the
insurrection of 1895-9, were laid waste by General Weyler. By his orders
these people were driven from their homes and herded into concentration
camps where, owing to Government neglect, they died in thousands of
famine and pestilence.
Reconciliation, Act of.
An Act passed in 1554, shortly after the accession of Mary, to give
effect to the proposals of Cardinal Pole, the Papal Legate, for the
re-establishment of the Papal authority in Church matters as it existed
before the ecclesiastical legislation of Henry VIII.
Recruiters.
The name given by the Royalists to the members of the Long Parliament
elected to fill the places of those who had been “disabled” by
Parliament for joining the King’s forces.
Recusant Act.
An Act passed in the first year of Queen Elizabeth’s reign, subjecting
to fine all persons who absented themselves from Divine Service in their
parish church on Sundays and Holy Days. Protestant dissenters were
relieved from the penalties of this Act by the Toleration Act of William
and Mary, but Roman Catholics obtained no relief until 1791.
Red Comyn.
The nickname of Alexander Comyn, a claimant to the Scottish throne,
murdered by Robert Bruce in 1306.
Red Cross Knights.
The Knights Templars were so called.
Red Cross League.
_See_ Geneva Convention.
Red Cross Society.
The generic name of the various associations formed, under the Geneva
Convention, for the relief of the wounded in war. The Red Cross is the
badge of military hospitals, ambulances, doctors, etc.
Red Prince.
The sobriquet of Prince Frederick Charles (1828-1885), nephew of William
I of Germany.
Red River Rebellion.
An outbreak in 1869 of the half-breed settlers on the Red River, who
resented the transfer of their settlement from the Hudson’s Bay Company
to the newly formed province of Manitoba. It was found necessary to send
regular troops against the insurgents, and the revolt was promptly
quelled by Colonel (now Viscount) Wolseley. Their leader, Louis Riel,
escaped, and was later the ringleader in the rising of 1885 known as
Riel’s Rebellion.
Redif.
The reserve of the Turkish Army.
Redistribution Bill.
A Bill passed in 1885 as the complement of the Franchise Act of 1884. It
subdivided the old constituencies so as to leave only a few two-member
constituencies in the boroughs. All the counties were divided into
districts, each district returning one member. The plan adopted was the
result of a conference between the two parties.
Reeve.
The Shire-reeve or Sheriff in Saxon times was the representative of the
King for judicial and fiscal purposes. He presided over the Shire Court.
Referendum.
A provision in the constitution of Switzerland to the effect that all
laws passed by the Federal Assembly must be submitted to the popular
vote, if such a course is demanded by 30,000 Swiss citizens, or by the
legislatures of eight Cantons.
Reform Bill.
The Great Reform Bill of 1832 abolished no less than fifty-six rotten
boroughs, but its provisions as to redistribution and the franchise
still left the larger share of political power in the hands of the
landowning classes. It was first introduced in 1831, and passed the
Commons by a majority of one, but was rejected by the Lords. A
dissolution followed and, on the new Parliament assembling, the Bill
again passed the Commons, this time by a majority of 109, but was again
rejected by the Lords. The Ministry refused to resign, and the popular
feeling was so strong that the Lords were forced to give way, and the
Bill became law in 1832. In addition to 111 seats obtained by the
disfranchisement of the rotten boroughs, some thirty boroughs were
deprived of one member each. Of the seats thus obtained sixty-five were
distributed among the counties, sixty-five among the larger towns, and
thirteen were allotted to Scotland and Ireland. The borough franchise
was given to ten pound householders, and in the counties the vote was
given to copyholders and leaseholders, and to tenants at will paying £50
in rent.
Reform Bill of 1867.
This Bill, passed by Lord Derby’s Ministry in 1867, enfranchised all
occupiers and all lodgers, of one year’s residence, paying £10 per annum
rent in the boroughs, and in the counties all owners of property of £5
annual value and all occupiers paying £12 per annum. Tacked on to it was
a Redistribution Bill which disfranchised certain small boroughs, and
created a corresponding number of new constituencies. It gave an
additional member each to Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham and Liverpool,
and a member to London University.
Reform Committee.
_See_ Transvaal National Union.
Reforma, Guerra de la.
The war between the followers of Juarez, the Mexican Liberal leader, and
the reactionary party under Miramon, which broke out in 1858. It ended
with the triumph of Juarez in 1861.
Reformation, Edict of.