of this should be done in early spring during the dormant season and
supplemented in June or July when the trees are in leaf. Large broken
limbs and dead wood should be removed, together with interfering branches,
and those reaching too high should be headed back. At about the same time
that pruning is started the loose bark should be thoroughly scraped off
and burned, thus destroying insects and fungi that attack the fruit.
Harboring places for further infestations are also thus removed. If the
trees are badly in need of pruning, it is best to do the job over a period
of two or three years rather than all at one time, due to the tendency of
trees to "sucker" and develop a multiplicity of small non-bearing
branches.
Spraying, fertilizing and cultivation, where that is possible, should
follow the pruning and scraping jobs. Spray schedules and cultural
practices best adapted to the region can be obtained without cost by
applying to state or county agricultural agencies. Ordinarily two or three
years are required to rejuvenate these trees and begin to secure a crop.
Production will then increase in quantity and quality during succeeding
years.
_Bees as Pollinators._--The production of fruits of all kinds is dependent
upon pollination of their blossoms by bees and other winged insects. Bees
of many species are useful in pollen distribution, but the most important
is the honey bee, which is available in larger numbers just at flowering
time, seeking nectar from the flowers. In large commercial orchards
colonies of honey bees are set at regular intervals to insure adequate
pollination, usually one hive per acre.
A practical method of adding to county life enjoyment and adding to income
as well is the keeping of bees for honey production.
_Securing a Honey Crop._--Bee husbandry can be carried on successfully as
a specialized side line where only small areas of land are available.
Colonies can be located at one side of the garden or placed under trees
where they will not be disturbed either through accident or by cultivation
of the plot immediately surrounding them. The activity of the bees during
the nectar-gathering season, accompanied by the well-known hum as they
dart in and out of the hive, makes a genuine appeal to the country
dweller. This appeal is heightened by the fact that they are working for
him, in part at least, and without his having to pay for their raiding the
nectar from the flowers around. He knows that his efforts in providing
favorable working conditions for the bees will be repaid by a harvest of
salable honey. A colony at full strength just at the right time will
invariably gather a surplus.
_First Principles in Beekeeping._--The beginner in bee husbandry should
purchase established colonies from a reputable business concern or from
beekeepers in the neighborhood of his home. He should begin in a small way
with a few colonies, learn the business with a small investment and then
increase as his liking for the work develops and the market for the
product expands. Being able to read the signs at the entrance to the hive
is the surest way to success. Too much manipulation is just as harmful as
neglect. The novice in beekeeping who is really interested and follows
carefully a few details gained from a reliable bee book should harvest at
least 30 pounds of honey a year from each colony. Experts get much larger
yields and have been known to secure 200 pounds per colony and 200
sections of comb honey from one hive. The deciding factor in producing
honey is the skill of the watchful beekeeper, assuming of course that
there is a sufficient supply of nectar-secreting blossoms in the area.
The cost of engaging in bee husbandry is nominal. An established colony of
the preferred Italian bees should cost about $8. The equipment should
include two fitted supers for each colony in which the bees may store the
honey, costing about $3 each; a veil to protect the head and face,
linseed-oil-soaked canvas gloves, a bee smoker, a hive tool and a bee
escape (needed for removing the bees from filled supers), each item
costing less than a dollar. An additional piece of apparatus, a queen
"excluder," is needed for each hive, to keep the queen in the lower
chamber and prevent the mixing of stored honey surplus and developing
bees.
The principal nectar-secreting plants are the clovers, sumac, buckwheat,
cranberry and blueberry blossoms, goldenrod, asters and mallows. Since
these plants bloom at varying periods during the growing season, the
beekeeper will find it necessary to adjust his operations in accordance
with the nectar-producing capacity of his own region. The experience of
successful beekeepers will be found helpful as a guide in taking the
successive and orderly steps necessary to secure maximum honey crops. In
many states there are associations of beekeepers formed for mutual
advantage and the promotion of the industry. The novice can hardly expect
to learn unless he affiliates himself with such groups and attends their
meetings. Subscription to a good bee journal is also desirable.
[Illustration: Colonies of honey bees located near the source of nectar
supply.]
_Selling the Product._--Honey can be marketed in the comb or in glass jars
in the extracted or crystal form. Many suburban beekeepers dispose of
their crop in their own neighborhood or at roadside stands. Many food
products are being promoted which contain honey as one ingredient, and
this opens an attractive field to the resourceful beekeeper. The healthful
qualities of honey for human consumption are being given greater
recognition and it appears that the market for locally produced honey of
high quality is steadily expanding.
_Do's_
Fruit trees should be included in every country homeowner's plan.
Be sure varieties are such as will yield, plentifully, good quality fruit.
Use bush fruits as ornamentals and sources of food to be put in cans.
Seek advice on fruit problems from the state agricultural college.
Old orchards may be rejuvenated under proper systems of management.
Use colonies of bees to pollinate fruit blossoms and to produce honey.
Begin bee husbandry in a small way at first and get advice from
experienced bee culturists.
Sell surplus honey in home markets.
_Don'ts_
Don't plant varieties of fruits that are ill adapted to climatic
conditions.
Don't overlook the necessity of preparing for insect attacks in advance of
appearance.
Don't establish bee colonies without making sure that proper care of them
can be taken.
Don't try to practice horticulture or bee husbandry without frequently
obtaining expert advice.
_Chapter_ IX
POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME
The majority of the owners of small farm properties are interested in the
possibilities of poultry keeping as a means of adding to the family
income. Efforts in this direction are logical from a number of angles. For
example, the keeping of poultry appeals to them as an interesting line of
work for the sake of the activity itself. Furthermore, the cost of housing
a comparatively large number of laying hens is not expensive, as compared
with the investment required in other agricultural enterprises. Again,
there is a ready market for the eggs and for the poultry in the
neighborhood where the enterprise is carried on. No doubt, too, the more
or less fabulous stories of easy profits have stimulated a desire to get
into this business and to make it a rather important source of income.
Again, there is the thought that the work involved in feeding and caring
for the flock can be carried on by another member of the family when the
owner or principal bread-winner is engaged in some other activity
temporarily.
All these factors have tended to develop in the mind of the settler in the
country a pretty definite idea that he can supplement the family income
with poultry. Sometimes this idea is erroneous and there is apt to be
little definite knowledge on the part of the new owner as to costs,
problems and profits that are likely to accrue. It is the thought of the
writer to outline some definite recommendations for the prospective
poultryman which will enable him to safeguard his investment and prevent
the very serious losses that have occurred to many who have not taken into
consideration all of the factors involved.
_Soil Type._--The prospective poultryman will, if he is wise, make sure
that the soil is adapted to the project. The ideal soil for poultry
raising is sufficiently porous to furnish good water drainage and yet not
so open or sandy as to be incapable of crop production. A porous soil is
warmer than a clay soil and is more conducive to good sanitation through
permitting moisture and debris to be carried quickly to the subsoil. If
the subsoil is of a gravelly nature the natural condition will be
improved. Presumably the same type of soil that will bear the poultry
plant should be capable of producing garden crops, growing shade or fruit
trees satisfactorily and producing grass and short-rooted crops that can
be used in conjunction with the poultry plant or the beautification of the
home surroundings. Consequently, the soil type must be productive and
capable of improvement while being well drained and conducive to good
sanitation. Heavy clay soils or those with rock strata close to the
surface are to be avoided.
Successful poultry farms are operated on both level and rolling lands.
Extremely flat topography should be avoided and also precipitous slopes.
If the site is on rolling land the poultry plant should be located on a
slope with southern exposure to secure warmth, quicker drying conditions
and protection from cold north winds.
_Breeds of Poultry._--Fowls have been domesticated and bred for ages all
over the world. As the result of various crossings a large number of types
or breeds of poultry are available for present-day use and propagation.
Some of these breeds are maintained for show or novelty purposes only and
furnish an interesting field for the fancier.
For the person who is engaging in the commercial poultry business the
choice of breed narrows to a very few utility types. For purely
egg-producing purposes or for broilers weighing slightly over a pound at
killing time, the light Mediterranean breeds are the most efficient. Less
feed is needed for maintaining the egg machine itself and less room per
bird required. Of these so-called egg breeds, the White Leghorn is in a
class by itself. This breed is noted for its large white-shelled eggs
which top the markets where this color egg is in demand. In the most
intensive egg-producing areas of the country the White Leghorn
predominates. On the other hand, this breed is not a good meat producer,
the mature birds being light in weight.
For the dual purpose of egg and meat production the American breeds are
the most popular. The principal commercial types of this general purpose
group are Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. In some
instances crosses of these breeds are proving good layers and highly
efficient meat producers.
The Rocks, Wyandottes and Reds have bright yellow skin, shanks and beak
which are desired in market poultry. They are good winter layers,
particularly, and some strains have been developed that rival the Leghorn
in the number of eggs per bird. Both the White and the Barred Plymouth
Rocks are popular among those seeking a dual purpose breed, and being
slightly heavier than White Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds they are
preferred by many poultrymen. The latter two breeds are rapidly increasing
in popularity and their best qualities are being brought out more
uniformly by careful selection of breeding stock in each case. All of
these American breeds lay brown eggs.
In addition to the egg and the dual purpose types of poultry epitomized by
the Leghorn and the Plymouth Rock, respectively, there are breeds which
are primarily meat producers. Less attention is paid to the egg-producing
ability of these than is the case with the others mentioned. The Brahmas,
Cochins and Langshans stand in high regard as economical meat producers.
The Jersey Black Giant is a more recent addition to the popular heavy
breeds, especially for the capon trade.
These Asiatic types grow slowly and are phlegmatic in movement so that
they utilize feed for the economical development of high quality meat and
attain great weight. For broilers of more than 1-1/2 pounds each, for
roasting chickens and for capons, the dual purpose breeds are becoming
more popular than the extremely heavy breeds due to their more rapid
growth and more popular weight average at marketing time.
_Buying Stock._--The advantages of buying and maintaining definite breeds
of poultry are now so well understood that the mixed or mongrel flock is
fast disappearing. Having decided which type of fowl is best adapted to
one's market and ideas, there is no difficulty in finding a breed that
will fit the need. As has been pointed out, the attributes of high egg
production or fine quality of meat are inherent in certain breeds. A
single breed means uniformity in color, size and shape of the eggs which
increases their marketability. More attractive appearance of the flock and
greater efficiency from feeding without additional cost are other
advantages pertaining to standardizing the flock as to breed.
Stock may be acquired as day-old chicks, as ten- to twelve-week-old
pullets or as adult birds ready to lay. Hatching eggs may also be bought
if desired, but it will be found more satisfactory and just as economical
for the inexperienced person to buy the hatched chick or the more mature
birds. The hatching and brooding processes are fraught with difficulties
which may be especially acute for the amateur. The greatest demand at the
present time, and properly so, is for day-old chicks. A highly specialized
industry has been developed for the purpose of supplying this demand and a
reputation for reliability has been established by many concerns catering
to this trade.
_Poultry House Construction._--Where flocks of poultry are to be kept for
egg production, special laying houses must be provided in addition to
brooder houses that will be needed in any case.
One of the best types of brooder house is the two-room type developed by
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Such a house should be about 8 by 14
feet, and mounted on skids for convenience in moving. A movable partition
divides the house into two rooms. Thus a cold room is provided for
exercising and a warm room for sleeping. The marked difference in
temperature between the two rooms helps to harden the chicks, while the
reduced space about the hover conserves the heat.
A great deal of study has been given to the construction of laying houses
for poultry. The purposes in mind have been to obtain maximum sunlight
throughout the day, protection from storms and from dampness, and adequate
ventilation.
In the construction of a modern laying house, 1 square foot of glass
should be provided for every 20 square feet of floor space. The windows
should be hinged so that they may be opened in warm weather. One of the
commercial glass substitutes that are now on the market may be used
instead of ordinary glass to allow violet light rays to reach the
birds. The other openings permit free circulation of air through the
house. They should be equipped with muslin curtains to be used during
storms and in extremely cold weather. Such a house can be used the year
round.
[Illustration: (_Courtesy of Poultry Tribune_)
This sketch shows an end view of a practical and inexpensive shed-roof
laying house. Detailed blue prints for use in constructing such a house
can usually be obtained from county agricultural agents or state
agricultural colleges.]
[Illustration: A fine flock of layers. The hoppers furnish laying mash and
the fountains supply drinking water. Scratch grain is thrown in the
litter.]
The floor of the laying house must be dry at all times if vigor and health
are to be maintained. During the winter there should be about 10 inches of
dry litter in the form of straw, peat moss or shavings mixed with the
straw. Small windows in the rear wall will make for better distribution of
the litter, since the birds scratch away from the light.
_Equipment and Appliances._--A great deal of hand labor and daily drudgery
can be eliminated by equipping the house with properly constructed
appliances. These will not only save labor but will also supply the birds
with their needs at the time the need for certain materials is felt and
thus contribute to health and flock efficiency.
The best method of feeding dry mash is from a hopper. This should be so
constructed as to hold a reserve supply at all times that will run into
the feed trough as it is consumed. Care should be taken in construction to
prevent the birds from throwing out the mash with their beaks and thus
wasting it.
Water fountains of a standard type that will furnish the birds with a
constant amount of fresh water are available at poultry supply houses.
Receptacles should also be provided for grit, ground oyster shell and
charcoal which can be easily filled. A sloping board should be placed over
these receptacles to prevent the birds from roosting on them and soiling
the contents.
Bins so constructed as to be vermin-proof and moisture-proof should be
available for storing the scratch grain and other concentrated feeds.
Provision for storing litter where it can be kept clean and dry will be
necessary. If long straw is to be used, a cutter operated by hand or by a
motor will prove useful in fining the straw. The scratch grain will be
spread through the litter on the floor, compelling the birds to scratch
for it and thus obtain needed exercise.
_Artificial Lighting._--Modern laying houses are equipped with electric
lights that are turned on and off automatically. Artificial lighting
prolongs the hen's working day when the days are short, resulting in
greater food consumption and more exercise which will increase egg
production and give better health and stamina at seasons when more eggs
augment profits. A 40-watt bulb should be placed in one receptacle with
reflector for each 200 square feet of floor space, located midway between
the front wall and the front line of perches.
_Investment Needed for the Start._--The prospective poultryman should be
familiar with the principal items of cost before engaging in the business.
To be thus forewarned is to be forearmed. The scale upon which one takes
up commercial poultry production should depend upon experience in coping
with the industry's peculiar problems and upon the amount of capital
available. Success depends, of course, both upon skill in handling the
poultry and upon the capitalization of the plant. It should be recognized
that costs can be only approximate and are usable as guides only. They
will vary according to geographical location, general economic conditions,
labor costs and the bargaining power of the individual. The figures here
given are for a plant comprised of 1,500 laying hens--the minimum number
from which a living can be obtained and probably the maximum number that
can be cared for by one person.
The houses for the flock will necessarily include a laying house of the
multiple unit or other similar type, which should cost about $1,000. In
addition, eight brooder houses will be needed to care for the chicks and
growing stock, costing about $100 each, or a total of $800. The growing
stock when on range will need shelters for protection against hot sun and
rain, and these should be built for about $25 each, or a total of $200,
making a total cost for buildings and the necessary interior equipment
about $2,000. In addition to this item, there will be needed about $1,500
for the purchase of pullets at $1.00 each, making a grand total of $3,500.
If baby chicks are purchased, it will be necessary to buy not less than
4,000 of these if the operator is to obtain 1,500 desirable laying birds.
The cost of these chicks will depend upon the breeding that is behind
them, upon whether they are blood-tested to eliminate bacillary white
diarrhea (a scourge of young chicks) and the general care that has been
taken in the hatchery to produce good, livable chicks. This care,
incidentally, must extend to flocks from which the hatching eggs are
secured, as well as to the final incubating process. Chicks sold at
extremely low prices are rarely bargains. Quality is far more important
than low first cost. Assuming a cost of 14 cents per chick as an average
for chicks that will produce virile, productive layers, the initial
investment for this item will be between $500 and $600. Therefore, if
chicks are purchased, it will reduce the item for stock from the amount of
$1,500 given above, which would represent the cost of partly grown
pullets.
Assuming that the complete poultry plant already stocked will cost $3,500,
we must add to the budget of the prospective poultryman a sum for the
purchase of a farm of from 5 acres upward, including a residence. In most
localities a small tract with a modest house can be purchased for about
$4,000. If only the land is purchased, that should be available at $200 an
acre as a subdivision of a larger tract. Assuming that a house costing
$3,000 will be suitable for the operator and his family, the total outlay
will be in the neighborhood of $7,500. Experienced poultrymen estimate
that a modest poultry farm of the type above described can be put into
operation for an investment of $5 per bird. If it is planned to begin with
a smaller flock than 1,500 individual layers, the same figures can be
applied in proportion to the number of birds to be kept. In short, the
poultry house and equipment should be estimated on the basis of not less
than $1.50 per bird and the cost of the farm, residence and stock will be
in addition to such a charge. The allowance of $1.50 per bird provides
only for simple housing facilities for the flock.
Using these figures, it will be easy to understand the reason for the
general recommendation that a total investment of $10,000 is a requisite
for a poultry establishment from which a modest living can be obtained.
While the investment in housing, land, residence and stock may not exceed
$7,500, there will need to be sufficient capital for paying the living
expenses of the family until the flock begins laying and to enable the
operator to purchase feed and other necessary adjuncts to his
establishment before an income is obtained.
For a flock of smaller size than the so-called maximum one-man type above
described, the costs per bird for the various items will apply in most
cases. It is, in fact, advisable to begin with a smaller flock if the
owner is inexperienced.
_Do's_
Poultry keeping must be efficiently carried on to yield returns to the
country home owner.
Select well-drained soil that is free of infection.
For egg production, use the Leghorn; for both meat and egg purposes, the
American breeds are best.
Standardize on one breed if possible.
Buy the best chicks or mature stock available.
Use a brooder house for the young birds.
The laying house must be well ventilated, fully lighted and easily
cleaned.
Use latest mechanical feeding and watering devices to save labor.
Employ artificial lighting to lengthen the hen's working day.
Work toward the "one-man plant"--a total of 1,500 laying hens--for most
efficient results.
_Don'ts_
Don't try to raise poultry in buildings that may still carry infection.
Don't economize by buying cheap chicks or breeding stock.
Don't overlook importance of health factors and productive qualities in
determining value of stock purchased.
Don't try to operate a poultry plant with ill-adapted buildings and
equipment.
_Chapter_ X
SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY