attention to adequate housing, good stock, facilities for maintaining
sanitation and for creating generally favorable conditions for egg
production. His next problem will be that of adopting successful methods
of management so that he may obtain a satisfactory net income from the
investment.
_Feeds and Feeding._--There are two groups of materials that are essential
in food rations for all ages of poultry. The organic feeds include grains
and grain by-products, hays, grasses and vegetables. The inorganic feeds
include salt to increase palatability and digestibility of the ration;
lime, to aid in building bone and body tissue as well as to furnish the
shell material; bone ash, especially for growing chicks, and water in
liberal amounts supplied by a fountain as well as from succulent green
foods. The fact that a dozen eggs contain approximately one pint of water
demonstrates the necessity of having drinking water before the flock at
all times.
The feeding of baby chicks, young stock and laying hens has been
scientifically worked out by research and practical experience over a
period of many years. The poultryman, especially if he is a novice, will
do well if he carefully observes the recommendations of competent
authorities. The ration for each of the three ages will consist of a grain
feed and a dry mash composed of grain by-products reinforced with
materials that supply the birds' daily nutrition requirements.
The following rations and recommendations for management have been
prepared by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick,
New Jersey:
CHICK RATION
Baby Chick Grain
200 pounds finely cracked yellow corn
100 pounds cracked wheat
Fed morning and evening, beginning when chicks are 36 hours old.
Baby Chick Mash
20 pounds ground yellow corn
20 pounds wheat bran
20 pounds flour middlings
20 pounds pinhead oats
10 pounds meat scrap (50 per cent protein)
5 pounds dried buttermilk or skim-milk
2 pounds oyster shell meal or limestone flour or bone meal
2 pounds cod liver oil (mixed with the pinhead oats)
1 pound table salt
This mash is fed to the chicks as soon as they are placed under the
brooder stove. It may be placed in hoppers. Let the chicks have all
they want to eat; some of the mash should be before them at all
times.
Teach the chicks where to find the warmth by enclosing them for a few
days with a 1/2 inch mesh wire one foot high and set from 10 to 12
inches from the edge of the hover.
Put some clean grit on bits of cardboard in several places around the
hover when the chicks are first brought from the incubator.
A little sour skim-milk or semi-solid buttermilk, diluted 1 to 7 in
founts should be available from the beginning.
After the chicks are 60 hours old or when you are sure they are
hungry, begin to feed, using cardboard in the same manner as before.
Follow the feeding chart.
Feed little and often. Keep the chicks slightly hungry.
Watch for dead chicks and remove them as soon as they are noticed.
Attend to heaters early and late; be sure at all times that they are
in good working order.
Clean out litter, particularly beneath the hover as often as it
becomes soiled.
Induce exercise and keep the youngsters occupied.
Get them out-of-doors as early as possible, even if only for a few
minutes in the warmer part of the day.
Feed green feed. Feed early and late. Keep the chicks growing.
_Growing Stock Ration._--The baby chick mash can be used for feeding the
growing birds, omitting the cod liver oil if they are on range. The baby
chick grain ration can be used also during this period but it need not be
so finely cracked. Plenty of grain should be available at all times.
_Laying Ration._--When the birds are getting ready to lay, the ration
should be changed so that during the winter laying season the mash will
include equal amounts of yellow corn meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings,
ground heavy oats and meat scrap. Twenty-five per cent of dried buttermilk
or skim-milk may be substituted for an equal amount of meat scrap.
The grain ration should consist of equal amounts of cracked or whole
yellow corn and wheat. This should be fed in the late afternoon, giving
sufficient to satisfy the appetites of the birds between the time of going
to roost and a light morning meal. It should be fully consumed by eight
o'clock in the morning. Adequate consumption of mash is a prime requisite
in egg production. The feeding of semi-solid buttermilk at the rate of 3
to 5 pounds to 100 hens daily is recommended. Ten pounds of mangel beets
per 100 hens or 1 square inch of well-sprouted oats per bird will supply
needed green food during the winter.
In many cases it will be found more satisfactory to purchase ready mixed
rations from a local dealer who handles reliable and scientifically
compounded feeds for poultry. This is particularly applicable where the
number of birds is of ordinary proportions. Little, if any, economy will
be found in purchasing small quantities of each ingredient and attempting
to thoroughly mix them at home. If the flock is very large there may be
worth-while economy in home-mixing of the ration. The efficient poultryman
will compare the cost of branded feeds with ingredient costs to guard
against being overcharged.
In addition to the standard rations the growing stock and laying birds
should have access at all times to grit, shell and charcoal, kept in
suitable containers. These may be obtained of the local dealer.
_Sanitation._--When growing stock and laying hens are kept under modern
intensive conditions the observance of the rules of sanitation is
essential. Failure to observe them is likely to result in loss of
production, serious sickness of the flock and the nullifying of all other
constructive factors.
Dropping boards beneath the roosts must be cleaned frequently and
regularly to prevent accumulation of filth. If the dropping boards are
constructed of matched lumber with the boards running in the direction in
which they are to be scraped it will facilitate the cleaning process.
Before the birds are placed in winter quarters the laying house should be
thoroughly cleaned of all litter and debris. The interior may then be
thoroughly sprayed with a disinfectant composed of some good coal tar
preparation, and this repeated in the spring. The surface will need to be
painted with a good disinfectant, of which there are a number of
commercial preparations on the market. A close watch should be made for
vermin in the house and on the birds, and if lice or similar parasites are
discovered, immediate action should be taken to destroy both the adults
and the eggs, since these parasites will debilitate the flock and prevent
their development and may seriously check their ability to lay.
_Management of Artificial Lights._--The electric lights mentioned in the
previous chapter should be turned on about four-thirty in the morning and
kept on until daylight or used for an hour in the late evening. When
lights are used there should be plenty of food and water available to
enable the birds to take advantage of the additional feeding period. The
scratch grain should be increased by 2 pounds daily for each hundred birds
when lights are used. Many poultrymen find it advantageous to have a low
wattage light burning all night so that hungry individuals may get a meal
and return to the perches at all times. Three to five kilowatt hours per
month for each hundred birds represents the average current consumption
where lights are used.
_Practical Suggestions for Efficient Management._--A number of successful
poultrymen were recently asked to state the requisites for success in the
poultry industry, with particular reference to what is known as the
one-man poultry flock. Such a flock is of adequate size to take
practically the full time of one person in its operation. As the result of
the development of standardized feeding practices, improved equipment and
better methods of management, the maximum number of birds that can be
successfully managed by one person has greatly increased in recent years.
Likewise, the problems of proper feeding, adequate disease control and
successful selling have increased as the size of the unit has grown and as
greater intensiveness is practiced.
All of the successful men questioned advised that the keeping of poultry
should be begun in a small way in order that experience can be gained
without the risk of losing the initial investment, or that the intending
operator should gain practical knowledge of the business by working on a
poultry farm for a year. Valuable knowledge can also be gained by
attending short courses in poultry husbandry that are being offered at
most agricultural colleges with a very moderate expenditure of funds.
One of these successful men writes as follows: "We are working with a man
now who was let out of a position recently but who has some savings and
who desires to go into the poultry business. He has purchased six acres of
ground, has built a bungalow on it and has the foundations in for three
laying houses of 500 birds' capacity each. He will have ample range for a
two-yards system for each laying house, and, in addition, will have two
ranges to alternate yearly for growing his young stock. His program calls
for putting out about 2,400 chicks yearly from which he should have at
least 1,000 pullets, which he will house in two of the laying houses. The
following year he will carry over about 500 of these birds and can fill up
with 1,000 pullets. This is to be a one-man plant with possibly some
assistance in the spring.
"I feel that 1,500 birds is the minimum required from which one man can
make a living, and five acres devoted to poultry, properly laid out, is
sufficient area for this purpose. If more land is available, so much the
better. These are minimum requirements, as I see it, and with regular feed
deliveries directly to the poultry house, running water and other
labor-saving devices, there is no reason why one man cannot successfully
take care of this number of birds, particularly where a man is starting on
new ground where there have never been any chickens and therefore less
chance of disease. We advise buying baby chicks rather than partly grown
or mature stock. If he follows a definite economic and sanitary program
right from the start, there is no reason why his plant should not carry on
profitably, indefinitely."
This practical man says further: "It is our experience that the majority
of the people going into the poultry business go in 'blind.' Their chicken
houses are put up irrespective of range facilities and then after two or
three years when they begin to run into trouble they find their mistakes.
I would suggest that you point out to prospective poultrymen the
advisability of first, buying land and developing their own poultry plant
rather than trying to make over someone else's plant; second, buying in a
location where buying and selling facilities have been developed; third,
getting in touch with a reliable local poultryman for guidance in laying
out his plant and following only one advisor. By hooking up with only one
poultryman he is presented with one way of doing things which this
poultryman has found successful in his own business."
Another successful man states that the most economical time to start the
business is in the spring when day-old chicks can be secured and purchased
at a lower cost than is possible in the buying of laying stock at other
seasons of the year. He further advises that the greatest mistake made by
many starting in the poultry business is the lack of adequate capital. Too
many invest all of their money before any income can be secured, according
to this man. Should there be a set-back during the first year or two,
there is no way of continuing and the whole investment may be lost.
Still another practical man states that "Site is, in my opinion, the most
important factor to be considered after the decision is made that a person
wishes to go into the poultry business. Successful poultry keeping
probably requires more careful selection of a farm than any other
agricultural industry. There should be light soil with good air and water
drainage and an area of sufficient size to permit shifting the poultry on
different areas as a means of preventing disease infection and as a means
of securing vigor in the birds." He, too, points out that old poultry
farms should not be considered by prospective poultrymen unless they have
been approved by an expert in these lines, for the reason that these farms
are frequently offered for sale because of persistent disease infection
which it is very difficult to eliminate, or because of some fundamental
difficulty, such as poor soil drainage.
"In the construction of buildings," continues this experienced poultryman,
"sufficient housing should be provided to prevent overcrowding and the
difficulties that come in the train of that condition. About three square
feet of floor space per bird is required for the lighter breeds such as
Leghorns, and four to five square feet per bird for the heavier breeds.
For the one-man plant, the recommendation is for a maximum of about 1,500
birds. This would require from 4,500 to 5,250 square feet of floor space
suitably arranged for the lighter breeds of the Leghorn type. For the
young stock to be used as replacements, seven to ten brooder houses, 10 by
12 feet in size, would be required and about the same number of range
shelters, usually 6 by 8 feet, for the purpose of sheltering growing young
stock from hot sun and heavy rains when they are out on range."
_Probable Net Income._--Many persons who have started in the poultry
business have been misled as to the amount of net income they will be
likely to receive from a one-man plant. It is pretty well established that
in normal times a net income of from $1,500 to $2,500 annually can be
secured from a plant housing 1,500 birds. A great deal depends, of course,
upon the skill of the operator, and a plant of this size requires the full
time of one competent person. It should be borne in mind that this net
income is in addition to the residence and such food as would be taken in
the form of poultry products and from the garden.
_Sales Management._--Every prospective poultry keeper should determine the
marketing possibilities for the product in the area under consideration
before he makes a choice of location. There are at least four methods of
marketing eggs and poultry meat, any one of which can be used exclusively
or two or more used in combination as a means of disposing of the product
to the best advantage. The system that he will adopt will depend largely
upon his location, as well as upon his individual preference, and upon the
facilities that are available in the area where he operates.
In many sections of the country there are cooperative egg marketing
associations where the eggs are received in bulk from the producers, are
graded and marketed in large quantities, the producer receiving the full
selling value less, of course, the costs of operating the distributing
agency. In the northeastern states, egg auctions have been very
successfully developed. Under this system the individual producer brings
his eggs to the auction market where they are graded and sold on the basis
of weight, size and other factors pertaining to quality. In this method of
selling the producer receives a definite price for his eggs less a small
charge per case made by the selling agency.
A successful type of direct marketing is through roadside stands. This is
especially successful in or near large centers of population where eggs
can be purchased, together with other farm commodities, at the same stand.
Another method is the operation of a retail route in which the producer
sells the eggs by the door-to-door method in a near-by city. This method
is followed successfully by many poultrymen who deliver eggs as regularly
as the milk distributor or the baker deliver their products.
Still another method is the use of mail or express as a means of
transporting the eggs to consumers in urban centers. This method, while
largely in use some years ago, has not proved so generally successful as
have some of the other methods previously given.
A well-organized program of work is essential in successful poultry
keeping. The following schedule is followed by many successful poultrymen
as a means of distributing their time to the best advantage during the
day.
A POULTRYMAN'S DAILY TIME TABLE
Based on a One-man 1,500-bird Farm Producing Market Eggs
7:00-8:00 A.M.--Feed and water all stock.
8:00-9:00 A.M.--Fill mash hoppers and clean dropping boards.
9:00-11:00 A.M.--Two hours for cleaning houses, cultivating yards,
repairing of buildings, preparation of egg cases,
packing eggs and miscellaneous jobs.
11:00-12:00 M.--Feed green feed and collect eggs.
12:00-1:00 P.M.--Lunch hour.
1:00-2:00 P.M.--Water all stock.
2:00-4:00 P.M.--Same work as from 9:00 to 11:00 A.M.
4:00-5:00 P.M.--Feed and collect eggs.
_Ducks, Geese, Turkeys and Other Fowl._--While the raising and keeping of
chickens occupy the largest and most important part of the general
operation of poultry keeping, there is a growing interest in the
production of other types of fowl, including ducks, geese, turkeys, and in
some instances, guinea fowl and pheasants. Each of these really
constitutes a separate and distinct poultry industry, requiring specific
feeding, breeding and management practices. Some of the fundamental
factors in the care of these types of poultry are given for the beginner.
In the case of these fowl, as in chickens, it is essential to start in a
small way and develop as experience dictates.
_Ducks._--From a rather obscure and unknown source of poultry meat, the
duck and the duckling have become common to restaurants and the home
table. This has been accomplished through the operations of large
commercial duck farms which sell hundreds of thousands of birds annually.
The selection of breed types, proper feeding and management and skillful
marketing have made it possible to attract a wide public interest and an
appetite for these fowls on a permanent basis.
The best known varieties of ducks are the Indian Runner, a small type and
primarily an egg producer; the Muscovy and the Pekin, both of which are
used for meat purposes, the former being best adapted to general farm use
and the latter to intensive breeding on large establishments devoted
solely to the purpose of duck raising. The old simile, "Like a duck takes
to water," implies the fondness of ducks for the aquatic element. However,
ducks will do well without swimming facilities.
Incubation of duck eggs can be carried on in the same manner as chicken
eggs, except that more moisture is essential to good hatches. The period
of incubation is 28 days for all types, except for the Muscovy, for which
it is 33 to 35 days. The growing birds, like mature ducks, are hardy and
ordinarily show a much lower mortality percentage than chickens. If only a
few ducks are kept, they will follow the habits of a flock of chickens and
need be given no special attention. When they are raised without other
poultry an open shed is all that is necessary for winter quarters and
some shade arrangement for protection against hot summer sun.
The feed rations that have been given for baby chicks and growing stock
can be used for ducks, or any standard commercial feed for the respective
ages. It is recommended that the chick and growing mashes be mixed with
fine, chopped greens such as cabbage or lawn clippings, and sufficient
water added to the mixture to make it moist. One pound of sand or grit may
be added to furnish the duck with grinding material. Fresh water in
shallow dishes should be available during the feeding periods which ought
to be three times a day. For the mature birds, the laying mash, previously
given, and moistened, will be found satisfactory with fresh greens added,
unless grass is available on range. Hoppers containing sand or grit should
be available if a number of ducks are kept.
_Geese._--Geese can be raised successfully wherever other types of poultry
will grow. That they are not so popular as ducks is shown by the fact that
only about one-third as many geese as ducks are raised in this country.
The most popular breeds, in order of popularity, are Toulouse, Embden,
African and Chinese. The Toulouse is the largest and most favored, the
mature gander weighing 26 pounds and the adult goose about 20 pounds.
Geese are usually kept in small numbers in areas where there is an
abundance of grass and a supply of water for swimming. They, like ducks,
are hardy and are rarely affected with diseases or parasites. A plentiful
supply of grass is sufficient feed for the growing goslings. The demand
and prices for geese are lower than for most other types of poultry. For
housing, only a shed in winter and a sun-shade in summer are required.
The period of incubation varies from 30 to 35 days, depending upon the
size of the breed. The young goslings are easily killed by excessive
moisture or may become lost and therefore they require considerable
attention during the early stages. A good food for the goslings is stale
bread soaked in milk or water, fed after they are 48 hours old. Scalded
cracked corn may also be given or a mash made of four parts corn meal and
one part grain middlings. Plenty of drinking water is essential. Whole
grain may be fed after the goslings are well feathered. When the geese
near the marketing period they should be kept in confinement and fed a
moist mash made of one part grain shorts and two parts corn meal. A
bedding of short straw will keep the fattening pens clean and provide
roughage. Best prices are obtainable during the late fall and early winter
months.
_Turkeys._--Because the turkey is such a popular form of meat during the
holidays and so much attention is directed to it as an indigenous native
bird, it rivals the American eagle as a national emblem. Turkey raising on
a commercial scale has had its ups and downs for a great many years. One
of the principal scourges has been the so-called black-head disease and
this has destroyed the industry in many areas. It is now known that this
disease is carried by a small parasitic worm common to chickens, which,
however, it apparently does not seriously injure. The black-head germ,
carried by this worm, clogs the blood in the head of the turkey and causes
quick death. For this reason, it has been found impracticable to raise
turkeys where chickens are present, unless they are kept entirely separate
by confinement.
The principal varieties of domesticated turkeys are the Bronze, White
Holland, Bourbon Red, Black, Narragansett and Slate. All are large,
handsome birds, each breed having a following of admirers. The Bronze is
the largest and heaviest and most popular, the mature adult male weighing
36 pounds and the mature hen 20 pounds. Under ordinary conditions turkeys
do not require much in the way of housing, except in cold weather when
covered roosting sheds should be available. The period of incubation is
28 days and they may be hatched under the same conditions as chickens. The
day-old young birds, or poults as they are called, can be shipped in the
same manner as day-old chicks.
For feeding the poults, the United States Department of Agriculture
recommends fine-chopped hard-boiled eggs, including the shell, mixed with
green feed for the first ten days. This may be followed by feeding the
chick ration previously mentioned. Milk, especially buttermilk, is
excellent for the poults, and grit must be provided if it is not available
on range. Cod liver oil will be found helpful if added to the ration.
Turkeys are great rangers and travelers if they have the opportunity and
will pick up enough insects to keep them going through the day. A grain
ration should be fed just before they go to roost. Where they are raised
in confinement, or semi-confinement, more food must be given and under
these conditions the strictest sanitation must be practiced.