understood by progressive farmers is the use of legumes to improve the
soil. The legumes include a large family of plants of which the bean, the
pea and the clovers are outstanding examples. Such plants have on their
roots nodules which house nitrogen-gathering bacteria. These bacteria
absorb nitrogen from the air in the soil and, in the ordinary process of
growth, death and decay, make this nitrogen available to the host plants,
leaving a residue in the soil for the roots of plants that are to follow.
Thus this group of plants, known as legumes, have been used for
generations as a method of increasing the nitrogen content of soils.
Nitrogen, incidentally, is the most costly element to buy in commercial
fertilizers. The soil-improving benefits of legumes may be secured by
growing them either for harvest as a source of animal food or for plowing
under as a means of utilizing them entirely for the development of soil
fertility.
In reading of the studies of soil fertility that were made by George
Washington at Mount Vernon, we learn of the improvement that he made in
the relatively poor soils of that area by growing plants of the legume
family. The actual reason why such improvement was brought about was not
known in Washington's time, but the results were apparent. Today, the
value of legumes as soil builders is well recognized and we understand
much more definitely than Washington did the reasons for their being so
helpful in increasing crop production.
Many soil areas do not contain the particular type of bacteria necessary
to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes. This is frequently the
cause of failure in growing alfalfa, soybeans, cowpeas and less well known
members of the legume family. Each legume has its own type of
nodule-forming bacteria. In order to assure the presence of the proper
bacterial family, means often must be employed to add them to the soil
where the specific crop is to be grown. This may be accomplished by adding
soil from an area where the legume does well to the new area, or the seed
may be inoculated with commercial cultures before seeding. Either method
is effective. If soil is used it should be drilled in or spread on a
cloudy day to prevent the destructive action of the sun's rays on the
exposed minute forms of plant life we call bacteria.
If it is not known that the legume to be planted has been grown
successfully in a given field within the previous several years, the
precaution of adding the proper bacteria should be taken. In some
sections, such legumes as red, alsike, crimson and white clovers have been
grown for many years and the bacteria for these plants are well
distributed. There, inoculation is not necessary for these crops, but it
probably should be practiced if other legumes such as alfalfa, cowpeas or
soybeans are to be grown on land for the first time.
_The Value of Humus._--In addition to the chemical elements of plant food,
all productive soils contain decaying vegetable matter, generally
classified under the term "humus." Humus serves as a source of
acid-generating material which further breaks down soil particles and,
most important of all, serves as a food for millions of microscopic plants
which develop and die quite beyond the scope of human vision. These
constitute a type of bacteria which are distinctly beneficial and
essential to human life since they make possible the growth of larger
plants that serve as human food.
Green plants, straw or leaves, when plowed under or spaded in the soil,
are attacked by bacterial agencies which gradually turn these products
into humus. The same process occurs when a "compost" is set up. This is
made of leaves, manure, soil, straw and other materials thrown into a
heap and allowed to decay. Such compost is excellent for placing around
plants when setting them out, since it holds moisture, supplies fertility
and creates optimum conditions for young root growth. Under practical
field conditions, humus may be added to soils by spreading animal manures,
followed by plowing them down, or by the growing of heavy green crops such
as wheat, rye, cowpeas or vetch and turning the entire mass under with the
plow when they are at their height.
_Lime and Its Application._--Reference has been made to the fact that
calcium is an essential plant food and is frequently deficient in soils.
As a matter of fact, the great majority of soils are deficient in calcium
and their productiveness is inhibited thereby. Lime supplies calcium and
also magnesium as food for plants. Its application accomplishes many other
desirable things such as correcting soil acidity. The growth of beneficial
bacteria is greatly stimulated in a soil that has had its acidity
neutralized by the application of lime. This product, therefore, creates a
more congenial condition for the growth of bacteria, which, in turn, make
for better crop production. Lime is also beneficial through furnishing the
element calcium with which other plant foods combine chemically and
thereby become soluble in the soil water. Unless plant foods are in a
state of solution, they cannot be absorbed by plant roots. Lime is a
potent force in creating chemical reactions in the soil, resulting in the
stimulation of growth through increased absorption of essential elements
in solution.
Lime also benefits soils of a clayey nature through its ability to cement
together the fine clay particles and in that way create air spaces so
greatly needed in tight clay soils. Lime is beneficial, too, in the case
of soils which have a large proportion of sand or large particles, and
serves as an agent in creating a better condition of tilth and of moisture
retention.
It makes little difference in what form lime is applied. It may be
purchased and applied in the form of ground limestone, a rock rich in
calcium which has been mechanically ground to a very great degree of
fineness. It can also be applied in the form of hydrated lime. This is
obtained by heating ground limestone and slaking it by adding water. A
common example of this is the slaking of lime for whitewashing purposes.
Another good source of lime is finely ground shells of oysters or other
forms of sea life which collect the calcium from sea water and deposit it
in their shells.
_Adjusting the Water Content of Soils._--Aside from the supplying of water
by irrigation, a rather costly process under most conditions, the water
resources of most soils can be greatly increased by adding to their humus
content. Humus, which, it has been pointed out, is decaying vegetable
matter, serves as a sponge for the absorption of soil water and for
underground water supplies. Therefore, the more humus that can be plowed
into the soil, other conditions being equal, the greater is the ability of
the plants growing in that soil to withstand drouth. As soils are
cultivated, the tendency is for the humus to become "burned out" and to
have a reduced moisture-holding capacity. To overcome this tendency, it is
necessary to add vegetable matter to the soil whenever it is possible.
Incidentally, the incorporation of large quantities of humus in the soil
creates a condition of acidity which may call for the application of lime
as a corrective.
There are many acres of land which contain too much water in the area that
roots should penetrate to permit of optimum plant growth. Roots of most
plants will not penetrate where there is an excess of water, and air
cannot circulate where moisture is superabundant. Usually these conditions
exist where the soil is of a clayey nature. The abundance of water may be
caused by the inability of surface water to percolate through the soil. It
may take so long, due to the nature of the soil, for this water to pass
through the lower depths of subsoil that the roots of plants are destroyed
by lack of oxygen. In such cases the application of lime, increasing the
humus content, and deeper plowing will be found helpful. Occasionally, the
discharge of dynamite or blasting powder in the area, if it appears to be
in the form of a pocket, will break up the hard pan subsoil and permit the
water to escape. Less dependence is now being placed on this means of
correcting a wet condition of the soil than was the case some years ago.
A similar condition of overabundant water in soil may be due to the
presence of springs or to a high water table. Little can be done to
correct a condition where the water table itself is so close to the
surface as to inhibit plant growth and this is assuredly one of the
factors to be looked into before a tract is purchased. Where the surplus
water is evidently being supplied by a spring, an underdrain made of tile
pipe, 3 or 4 inches in diameter, can be laid as a means of conducting the
water into a ditch or adjoining drain. In laying such a drain, it should
be placed above the area where the wet soil surface is most evident. If
such a drain is laid 18 inches to 3 feet deep above the wet area, it will
cut off the water seeping down underground and carry it away. Good results
cannot be secured if the drain is laid directly in the area of extreme
wetness or if it does not cut off the flow of water before it reaches the
area that is consistently too wet for plant growth.
From what has been said in this brief description of soil treatment and
soil improvement, it is evident that one must live with his soil for some
time in order to understand it and to be able intelligently to correct its
deficiencies, overcome its weaknesses and make it capable of supporting
plants which are desirable from the owner's point of view. In the great
majority of cases, the improvement process, while a slow one, is far from
hopeless and almost any soil that is not extremely sandy or clayey can be
so intelligently treated as to make it productive.
_Cultivation._--Any discussion of soil treatment is not complete without
mention of cultivation. Intelligent cultivation is an essential factor in
securing adequate crops. It is interesting to recall that the word
"manure," which has come to mean fertilization or fertilizer, is derived
from the Latin word "_manus_" meaning "hand" and implying "manipulation"
of the soil, which we now call cultivation. Cultivation has been most
frequently practiced as a method of destroying weeds, thereby making all
of the available plant food subject to absorption by the roots of the
desired plants and not by the intruders we call weeds. Cultivation does
more than destroy weeds, however. It opens up the soil so that air
containing atmospheric nitrogen can penetrate it and so that the bacteria
requiring air for their best growth may have it available. Furthermore,
cultivation conserves moisture and is more essential during dry periods in
the growing season than at any other time.
We know that in entering the soil the rain water follows certain channels
in and around the soil particles on its way to the subsoil. When the rain
has ceased and the top layer of soil becomes dry, the tendency is for the
water to work up through these same channels to the surface, where it
evaporates. Cultivation, by breaking up these channels, or capillary
tubes, checks the escape of moisture into the air. It creates a blanket of
dry surface soil which insulates the soil moisture from the air above. The
tendency of soil moisture to reestablish capillary methods of escape makes
recultivation necessary from time to time in dry weather. Care must, of
course, be taken that the cultivation is not harmful to roots of growing
plants. If these roots are disturbed or destroyed through cultivation,
more harm than good may result because of the damage to the root systems.
_Farm Power and Equipment._--Where the land area to be cultivated is
larger than the family garden some type of equipment for working the land,
propelled by horse or motor, will be found desirable and in larger areas
essential. One or more horses may be used where there are stabling
facilities and where arrangements can be made for the daily care and
feeding that these animals require. A horse suitable for work purposes may
be obtained for less than $200. The price will, of course, depend upon the
age and physical soundness of the animal, but should not exceed $150 for a
physically sound animal under ten years old. A person unskilled in the
assessing of animal values should obtain the services of a veterinarian or
an experienced horseman in making a selection. A horse for this purpose
should be of quiet, tractable disposition, bred and broken for work
purposes. The cost of caring for a horse for one year will approximate
$125, including feed and bedding, but without labor charge.
Leather harness costing $25 to $50 will be required and in addition tools,
including a plow, a harrow, and a cultivator costing about $15 each. Other
special equipment such as a mower will cost considerably more, depending
upon the type used.
If the members of the family are fond of animals and willing to assume the
responsibility for their daily care, the horse will be found an efficient
and useful source of power for tilling the land. In this connection it
should be pointed out that flies breed with great rapidity in the strawy
manure of the stable, and such wastes should be spread upon the land
almost daily or treated to prevent fly-breeding.
_Tractor Power._--Just as large tractors have supplanted horses and
horse-drawn equipment on thousands of farms in the United States, the
so-called garden tractor has become increasingly popular for the tilling
of small acreages. The tractor requires "feed" only when it is working, is
not subject to the ills that beset animals, and may be used for
twenty-four hours a day if necessary. It makes an appeal to the
mechanically minded members of the household and, if properly cared for,
will give economical and lasting service.
The usual type of garden tractor consists of two large wheels with lugs on
them to give traction and is driven by a one- or two-cylinder motor. A
plow, a cultivator, or mower may be attached to the drawbar, the operator
walking behind and regulating the speed and guiding the outfit by handles
provided for the purpose. Earlier types of these machines were not always
satisfactory owing to construction weaknesses and occasionally balky
motors. Those now on the market, however, are greatly improved, require
less attention, and rival their big brothers, the powerful farm tractors,
in dependability.
There are a number of types and makes of garden tractors now on the
market, ranging in price from $175 or less to $400, the cost depending
largely upon the size and capacity of the motor. In selecting a
satisfactory garden tractor attention should be directed to the simplicity
and power of the motor, the type of bearings, the method of lubrication of
all moving parts, the working speed and the economy of fuel. Bearings
ought to be of standard, long-wearing type since these are subject to hard
service. Two speeds are desirable, a slow one for heavy duty and a faster
one for lighter work. The tractor should operate all day on about 2
gallons of gasoline and a quart of oil. In addition to power applied at
the drawbar where special tools are attached, a pulley will be found a
desirable accessory for operating belt machinery such as small feed mills,
pumps, and cream separators. The rating of the motor should be not less
than 3 horsepower at the drawbar for the ordinary tasks it will be called
upon to perform.
All types of attachments are available for the garden tractor. These
include plows, disks, harrows, cultivators, mowers, fertilizer
distributors, planters, sowers and seeding accessories. The prices of
these vary according to make and quality. Levers are provided for
adjusting the depth of plowing, cultivating and seeding. Some of the large
type garden tractors are equipped with a seat on a sulky attached to the
machine so that the operator can ride and have complete control over speed
and the type of work he wishes to do. A modern garden tractor will be
found very useful in taking care of a lawn or garden. In the case of
larger areas under cultivation, but not of field size, this type of
machine is rapidly gaining popularity for performing efficiently and
economically the numerous jobs that are to be done on every small farm.
_Do's_
Select a soil type that is inherently productive, fertile, retentive of
moisture and easily cultivated.
Supplement soil fertility by adding chemical fertilizers either singly or
in combination.
Buy mixed fertilizers on the basis of guaranteed analyses.
Use legumes (peas, beans, etc.) to add nitrogen to soils and increase
humus content.
Add specific bacteria for the production of various legumes.
Use manure and green crops to supply humus.
Apply lime when soil test shows need for it as plant food and general soil
improver.
Practice methods that make soils absorptive of moisture and permit escape
of excess water.
Cultivate the soil to check escape of moisture and to kill weeds.
Use a horse or garden tractor for cultivation of areas larger than the
family garden.
_Don'ts_
Don't buy land that is continually wet and swampy.
Don't expect to produce satisfactory crops on soils that are extremely
heavy or clayey or so sandy as to quickly lose moisture and fertility.
Don't try to produce crops without maintaining the humus supply in the
soil.
Don't neglect cultivation as a means of conserving moisture, destroying
weeds and stimulating root growth.
_Chapter_ VII
FOOD FROM THE GARDEN
The home vegetable garden should supply an important part of the food for
every family living in the country. Vegetables that are of the right
varieties and that are fresh and properly prepared are nutritious,
wholesome and economical. Not only does the well-organized home garden
reduce the cost of feeding the family, but it constitutes an effective
method of maintaining better health among all members of the household.
Even common vegetables that are grown from the best varieties and served
fresh will be a revelation to those accustomed to buying them in stores.
Deterioration in quality and palatability begins immediately in vegetables
when they are harvested. The more perishable the commodity, the greater is
the rate of deterioration.
The commercial vegetable grower usually inclines toward varieties that are
capable of producing a heavy yield per acre or that stand shipment and
temporary storage with the least apparent loss from deterioration. In
order to have his products reach the consumer in an attractive condition,
the commercial grower usually must harvest them before they are at their
best. The channels through which vegetables and fruits pass on their way
to the city consumer are devious, slow and costly. Such a consumer
therefore usually receives so-called fresh products that have been removed
from the plant or the soil before maturity is attained and after such
already poor quality has deteriorated through aging processes.
All these disadvantages of vegetables purchased in the city are eliminated
by the possessor of a garden where he may produce his family's needs (and
they are genuine needs) in the way of fresh vegetables. These products are
essential in supplying such necessary elements as minerals, vitamins,
acids, and cellulose. Dietary authorities advise that leafy vegetables,
sometimes called "greens," contain food elements not found in root
vegetables. For the maintenance of health, the diet should include a
variety of vegetables besides potatoes.
_Assets of a Garden._--A garden is a source of recreation, pleasure and
satisfaction to every member of the family. Real enjoyment can be had by
working in it a little time each day. To those whose work may be sedentary
and of a routine nature, the garden furnishes a source of inspiration
and adventure. Daily evidences of plant growth and the novelty of having
vegetables of one's own growing stimulate interest in it. The garden is an
aid in maintaining health through physical exercise and the liberal
consumption of the fruits of labor. There is no other avenue of activity
that can afford so much in the way of health, economical recreation and
pleasure as a well-planned garden.
[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_)
The well-planned garden furnishes food throughout the year for the entire
family.]
Having decided on a garden, the question immediately arises as to the
procedure to be followed to get the most out of it. Special attention has
been given to this problem by experts throughout the country and specific
recommendations are now available on the subject at state agricultural
colleges. These cover varieties, planting dates, adequate area,
fertilization, rotation of crops and storage. Typical recommendations
along these lines are given here for the north-central and eastern states.
Readers living elsewhere may wish to check them with the practices
recommended by authorities in their home states.
_Vegetable Growing by Rule._--The most effective method of presenting the
story of recommended vegetables, desirable varieties, seed required,
average yields and other pertinent data is in tabular form, such as that
used in Table I, which has been prepared for the aid of home vegetable
gardeners by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, and which is
based on years of study of the subject. Table II, prepared by the Michigan
State College of Agriculture, shows the amount of seed that should be
purchased to supply an adequate quantity and variety of important
vegetables for a family of six persons.
Examination of the planting table will show that the setting of plants or
roots is occasionally recommended instead of the use of seed. This is
desirable in some cases to get quicker results and in other cases is
essential if a crop is to be secured during a normal growing season. While
it is possible for the grower to raise these plants, or sets, himself,
usually more satisfactory results can be obtained through buying them from
a capable plant grower. The growing of sets is a specialized business
requiring conditions of heat, moisture, fertility and skill, frequently
beyond the patience and capacity of the amateur. There are plant growers
in nearly every neighborhood who will grow the needed plants at small
cost. Arrangements should be made in advance for growing the varieties or
strains that are wanted, and usually the grower can furnish his own seed
for the plants if that seems desirable to him. One desiring to grow one's
own plants from seed can secure full information from a practical grower
or from state and county agricultural agencies.
TABLE I
PLANTING TABLE FOR VEGETABLES[1]