relative prices prevailing for different kinds. Recent developments in oil
heating bring this fuel in close competition from the standpoint of
economy with coal or coke. Oil is particularly adaptable as a source of
fuel in homes in the country since tank trucks can readily deliver oil to
the home owner. Improvements in securing the maximum efficiency from all
types of fuel are being developed continually; and there are now on the
market furnaces, using anthracite or bituminous coal as fuel, which offer
many advantages that were unknown to older types.
_Fireplace Construction._--An open fireplace where wood can be used as
fuel is a great source of satisfaction and pleasure, as well as a comfort,
in country homes. Wood of proper length for fireplace burning can be
readily secured in the country and there is ample room for storing it.
Where the house is small in size, such wood fires can be used for heating
the house satisfactorily in spring and fall and can be used to supplement
other types of heating when desired.
No country home can be considered complete without a fireplace. The
comfort and homelike atmosphere that it gives make it a general asset for
the enjoyment of the family circle. Fireplaces should be constructed so as
to insure a good draft with a maximum of heat radiation. It is desirable
to build in the fireplace flue a damper which can be open when the fire is
burning and can be shut when it is desired to keep heat from escaping from
the room via the chimney. It is also a convenience to have a trap opening
placed in the back of the fireplace on the floor so that ashes may be
removed in this manner, eliminating the labor of carrying them from the
fireplace.
_Sewerage of Farm Homes._--All wastes from the farm home coming under the
term of sewage should go direct to a septic tank. Here the sewage is held
in a quiet state for a period of time, and through bacterial processes,
the organic matter is destroyed. A septic-tank installation consists of
four parts: first, the house sewer from house to tank; second, the sewage
tank, consisting of one or more chambers; third, the sewer from tank to
distribution field; fourth, the distribution field where the sewage is
distributed, sometimes called the absorption field. Plans for sewerage
construction may be obtained from state and local boards of health and
from federal health and agricultural agencies.
[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_)
An adequate sewage disposal plant is essential and inexpensive. A
practical one is shown here.]
The Rural Engineering Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment
Station recommends that the septic tank have a capacity adequate to hold
all the water used by the family for two entire days. For a family of six
persons the inside dimensions of the tank should be 4 feet in width with a
length of 4 feet in the first chamber and 3 feet in the second chamber.
The depth of water should be 4 feet, giving the tank a capacity of over
600 gallons, thus allowing 100 gallons for each person during the
forty-eight-hour period. The entire tank will be 4 feet wide, 8-1/2 feet
long and 6-1/2 feet deep.
Septic tanks are usually built of solid concrete, concrete blocks or
brick, waterproofed on the inside to prevent escape of the contents except
through the outlets described. These outlets should be 100 to 150 feet
away from any source of water supply to prevent contamination of potable
water.
Leading from the outlet of the second chamber, several lines of tile 10 to
14 inches in depth should be laid at a gentle slope away from the tank,
permitting escape of the effluent at each joint. For a family of six
persons a total length of 150 feet of tile pipe will be sufficient in most
types of soil.
_Food Storage._--Every country home should have a basement in which a room
can be set apart for cold storage. Such a place is suitable for keeping
supplies of potatoes and other root crops, as well as commodities that
deteriorate under conditions of warmth. Surplus supplies of food from the
garden can be placed in such storages and be readily available for use
during the winter. With the surplus of perishable food products in cans
and with a good supply of non-perishable products in such a type of
storage room, economies in food purchase can be effected and the
healthfulness of the family maintained through their use when fresh
products are difficult to secure or are unseasonable and expensive.
If a basement is not available for food storage, root crops can be stored
outside the house and kept during the winter. These products should be
piled in a heap, covered with straw or other clean, loose material and
the mound then covered with earth. In this manner, potatoes and similar
crops can be kept throughout the winter and until late in the spring
without serious deterioration. It is important to select a site for such
outdoor storage that is well drained so that water will not collect and
freeze in the storage area.
_Services Available to the Country Resident._--Public agencies are
available for help in solving the problems of country residents, varying
from agricultural and horticultural practices to building construction,
water supply and sewage disposal. As a rule, these services are of advice
and suggestion, are free of cost and may be utilized freely by those
living in the country.
Most of the counties in the United States have a county agricultural
agent, who is located at the county seat and whose territory covers only
the county in which he resides. The costs of such service are paid by
federal and state appropriations, frequently supplemented by county
appropriations, and also frequently through annual individual
subscriptions. The county agricultural agent is really a field
representative of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the
state agricultural college in the state where he works. There is hardly a
problem of the country resident for which he cannot obtain aid from the
county agricultural agent. In many of the more thickly populated areas the
problems of the family getting a location on the land for a home are
already well known to the agricultural agent and he is therefore in a
position to guide the newcomer and help him to prevent mistakes.
In many counties there is also a home economics service connected with the
office of the county agricultural agent and supported in the same general
manner. This service, along the lines which the name implies, is available
to the country home maker. Groups of women are organized and meet at
intervals for discussions on food preparation, canning and storage and the
making of clothing for the family.
In nearly every state there is a state department of agriculture with
regulatory and promotional activities and dealing especially with law
enforcement provisions passed by the respective legislatures. These
agencies are also concerned with development of marketing facilities in
many states. They are supported by state and federal funds and carry on
such projects as the testing of cattle for tuberculosis, treatment in
prevention of communicable animal diseases and the control of insect and
fungous pests through quarantine and inspection activities. These
departments are located at the state capitols and information on the
services available can be secured by addressing the department in the
state where one resides.
Because there is a lack of understanding among newcomers to the country of
the services that are available through these agencies without cost, this
particular mention of them is made. It is recommended that each family get
in touch with the county agricultural agent, the college of agriculture
and the department of agriculture and learn definitely of the help that
can be secured without cost in meeting the problems of country life.
_Electric Wiring Principles._--Public utilities are organized to furnish
electric service and it will be found that they are ready to assist
customers in securing the most satisfactory use of electricity. Such
knowledge, based on experience, will be valuable in helping owners to
avoid costly mistakes and to provide for a wiring system that will be
economical and yet complete. When the plans and specifications of the
wiring system have been worked out, it is important to secure bids from
reliable contractors. Only those contractors who can do the work in a
capable manner should be employed and it should be determined in advance
that the installation will be in strict compliance with the National
Electrical Code. For wiring work it is necessary to know the number of
amperes the wire is to carry. This may be determined by dividing the load
in watts by the voltage which is to be used.
The service lateral is a system of wires which form a path over which
electricity is carried from the main line to the house. This is generally
built by the utility company and its cost will depend upon the distance of
the residence from the main line and whether the owner furnishes poles,
labor, etc.
Wires should be of such size as to give sufficient mechanical strength to
stand up under sleet conditions. Usually three entrance wires are used to
carry the electric energy from the utility connection to the house. The
lateral is the electrical doorway to the farm and is the most essential
part of the wiring system. The wires should be of adequate size so as to
provide proper voltage and give complete electrical service for all
ordinary requirements of current.
It is important to see that the electrical equipment is properly
"grounded," that is, the connecting to earth of certain metallic objects
which are near power conductors. The purpose is to carry to the earth any
heavy electrical charge which might exist on such objects and cause
electrical shocks when they are touched. Grounding may be secured by
connecting with water pipes that reach some depth under ground, or driven
pipe may be used as a means of securing intimate contact with moist earth.
Recommendations for outlets from the electrical wires in the house call
for centering ceiling lighting outlets, and placing wall brackets about
5-1/2 feet above the floor. Convenient outlets in the kitchen and bathroom
should be about 33 inches above the floor. In other locations they are
usually best placed in the baseboard. Wall switches are usually located 4
feet above the floor. A switch should be located at each door to a room or
entrance to a hall and in many cases three-way switches can be used to
advantage, since these afford control over the same lighting from two
separate locations.
With these general observations on a rather complicated subject, most of
which are based on the excellent recommendations of the National Committee
on the Relation of Electricity to Agriculture, the home owner should be in
a position to take care of his needs properly, bearing in mind that the
system of wiring should be adequate in every respect and the number of
outlets sufficiently numerous to provide easy and convenient service
throughout the house. An official check-up should be made of all
installations after completion. The method of securing such inspection
can be obtained through a local electrical contractor.
[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_)
Ground floor plan of a house, showing the number, the type, and the
location of electrical current outlets.]
_Tank Gas Supply._--A service of supplying compressed gas in portable
tanks has recently been developed for country homes located away from
public gas lines. This gas can be used either with a specially adapted
range which is supplied as part of the service or in some cases with an
ordinary gas range. Companies offering this service are located in most
cities and are understood to be willing to supply residences anywhere with
gas. The cost of first installation of the system is about $40. Renewals
cost approximately $12 per cylinder of gas. Each cylinder will supply a
family of four with gas for three to four months, making a monthly bill of
from $3 to $4, which compares favorably with artificial gas supply through
a meter from pipe lines. This gas may be used for any purpose for which
any other gas is adapted. The gas and the servicing of it constitute a
boon to country residents from the standpoint of utility and economy. It
is especially desirable for those previously accustomed to city gas
supplies and to whom the use of any other type of fuel is strange and
somewhat of a problem.
_Do's_
Remember that important service factors include mail delivery, telephone,
electricity, water supply and sewage disposal.
Be sure of adequate water supply of good quality.
Obtain artesian water supply wherever possible.
Provide for such heating facilities as the budget can stand.
Select the heating system in relation to fuel costs.
Make sure that the sewerage system is adequate for waste disposal.
Use fully such governmental agencies as county agents, home demonstration
agents, experiment stations and agricultural colleges, state and federal
departments of agriculture.
Provide storage space for surplus food products.
Remember electric wiring requires skilled workmanship.
Investigate advantages and costs of tank gas as a cooking fuel.
_Don'ts_
Don't forget that services automatically available to urban residents must
be planned for in the country.
Don't neglect construction defects that prevent full benefits from heating
system.
Don't overlook the advantages of a well-built fireplace.
Don't install electrical service without full attention to principles of
convenience, safety and economy involved.
_Chapter_ VI
MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS
There are many treatises available that deal with the soil, its
composition and its treatment. No attempt will be made here to go
exhaustively into that subject. There are a few fundamental factors,
however, which the potential owner should know regarding soil treatment,
for that is the base upon which he will build his income-producing
operations.
The particles of soil have had their genesis in rock. The rock has become
disintegrated and decomposed through natural processes. The action of the
weather is the most important factor in creating soil. Water falling on
rock not only wears it away mechanically, but through certain mild acid
elements which it acquires, disintegrates the binding materials that hold
rock segments together. In addition, there is the action of frost and
freezing, too, making the moisture in rock expand and contract and thereby
causing the breaking down of the segments. With this action is coupled
that of hot suns which cause expansion and breaking up of the rock as it
becomes heated and cooled under atmospheric influence.
A great deal of the soil surface in many sections of the country is the
result of glacial action. These glaciers not only eroded the surface,
thereby creating millions of rock particles, but they also carried large
deposits of the rock particles to more distant areas and deposited them
over a subsoil that may be totally different in character from the surface
soil thus deposited.
_How Tillable Soil Is Made._--The action of plants themselves has a great
effect in adding to our supply of tillable soil. Seeds of plants or seeds
of trees become established in some slightly weathered rock areas and
begin to grow. The roots penetrate wherever there is any loose soil, and
partly by their pressure and partly through the acidity accompanying
decomposing plant tissue, complete a further breaking down of the rock.
There is a continuous process of destruction of rocks and leveling off of
mountains and hills to fill the valleys below.
Many groups of deep-rooted plants tend to increase the depth of the
surface soil by growth of the roots in the subsoil and by creating therein
a condition approaching that which already exists on the surface. The
action of earth worms and similar forms of life in bringing subsoil to
the top and in opening channels through which water and surface air can
penetrate constitutes another continually operating force in the creation
of a productive soil. A deeper layer of productive soil can also be
created through a plan of consistently deeper plowing, bringing up with
each annual plowing operation a small portion of subsoil which, when mixed
with the surface soil, tends to become like it.
[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Department of Conservation and
Development_)
Soil is created from rock by nature's weathering processes and by plant
growth. At the bottom may be seen solid rock; just above are
disintegrating rock fragments, and at the top, the soil.]
Every type of real soil contains all the elements of plant growth. This
plant food results from a breaking down of soil particles and the setting
free of chemical elements which, either singly or in combination, serve as
food for plants.
Whatever the type of soil may be, it will be found that certain crops will
make better growth in it than others. As a general rule, it may be said
that the only way to determine which plants will grow best on a given soil
is by the trial-and-error method. However, by observation of the growth on
similar types of soil we can learn something of a soil's crop
adaptability. There are some crops that will grow in almost any soil and
there are others that need an exactness of texture, moisture and plant
food which makes them highly specialized products. The operator must learn
how to work in harmony with the peculiarities of his own soil before he
can hope to get the best results.
In acquiring a tract for the growing of plants of any kind it is desirable
to get a soil type that will meet the requirements of most plants. As a
general rule, this type contains enough clay to be retentive of moisture,
enough sand to be easily worked and is generally suitable for bacterial
growth. In other words, what is commonly called a loam is the ideal type
for general agricultural and horticultural purposes. This may be a heavy
loam, in which clay predominates, or a so-called light loam, in which sand
particles predominate. An examination of a handful of soil by a person
experienced in farming will indicate its nature and its adaptability to
ordinary crop production.
_Essential Elements of Plant Food._--Countless scientific experiments in
plant growth show that potassium, lime, phosphorus, magnesium, iron,
sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are essential to normal
development. The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements make up nearly 99
per cent of the entire composition of the plant and are derived from the
atmosphere. All of the other elements are derived from the soil except in
the case of peas, beans, clovers and other legumes which secure most of
their nitrogen from the air.
The mineral elements are not needed in large amounts but well-balanced
plant growth is strictly dependent upon their presence in available form.
Of these elements, those most likely to be deficient either in total
amount or in availability are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium.
It is entirely feasible and economical to apply concentrated chemical
fertilizers containing the first three elements so that their lack will
not constitute a limit to size of crops harvested. In many cases it is
necessary to apply chemical fertilizers to get satisfactory yields, even
where natural manures are available and can be applied as well.
In addition to supplying essential plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium perform specific functions in plant growth. The application of
nitrogen in one of its readily available forms (e.g., nitrate of soda and
sulphate of ammonia) will stimulate vegetative growth. If too much of this
one element is applied, leaf and branch development may occur at the
expense of the crop. Good results follow the use of nitrogen on grass sods
and on leafy vegetables like spinach. On the other hand, corn, peas, beans
and other seed-forming crops need to have the nitrogen balanced with
phosphorus. Potatoes, in common with other tuber and root crops, will
utilize plenty of potassium in the development of starch.
_Sources of Plant Food._--Chemical fertilizers can be purchased at supply
stores in ready mixed condition and of analyses that will meet general
crop needs. A good formula for such a general purpose fertilizer is 4 to 5
per cent nitrogen, 7 to 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 to 10 per cent
potash to the ton. It is known that such a mixture will supply the food
needs of a large variety of plants in balanced amounts. Highly
concentrated mixtures are now on the market providing double the amount of
plant food in the example quoted, costing nearly twice as much but
effecting a saving by cutting in half the material handled to get the same
result. Care should be taken, in using these highly concentrated
fertilizers, to avoid contact with tender roots. A mixture for general
farm and garden purposes may contain the following ingredients:
100 pounds nitrate of soda
230 pounds sulphate of ammonia
250 pounds animal tankage (7 per cent nitrogen)
1,140 pounds superphosphate (16 per cent phosphoric acid)
280 pounds muriate of potash (50 per cent potash)
-----
2,000 pounds.
This mixture will have a formula of 4-9-7 (4 per cent nitrogen, 9 per cent
phosphoric acid and 7 per cent potassium). The individual who wishes to
mix his own fertilizer may do so by purchasing the finely ground
ingredients separately, and by means of a shovel, integrate them all into
a mixture. Home mixing will not be found profitable where small amounts of
fertilizer are used. Those who practice home mixing for the first time
should realize that most combinations of ingredients will "set" or harden
if not used immediately, necessitating the breaking up and pulverizing of
the mass. When it is broken up after curing, no further difficulty should
be experienced with "setting" if the mixture is kept in a dry place. The
advantages of home mixing for the large user lie in lower cost per ton of
plant food as a rule; confidence in the quality of the ingredients which
he should purchase on the basis of guaranteed analysis; and the setting up
of a mixture which study of his soil and the plant requirements has
convinced him is best suited for his individual case.
_Chemical Soil Analysis Not Helpful._--There is a mistaken notion that it
is necessary to analyze soils chemically in order to fertilize them
intelligently. Such an analysis of a reasonably fertile soil will show the
presence of the essential elements of plant food, though perhaps not all
in sufficient amounts, to produce ordinary crops for centuries to come.
Only a small amount of the elements become available for root absorption
each year and a chemical analysis will not bring out this most important
factor--availability. The use of a few simple tests, mainly of a physical
nature by a competent soils specialist, will prove of some assistance in
the treatment of the soil. Such tests will show the presence of adequate
amounts of humus, and indicate the acidity content. The soil texture will
give some index of its crop adaptability and thereby serve as a basis for
fertilizing treatment that will meet the needs of both soil and crop. The
practical man will not expect any considerable aid from a highly technical
and costly chemical analysis of his soil.
Another factor that militates against worth-while benefits of chemical
soil analysis is the great variation in soil types frequently occurring in
the same field. To attempt to draw a representative sample by mixing soil
from several areas might result in a specimen that would not be really
typical of any area. For the purpose of ordinary physical examination and
testing for acidity, representative soil samples should be taken from
several parts of the same soil type, mixed together and a composite sample
for testing drawn from the mixture, weighing not less than a pound in each
case. If the soil is quite apparently variable it may be necessary to draw
two or more composite samples from the same area. Very helpful service in
intelligent soil treatment may be secured from the county agricultural
agent and the state college of agriculture in the county or state of
residence.