PALAEOLITHIC MAN
The fossil remains described in the preceding chapter possess good claims
to that most interesting position, viz. an intermediate one between
Mankind and the more highly-developed of the Apes.
From such remarkable claimants we turn to consider fossil bones of
undoubted human nature. Of such examples some have been regarded as
differing from all other human types to such an extent as to justify
their segregation in a distinct species or even genus. Yet even were such
separation fully justified, they are still indubitably human.
In the early phases of the study of prehistoric archaeology, the
distinction of a 'stone age' from those of metals was soon realised.
Credit is due to the present Lord Avebury[9] for the subdivision of that
period into the earlier and later parts known as the Palaeolithic and
Neolithic stages. At first, those subdivisions possessed no connotation
of anatomical or ethnical significance. But as research progressed, the
existence of a representative human type specially characteristic of the
palaeolithic period passed from the stage of surmise to that of
certainty. Yet, although characteristic, this type is not the only one
recognisable in those early days.
In the following pages, some account is given of the most recent
discoveries of human remains to which Palaeolithic antiquity can
undoubtedly be assigned. The very numerous works relating to prehistoric
man are full of discussions of such specimens as those found in the
Neanderthal, at Spy, Engis, Malarnaud, La Naulette or Denise.
That some of these examples are of great antiquity is inferred from the
circumstances under which they were discovered. The evidence relates
either to their association with extinct animals such as the Mammoth, or
again the bones may have been found at great depths from the surface, in
strata judged to have been undisturbed since the remains were deposited.
One of the earliest discoveries was that of the Engis skull; the
differences separating this skull from those of modern Europeans are so
extraordinarily slight that doubt has been expressed as to the antiquity
assigned to the specimen, and indeed this doubt has not been finally
dispelled. The bones from Denise (now rehabilitated in respect of their
antiquity by Professor Boule) present similar features. But on the other
hand the jaws found at La Naulette and Malarnaud suggest the former
existence of a lowlier and more bestial form of humanity. Support is
provided by the famous skull of the Neanderthal, but in regard to the
latter, conclusive evidence (as distinct from presumption) is
unfortunately lacking. Further confirmation is given by the Forbes Quarry
skull from Gibraltar, but although its resemblance to that of the
Neanderthal was clearly noted by Dr Busk and Sir William Turner[10] as
long ago as 1864, the specimen was long neglected. In this case, as in
that of the Neanderthal, corroborative evidence as to the geological or
archaeological horizon is lamentably defective. After a lapse of some
twenty years, the discoveries of human skeletons at Spy in Belgium,
undoubtedly associated as they were with remains of Mammoth, threw a
flood of light on the subject, and enormously enhanced the significance
of the earlier discoveries. The former existence in Europe of a human
type, different from all other known inhabitants of that continent, and
presenting no small resemblance to the lowliest modern representatives of
mankind, may be said to have been finally established by the results of
the excavations at Spy. Moreover the differences thus recognised are such
as to lend strong support to the evolutionary view as to the origin of
the more recent human stocks from an ancestral series including
representatives of a simian phase. Yet the co-existence of a higher type
represented by the Engis skull must not be overlooked, nor indeed has
this been the case. The significance of so remarkable a phenomenon is
more fully discussed in the sequel; but no detailed account of the
earlier discoveries need be given. A bibliography is appended and here
references (H[oe]rnes[44], 1908; Schwalbe[55]) will be found to the more
important sources of information upon those specimens.
_Locality_ | _Date_ | _Literary reference_ | _Synonyms_
| | |
Taubach | 1895 | Nehring[11] |
Krapina | 1899 | Kramberger[12] |
S. Brélade | 1910-11 | Marett[13] |
La Chapelle aux | 1908 | Boule[14] | "Corrèze"
Saints | | |
Le Moustier | 1908 | Klaatsch[15] | "Homo mousterensis
| | | hauseri"
La Ferrassie | 1909 | Peyrony[16] |
Pech de l'Aze | 1909 | Peyrony[16] |
Forbes Quarry | 1848-1909 | Sollas[17] Sera[18] | "Gibraltar"
Andalusia | 1910 | Verner[19] |
Grotte des | 1902-06 | Verneau[20] | "Grimaldi"
Enfants | | |
Baradero | 1887 | (S. Roth) Lehmann- |
| | Nitsche (1907)[21] |
Monte Hermoso | ? | Lehmann-Nitsche | "Homo neogaeus"
| | (1909)[22] |
Combe Capelle | 1909 | Klaatsch[23] | "Homo aurignacensis
| | | hauseri"
Galley Hill | 1895 | Newton[24] | "Homo fossilis"
In the present instance, an attempt will be made to provide some account
of the most recent advances gained through the results of excavations
carried out in late years. And herein, prominence will be given in the
first place to such human remains as are assignable to the lowlier human
type represented previously by the Spy skeletons. Following upon these,
come examples possessing other characters and therefore not referable to
the same type.
The discoveries are commonly designated by the name of the locality in
which they were made. Those selected for particular mention are
enumerated in the list on p. 20.
_Taubach in Saxe-Weimar._
Certain specimens discovered at Taubach and first described in 1895
possess an importance second only to that of the Mauer jaw and of the
Javan bones found by Professor Dubois. Indeed there would be
justification for associating the three localities in the present series
of descriptions. But upon consideration, it was decided to bring the
Taubach finds into the present place and group. It may be added that they
are assigned to an epoch not very different from that represented by the
Mauer strata whence the mandible was obtained.
[Illustration: Fig. 3. The grinding surface of the first right lower
molar tooth from Taubach. The letters denote several
small prominences called cusps.]
[Illustration: Fig. 4. The grinding surface of the corresponding tooth
(cf. Fig. 3) of a Chimpanzee. (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6 are
much enlarged.)]
The actual material consists only of two human teeth of the molar series.
One is the first lower 'milk' molar of the left side. This tooth exceeds
most corresponding modern examples in its dimensions. In a large
collection of modern teeth from Berlin no example provided dimensions so
large. The surface is more worn than is usual in modern milk teeth of
this kind. The second tooth (Fig. 3) is the first lower 'permanent' molar
of the left side. It bears five cusps. Neither this number of cusps, nor
its absolute dimensions, confer distinction upon the tooth. Its chief
claim to notice is based upon its relative narrowness from side to side.
That narrowness (proportion of transverse to anteroposterior diameter),
represented by the ratio 84.6:100, is present in a distinctly unusual and
almost simian degree. In this character the Taubach tooth resembles the
same tooth of the Chimpanzee (Fig. 4), to which it stands nearer than
does the corresponding tooth of the Mauer jaw. The manner in which the
worn surface of the tooth slopes downwards and forwards has been claimed
as another simian character. In these respects, the Taubach tooth is
among the most ape-like of human teeth (whether prehistoric or recent) as
yet recorded, and in my opinion there is some difficulty in deciding
whether this is the tooth of a human being or of a pithecoid human
precursor. There is a very slight tendency (Figs. 5, 6) to concrescence
of the roots, and these are curiously parallel in direction, when viewed
from the side. In the latter respect no similarity to the teeth of apes
can be recognised.
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Inner side of the Taubach tooth.]
[Illustration: Fig. 6. Outer side of the same. (From Nehring.)]
_Krapina in Croatia._
Next in order to the discovery of human teeth at Taubach, the results of
excavations in a so-called 'rock-shelter' on the bank of the river
Krapini[vc]a in Croatia, call for consideration. Immense numbers of bones
were obtained, and the remains of a large number of human beings were
found to be mingled with those of various animals. Apart from their
abundance, the fragmentary character of the human bones is very
remarkable. The discovery that one particular stratum in the cave
consisted mainly of burnt human bones has suggested that some of the
early inhabitants of the Krapina shelter practised cannibalism.
Indeed this view is definitely adopted by Professor Kramberger, and he
makes the suggestion that the remains include representatives of those
who practised as well as those who suffered from this custom. Both young
individuals and those of mature age are represented, but very aged
persons have not been recognised.
Turning to the details of the actual bones, the conclusion of outstanding
interest is the recognition of further instances of the type of the
Neanderthal and of Spy, the latter discovery being separated by a lapse
of twenty years and more from that at Krapina. An attempt has been made
to reconstruct one skull, and the result is shewn in Fig. 7, which
provides a view of the specimen in profile. Viewed from above, the chief
character is the width of the cranial portion, which exceeds very
distinctly in this respect the corresponding diameter in the more classic
examples from the Neanderthal and Spy. It is very important to note that
the brain-case is thus shewn to be remarkably capacious, and this is all
the more remarkable since the limb-bones do not denote a very great
stature or bulk.
[Illustration: Fig. 7. Profile view of a reconstructed human skull from
Krapina. (From Birkner, after Kramberger.)]
Having recently examined the specimens now in the Museum of Palaeontology
at Agram in Croatia, I venture to add some notes made on that occasion.
The Krapina skull-fragments and the head of a femur are certainly most
impressive. It is shewn that early palaeolithic man presents examples of
skulls both of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic proportions.
Variations in the form and arrangement of the facial bones also occur.
The form and proportions of the brain-case have been noted already. The
profile view (cf. Fig. 7) shews the distinctive features of the brow
region. The brow-ridges are very large, but they do not absolutely
conform to the conditions presented by the corresponding parts in the
skulls of aboriginal Australian or Tasmanian natives. The region of the
forehead above the brows is in some instances (but not in all) flattened
or retreating, and this feature is indicated even in some small fragments
by the oblique direction of the lamina cribrosa of the ethmoid bone.
Two types of upper jaw are distinguishable: no specimen projects forwards
so far as might be expected, but the teeth are curiously curved downwards
(as in some crania of aboriginal Australians). The facial surface of the
jaw is not depressed to form a 'canine fossa.' The nasal bones are
flattened.
The mandibles present further remarkable characters. By these again, two
types have been rendered capable of distinction. In their massiveness
they are unsurpassed save by the mandible from Mauer. In absolute width
one specimen actually surpasses the Mauer jaw, but yet fails to rival
that bone in respect of the great width found to characterise the
ascending ramus in that example. In the Krapina jaws, the chin is absent
or at best feebly developed. In one specimen the body of the jaw is bent
at an angle between the canine and first premolar tooth, and is thus
reminiscent of the simian jaw. Behind the incisor teeth the conformation
is peculiar, again suggestive of the arrangement seen in the Mauer jaw,
and differing from that found in more recent human specimens.
The distinction of two types of lower jaw was made in the following
manner. The bone was placed on a flat surface. The vertical height of the
tooth-bearing part was measured in two regions, (_a_) near the front,
(_b_) further back, and close to the second molar tooth (cf. Fig. 2_f_,
_g_). In some of the bones these measurements are nearly equal, but the
hinder one is always the less. In the instances in which the two
measurements approximate to one another, the proportion is as 100:92. In
other instances the corresponding proportion differed, the ratio being
about 100:86 or less. The former type is considered by Professor
Kramberger to indicate a special variety (krapinensis) of the Neanderthal
or _Homo primigenius_ type. The second type is that of the Spy mandible
No. 1. Professor Schwalbe[25] (1906) objects to the distinction, urging
that the indices (92 and 86) are not sufficiently contrasted. However
this may be, it is noteworthy that other bones shew differences. Thus
the curvature of the forehead is a variable feature, some skulls having
had foreheads much flatter and more retreating than others. The limb
bones are also called upon to provide evidence. Some of the arm-bones and
thigh-bones are longer and more slender than others.
How far these differences really penetrated and whether the thesis of two
types can be fully sustained, does not appear to admit of a final answer.
The view here adopted is that, on the whole, the distinction will be
confirmed. But nevertheless I am far from supporting in all respects the
view of Professor Klaatsch to whose imagination we owe the suggestion of
realistic tableaux depicting the murderous conflict of the two tribes at
Krapina, the butchery of one act culminating suitably in a scene of
cannibalism. Nor am I persuaded that either variety or type found at
Krapina can be reasonably identified with that of the Galley Hill
skeleton. But of these matters further discussion is reserved for the
sequel.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Tracings (from skiagrams) of various molar
teeth. The specimen _K.o._ from Krapina shews the
conjoined roots characteristic of teeth found at Krapina,
and in Jersey at S. Brélade's Bay. The large pulp-cavity
of the Krapina teeth should be noted. _K.o._, _K.C._,
_K.E._, _K.G._, from Krapina; _H._ Mauer. (From
Kramberger.)]
This brief sketch of the cranial characters of the Krapina remains must
be supplemented by a note on the teeth. Great numbers were found, and
some of them are of enormous dimensions, surpassing those of the Mauer
jaw. But some of the molar teeth are further distinguished in a very
remarkable way, for the roots supporting the crown of the tooth are
conjoined or fused: they are not distinct or divergent as is usual. The
contrast thus provided by these anomalous teeth is well illustrated in
the accompanying figure (8, _Ko_). Now such fusion of roots is not
absolutely unknown at the present day; but the third molar or wisdom
tooth is most frequently affected. The occurrence is extremely unusual in
the other molar teeth of modern men. Yet among the Krapina teeth, such
fusion is striking both in its degree and in its frequency. So marked a
characteristic has attracted much attention. Professor Kramberger holds
the view that it constituted a feature of adaptation peculiar to the
Palaeolithic men of Krapina. In opposition to this, Professor Adloff
holds that the character is so definite and marked as to enter into the
category of distinctive and specific conformations. The discussion of
these views was carried on somewhat warmly, but yet to some extent
fruitlessly so long as the only known examples were those from Krapina.
Dr Laloy supported Professor Kramberger, and on the other side may be
ranged the support of Professor Walkhoff. But a recent discovery has very
substantially fortified the view adopted by Professor Adloff and his
supporters. For in a cave near S. Brélade's Bay in Jersey, the
explorations of Messrs Nicolle, Sinel and Marett (1910-1911) have brought
to light Palaeolithic human teeth of very similar form. They are said
indeed by Dr Keith to be precisely comparable to those from Krapina. The
conjoined roots of such teeth should be regarded therefore as more than a
peculiarity of the Palaeolithic men of Croatia, and rather as a very
definite means of assigning to a particular Palaeolithic epoch any other
instances of a similar nature. Space will not admit of more than a
simple record of two other features of the Krapina teeth. They are (_a_)
the curvature of the canine teeth and (_b_) the remarkable size and
extent of the 'pulp-cavity' (cf. Fig. 8, _Ko_) of the molar teeth. In
entering upon so protracted a discussion of this part of the evidence,
the excuse is proffered that, as may be noted in the instances at Trinil
and Taubach, teeth are remarkably well-fitted for preservation in the
fossil state, since they may be preserved in circumstances leading to the
complete destruction of other parts of the skeleton.
The limb bones of the Krapina skeletons are chiefly remarkable for the
variety they present. Some are short and stout, of almost pygmy
proportions: others are long and slender, inappropriate in these respects
to the massive skull fragments which predominate. The distinction of two
human types upon evidence furnished by the limb bones has already been
mentioned.
_S. Brélade's Bay, Jersey._
A cave in this locality has been explored during the last two years
(1910, 1911). Human remains are represented by the teeth already
mentioned on account of their resemblance to those found at Krapina. The
resemblance depends primarily upon the curious fusion of the roots in the
molar teeth. Moreover, the circumference of the combined and thickened
roots is so great as to confer a most remarkable 'columnar' appearance
on the affected teeth (cf. fig. 8, _K.o._). The teeth from Krapina and
Jersey while thus associated must be contrasted with some specimens which
they resemble in other respects. The corresponding teeth in the Mauer jaw
have been described as similar to those from Krapina, but I cannot
confirm this from Dr Schoetensack's illustrations, of which fig. 8 (_H_)
is a fair representation. The teeth of the Forbes Quarry and Le Moustier
specimens do not conform to the precise requirements of the test. The Spy
teeth are said to have three distinct roots save in two cases, where the
numbers are four and two respectively. The test of combined molar roots
therefore provides a means of subdividing a group of examples otherwise
similar, rather than a mark of recognition applicable to all alike.
The S. Brélade teeth also resemble those from Krapina in the proportions
of their crowns and the unusually large size of the pulp-cavity. The
latter character may prove more important than the fusion of the roots.
But the evidence of their surroundings assigns the teeth from Jersey to
an epoch less ancient than that of the Krapina men.
_La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corrèze)._
[Illustration: Fig. 9. Profile view of the skull from La
Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corrèze). (From Birkner,
after Boule.)]
The human skeleton from La Chapelle-aux-Saints holds a very distinguished
position among its congeners. In the first place, the discovery was not
haphazard, but made by two very competent observers during their
excavations. Again, the remains comprise not only the nearly intact
brain-case, but much of the facial part of the skull, together with the
lower jaw and many bones of the trunk and limbs. The individual was a
male of mature age, but not senile (Manouvrier). For these reasons, the
value of this skeleton in evidence is singularly great.
Speaking generally, the specimen is found to resemble very closely the
Neanderthal skeleton in practically every structure and feature common to
the two individuals. This correspondence is confirmatory therefore of the
view which assigns great antiquity to the Neanderthal man, and in
addition to this, further support is given to the recognition of these
examples (together with those from Spy and Krapina) as representatives of
a widely distributed type. It is increasingly difficult to claim them as
individual variations which have been preserved fortuitously.
Beyond these inferences, the skeleton from La Chapelle adds very greatly
to the sum total of our knowledge of the structural details of these
skeletons. For here the facial bones are well preserved. Before
proceeding to their consideration reference should be made to the side
view of the skull (Fig. 9), as well as to the tracings of the brain-case
brought into comparison with those provided by the Neanderthal and Spy
crania. In the case of one illustration of those tracings (Fig. 10) it
must be remarked that objection is taken by Professor Klaatsch to the
base-line selected, though in this particular instance, that objection
has less weight than in others.
[Illustration: Fig. 10. Outline tracings (cf. Fig. 1) of various human
skulls of the Palaeolithic Age. (From Boule.)]
Turning to the facial parts of the skull, the brows will be seen to
overhang the face less than in many crania of aboriginal Australians.
Prognathism, _i.e._ projection of the jaws (Fig. 11), though distinct, is
less pronounced than might be expected. Hereby the reconstruction of the
facial parts of the Neanderthal skull, as prepared by Professor Klaatsch,
is shewn to be much exaggerated. The skeleton of the nose reveals some
simian traits, and on either side, the canine fossa (below the eye) is
shallow or non-existent. A good deal of stress has been laid on this
character, perhaps more than is justifiable. Yet it is quite uncommon in
this degree among modern European crania, though alleged by Giuffrida
Ruggeri to characterise certain skulls from the Far East. The
reconstructed skull contains teeth which are large and in the incisor
region (_i.e._ in front) are much curved downwards in the direction of
their length. But this, though probably correct, is yet a matter of
inference, for only a couple of teeth (the second premolars of the left
side) were found _in situ_. And so far no detailed description of these
teeth has appeared. The mandible is of extraordinary dimensions; very
widely separated 'ascending rami' converge to the massive body of the
jaw. The sigmoid notch is almost as shallow as in the Mauer jaw. The chin
is retreating or absent.
[Illustration: Fig. 11. Contours of two skulls, _A_ of a New Guinea
man; _B_ of an European woman. The angle _B.PR.P_
measures the degree of prognathism, and in this respect,
the two specimens are strongly contrasted. (From
specimens in the Cambridge Museum.)]
Such are the more easily recognisable features of the skull. It will be
understood that many more details remain for discussion. But within the
allotted space, two only can be dealt with. The capacity of the
brain-case is surprisingly large, for it is estimated at 1600 cubic
centimetres: from this figure (which will be the subject of further
discussion in the sequel) it appears that the man of La Chapelle was
amply provided with cerebral material for all ordinary needs as judged
even by modern standards. In the second place, MM. Boule and Anthony, not
content with a mere estimate of capacity, have published an elaborate
account of the form of the brain as revealed by a cast of the interior
of the brain-case. As the main result of their investigations, they are
enabled to record a list of characters indicative of a comparatively
lowly status as regards the form of the brain, although in actual size it
leaves little to be desired.
The principal points of interest in the remainder of the skeleton refer
in the first instance to the estimate of stature and the evidence
provided as to the natural pose and attitude of the individual. Using
Professor Pearson's table, I estimate the stature as being from 1600 to
1620 mm. (5ft. 3in. or 5ft. 4in.), a result almost identical with the
estimate given for the Neanderthal man. In both, the limb bones are
relatively thick and massive, and by the curvature of the thigh-bones and
of the upper parts of the shin-bones, a suggestion is given of the
peculiar gait described by Professor Manouvrier as 'la marche en
flexion'; the distinctive feature consists in an incompleteness of the
straightening of the knee-joint as the limb is swung forwards between
successive steps.
The bones of the foot are not lacking in interest, and, in particular,
that called astragalus is provided with an unusually extensive
joint-surface on its outer aspect. In this respect it becomes liable to
comparison with the corresponding bone in the feet of climbing animals,
whether simian or other.
That these features of the bone in question are not peculiar to the
skeleton from La Chapelle, is shewn by their occurrence in bones of
corresponding antiquity from La Quina (Martin, 1911) and (it is also
said) from La Ferrassie (Boule, L'Anthropologie, Mai-Juin, 1911).
_Homo mousterensis hauseri_ (_Dordogne_)
This skeleton was discovered in the lower rock-shelter of Le Moustier
(Dordogne, France) in the course of excavations carried out by Professor
Hauser (of Swiss nationality) during the year 1908. The final removal of
the bones was conducted in the presence of a number of German
archaeologists expressly invited to attend. The omission to inform or
invite any French archaeologists, and the immediate removal of the bones
to Breslau, are regrettable incidents which cast a shadow quite
unnecessarily on an event of great archaeological interest. By a curious
coincidence this took place a few days after the discovery of the human
skeleton of La Chapelle (_v. supra_). The two finds are very fortunately
complementary to each other in several respects, for the Dordogne
skeleton is that of a youth, whereas the individual of La Chapelle was
fully mature. In their main characters, the two skeletons are very
similar, so that in the present account it will be necessary only to
mention the more important features revealed by the study of the Dordogne
specimen. Outline drawings of the two skulls are compared with the
corresponding contour of the Neanderthal calvaria by Klaatsch.
[Illustration: Fig. 12. Outline tracing of a cast of the Moustier skull
(Dordogne). (From a specimen in the Cambridge Museum.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 13. Tracings from casts (in the Cambridge Museum)
of the jaw-bone from Mauer and of that of the Moustier
skeleton. The Mauer jaw is indicated by the continuous
line.]
In the Dordogne youth the bones were far more fragile than in the older
man from La Chapelle. Nevertheless, photographs taken while the bones
were still _in situ_ but uncovered, provide a means of realising many
features of interest. Moreover although the face in particular was
greatly damaged, yet the teeth are perfectly preserved, and were replaced
in the reconstructed skull of which a representation is shewn in Fig. 12.
This reconstruction cannot however be described as a happy result of the
great labour bestowed upon it. In particular it is almost certain that
the skull is now more prognathous than in its natural state. Apart from
such drawbacks the value of the specimen is very great, and this is
especially the case in regard to the teeth and the lower jaw. The former
are remarkably large, and they agree herein with the teeth from Krapina
(though their roots are distinct and not conjoined as in the Krapina
examples). In respect of size, the teeth of the Dordogne individual
surpass those of the Mauer jaw, but the first lower molar has proportions
similar to the corresponding tooth of that specimen. But, large as they
are, the lower teeth are implanted in a mandible falling far short of the
Mauer jaw in respect of size and weight (Fig. 13). In fact one of the
great characteristics of the Dordogne skeleton is the inadequacy of the
mandible when compared to the remainder of the skull, even though
allowance is made for the youth of the individual. Were it not that the
facts are beyond dispute, it is difficult to imagine that such a mandible
could be associated with so large and capacious a cranium. And yet the
jaw is not devoid of points in which it resembles the Mauer bone, in
spite of its much smaller bulk. Thus the chin is defective, the lower
border undulating, and the ascending branch is wide in proportion to its
height. A good idea of these features is provided by the illustration of
the side-view (cf. Fig. 14) given by Professor Frizzi. Seen from above,
the contour is in close agreement with that of several well-known
examples, such as the jaws from Spy (cf. Fig. 15) and Krapina.
[Illustration: Fig. 14. Outline tracings of jaw-bones. In the lower
row, sections are represented as made vertically in the
median plane through the chin, which is either receding
or prominent. In this series, the numbers refer to those
given in the upper set. (From Frizzi.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 15. Outline tracings of jaw-bones viewed from above.
_A_ an ancient Briton (cf. Fig. 2, _B_). _B_ Moustier.
_C_ Mauer. (_B_ and _C_ are from casts in the Cambridge
Museum.)]
The limb bones agree in general appearance with those of the skeletons of
the Neanderthal and La Chapelle. Though absolutely smaller than in those
examples, they are yet similar in regard to their stoutness. The femur is
short and curved, and the articular ends are disproportionately large as
judged by modern standards. The tibia is prismatic, resembling herein the
corresponding bone in the Spy skeleton. It is not flattened or
sabre-like, as in certain other prehistoric skeletons.
Another point of interest derived from the study of the limb bones is the
stature they indicate. Having regard to all the bones available, a mean
value of about 1500 mm. (about 4 ft. 11 in.) is thus inferred. Yet the
youth was certainly 16 years of age and might have been as much as 19
years. The comparison of stature with that of the other examples
described is given in a later chapter. At present, it is important to
remark that in view of this determination (of 4 ft. 11 in.) and even when
allowance is made for further growth in stature the large size of the
skull must be regarded as very extraordinary indeed. A similar remark
applies to the estimate of the capacity of the brain-case. A moderate
estimate gives 1600 c.c. as the capacity of the brain-case (practically
identical with that of the La Chapelle skull). In modern Europeans of
about 5 ft. 6 in., this high figure would not cause surprise. In a modern
European of the same stature as the Dordogne man (4 ft. 11 in.), so
capacious a brain-case would be regarded if not as a pathological
anomaly, yet certainly as the extreme upper limit of normal variation.
Without insisting further on this paradoxical result (which is partly due
to defective observations), it will suffice to remark that early
Palaeolithic man was furnished with a very adequate quantity of
brain-material, whatever its quality may have been. In regard to the
amount, no symptom or sign of an inferior evolutionary status can be
detected.
_La Ferrassie_ (_Dordogne, France_).
This discovery was made in a rock-shelter during its excavation in the
autumn of 1909 by M. Peyrony. A human skeleton was found in the floor of
the grotto, and below strata characterised by Mousterian implements. The
bones were excessively fragile, and though the greatest care was taken in
their removal, the skull on arrival at Paris was in a condition described
by Professor Boule (L'Anthropologie, 1911, p. 118) as 'très brisée.' No
detailed account has yet appeared, though even in its fragmentary
condition, the specimen is sure to provide valuable information. From the
photographs taken while the skeleton lay _in situ_ after its exposure, it
is difficult to arrive at a definite conclusion as to its characters. But
in regard to these, some resemblance at least (in the jaws) to the
Neanderthal type can be detected.
M. Peyrony found also in the same year and in the same region (at Le Pech
de l'Aze) the cranium of a child, assignable to the same epoch as the
skeleton of La Ferrassie. But so far no further details have been
published.
_Forbes Quarry_ (_Gibraltar_).
The human skull thus designated was found in the year 1848. It was, so to
speak, rediscovered by Messrs Busk and Falconer. The former authority
described the specimen in 1864, but this description is only known from
an abstract in the Reports of the British Association. Broca published an
account of the osteological characters a few years later. After 1882, the
skull again fell into obscurity for some twenty years: thereafter it
attracted the attention of Dr Macnamara, Professor Schwalbe, and above
all of Professor Sollas, who published the first detailed and critical
account in 1907. This has stimulated yet other researches, particularly
those of Professor Sera (of Florence) in 1909, and the literature thus
growing up bids fair to rival that of the Neanderthal skeleton. A most
important feature of the specimen consists in the fact that the bones of
the face have remained intact and in connection with the skull. But the
mandible is wanting, and the molar teeth of the upper set are absent.
As may be gathered from the tracing published by Dr Sera (cf. Fig. 16)
the upper part of the brain-case is imperfect. Nevertheless the contour
has been restored, and the Neanderthal-like features of distinct
brow-ridges, followed by a low flattened cranial curve, are recognisable
at once. The facial profile is almost complete, and in this respect the
Forbes Quarry skull stood alone until the discovery of the specimen from
La Chapelle. Since that incident, this distinction is not absolute, but
the Forbes Quarry skull is still unique amidst the other fossils in
respect of the bones forming what is called the cranial base. In no
other specimen hitherto found, are these bones so complete, or so well
preserved in their natural position.
[Illustration: Fig. 16. Outline tracing and sectional view of the
Gibraltar (Forbes Quarry) skull. The various angles are
used for comparative purposes. (From Sera.)]
The Forbes Quarry skull is clearly of Neanderthaloid type as regards the
formation of the brain-case; in respect of the face it resembles in
general the skull from La Chapelle. But in respect of the estimated
capacity of the brain-case (estimated at 1100 c.c.), the Forbes Quarry
skull falls far short of both those other examples. Moreover the cranial
base assigns to it an extremely lowly position. The individual is
supposed by some to have been of the female sex, but there is no great
certainty about this surmise. The enormous size of the eye-cavities and
of the opening of the nose confer a very peculiar appearance upon the
face, and are best seen in the full-face view. Some other features of the
skull will be considered in the concluding chapter, when its relation to
skulls of the Neanderthal type will be discussed in detail.
_Andalusia, Spain._
In 1910, Colonel Willoughby Verner discovered several fragments of a
human skeleton in a cave in the Serranía de Ronda. These fragments have
been presented to the Hunterian Museum. They seem to be absolutely
mineralised. Though imperfect, they indicate that their possessor was
adult and of pygmy stature. The thigh-bone in particular is of interest,
for an upper fragment presents a curious conformation of the rounded
prominence called the greater trochanter. In this feature, and in regard
to the small size of the head of the bone, the femur is found to differ
from most other ancient fossil thigh-bones, and from those of modern
human beings, with the exception of some pygmy types, viz. the dwarf-like
cave-dwellers of Aurignac (compared by Pruner-Bey in 1868 to the
Bushmen), the aborigines of the Andaman islands, and the aboriginal
Bushmen of South Africa. A full description of the bones has not been
published, but will probably appear very shortly.
_Grimaldi_ (_Mentone Caves_).
Among the numerous human skeletons yielded by the caves of Mentone, two
were discovered at a great depth in a cave known as the 'Grotte des
Enfants.' The excavations were set on foot by the Prince of Monaco, and
these particular skeletons have been designated the 'Grimaldi' remains.
Their chief interest (apart from the evidence as to a definite interment
having taken place) consists in the alleged presence of 'negroid'
characters. The skeletons are those of a young man (cf. Fig. 17), and an
aged woman. The late Professor Gaudry examined the jaw of the male
skeleton. He noted the large dimensions of the teeth, the prognathism,
the feeble development of the chin, and upon such grounds pointed out the
similarity of this jaw to those of aboriginal natives of Australia. Some
years later Dr Verneau, in describing the same remains, based a claim to
(African) negroid affinity on those characters, adding thereto evidence
drawn from a study of the limb bones. In both male and female alike, the
lower limbs are long and slender, while the forearm and shin-bones are
relatively long when compared respectively with the arm and the
thigh-bones.
[Illustration: Fig. 17. Profile view of young male skull of the type
designated that of 'Grimaldi,' and alleged to present
'negroid' features. _Locality._ Deeper strata in the
Grotte des Enfants, Mentone. (From Birkner, after
Verneau, modified.)]
From a review of the evidence it seems that the term 'negroid' is
scarcely justified, and there is no doubt that the Grimaldi skeletons
could be matched without difficulty by skeletons of even recent date.
Herein they are strongly contrasted with skeletons of the Neanderthal
group. And although modern Europeans undoubtedly may possess any of the
osteological characters claimed as 'negroid' by Dr Verneau, nevertheless
the African negro races possess those characters more frequently and more
markedly. Caution in accepting the designation 'negroid' is therefore
based upon reluctance to allow positive evidence from two or three
characters to outweigh numerous negative indications; and besides this
consideration, it will be admitted that two specimens provide but a
feeble basis for supporting the superstructure thus laid on their
characters. Lastly Dr Verneau has been at some pains to shew that skulls
of the 'Grimaldi-negroid' type persist in modern times. Yet the
possessors of many and probably most such modern crania were white men
and not negroes.
Enough has however been related to shew how widely the skeletons from the
'Grotte des Enfants' differ from the Palaeolithic remains associated as
the Neanderthal type.
* * * * *
_South America._ With the exception of Pithecanthropus, all the
discoveries mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs were made in Europe.
From other parts of the world, actual human remains referable to earlier
geological epochs are scanty save in South America. The discoveries made
in this part of the New World have been described at great length. In
many instances, claims to extraordinary antiquity have been made on their
behalf. It is necessary therefore to examine the credentials of such
specimens. Upon an examination of the evidence, I have come to the
conclusion that two instances only deserve serious attention and
criticism.
_Baradero._
Fragmentary remains of a human skeleton: the mandible is the best
preserved portion; unfortunately the front part has been broken off so
that no conclusion can be formed as to the characters of the chin.
Otherwise in regard to its proportions, some resemblance is found with
the mandible of the Spy skull (No. 1). More important and definite is the
direction of the grinding surfaces of the molar teeth. In the lower jaw,
this surface is said to look forwards. The interest of this observation
consists in the fact that the tooth from Taubach presents the same
feature, which is unusual.
Beyond these, the skeleton from the löss of Baradero presents no
distinctive features save the remarkable length of the upper limbs.
_Monte Hermoso._
From this region two bones were obtained at different dates. These are an
atlas vertebra (the vertebra next to the skull) and a thigh-bone. The
latter is of less than pygmy dimensions. Both are from fully adult
skeletons.
An attempt has been made to reconstruct an individual (the Tetraprothomo
of Ameghino) to which the two bones should be referred. It will be
noticed that the circumstances bear some, although a very faint, analogy
to those in which the remains of Pithecanthropus were found. The results
are however extraordinarily different. Professor Branco has ably shewn
that in the case of the bones from Monte Hermoso, the association in one
and the same skeleton would provide so large a skull in proportion to the
rest of the body, that the result becomes not only improbable, but
impossible. It is therefore necessary to treat the bones separately. If
this is done, there is no reason to regard the thigh-bone as other than
that of a large monkey of one of the varieties known to have inhabited
South America in prehistoric as well as in recent times.
The vertebra is more interesting. It is small but thick and strong in a
degree out of proportion to its linear dimensions. Professor
Lehmann-Nitsche supposes that it may have formed part of a skeleton like
that of Pithecanthropus, that is to say that it is not part of a pygmy
skeleton. On the other hand, Dr Rivet considers that the Monte Hermoso
vertebra could be matched exactly by several specimens in the large
collection of exotic human skeletons in the National Museum, Paris. Be
this as it may, there is no doubt that the atlas vertebra in question
constitutes the most interesting discovery of its kind made so far in
South America. It is important to notice that time after time the
attempts made to demonstrate the early origin of Man in the American
Continent have resulted in failure, which in some instances has been
regrettably ignominious.
_Combe Capelle_ (_H. aurignacensis hauseri_).
Returning to Europe, it is to be noted that in a rock-shelter near
Combe-Capelle (Dordogne), the excavations of Dr Hauser led to the
discovery in 1909 of an entire human skeleton of the male sex. The
interment (for such it was) had taken place in the Aurignacian period.
The skeleton presents a very striking appearance. In stature, no
important divergence from the Neanderthal type can be noted. But the more
vertical forehead, more boldly-curved arc of the brain-case, the
diminished brow-ridges, large mastoid processes and distinct canine
fossae provide a complete contrast between the Aurignac man and those of
the Neanderthal group. Moreover the Aurignac jaw has a slight projection
at the chin, where an 'internal process' is now distinct. The brain-case
has dolicho-cephalic proportions in a marked degree. The limb bones are
straight and slender, and not so much enlarged in the regions of the
several joints.
The Aurignac skeleton of Combe Capelle has been associated with several
others by Professor Klaatsch. By some authorities they are considered as
transitional forms bridging the gap between the early Palaeolithic types
and those of the existing Hominidae. But Professor Klaatsch evidently
regards them as intruders and invaders of the territory previously
occupied by the more lowly Neanderthaloid type.
_Galley Hill._
Among the skeletons which have been thus associated with the Aurignac
man, are three which have for many years attracted the attention of
anthropologists. For this reason, no detailed account of their characters
will be given here. Of the three instances referred to, two are the
fragmentary skull-caps of the skeletons found at Brüx and at Brünn in
Moravia. The latter specimen is generally described as Brünn (91) to
distinguish it from Brünn (85), a different and earlier find of less
interest.
It will suffice to mention here that both specimens agree in possessing
what may be described as a distinctly mitigated form of the characters so
strongly developed in the Neanderthal skull and its allies. The Aurignac
and Brüx skulls are distinctly longer and narrower than that of Brünn
(91). The limb bones are not available for the purposes of evidence.
The third specimen possesses a very much greater interest. It is known as
the Galley Hill skeleton from the site of its discovery near Northfleet
in Kent. Since it was first described by Mr E. T. Newton (in 1895), much
literature has accumulated about the difficult problems presented by the
Galley Hill skeleton. By some authors it is regarded as clearly
associated with the other examples just mentioned (Brüx, Brünn, and
Aurignac). Others reject its claims to high antiquity; of the latter some
are courteous, others are scornful, but all are absolutely decided.
Having investigated the literature as well as I could, and having seen
the cranium, I decided that the claims to great antiquity made on its
behalf do really justify its inclusion. But I am quite convinced that the
skeleton will give no more than very general indications. Thus the bones
are fragile in the extreme. And besides this, the skull is so contorted
that measurements made in the usual way must be extraordinarily
misleading and the possible error is too great to be successfully allowed
for (cf. Fig. 18).
[Illustration: Fig. 18. Outline tracing of the Galley Hill skull,
viewed from above. (From Klaatsch.)
--- Galley Hill. =---= Ancient German.
... Neanderthal. =...= Modern South German.]
To insist upon these points is the more important since nowadays various
indices based on such measurements of the Galley Hill cranium will be
found tabulated with data yielded by other skulls, and yet no mark of
qualification distinguishes the former figures.
The description of the skeleton may be given in a very few words. In the
great majority of its characters, it is not seen to differ from modern
human beings (though the stature is small, viz. 1600 mm., 5 ft. 3 in.).
And so far as I am able to judge, the characters claimed as distinctive
(separating the Galley Hill skull from modern dolichocephalic European
skulls) are based upon observations containing a very large possibility
of error.
Having regard to such statements, the inference is that the Galley Hill
skull does not in fact differ essentially from its modern European
counterparts. Similar conclusions have been formed in regard to the other
parts of this skeleton. It is important to note that the specimen does
not lose its interest on this account.
_Summary._
From the foregoing descriptions, it follows that of the most ancient
remains considered, at least three divisions can be recognised. In the
first place, come the examples described as Pithecanthropus and _Homo
heidelbergensis_ (Mauer). In the second category come instances as to
which no reasonable doubt as to their definitely human characters now
exists (save possibly in the case of the Taubach tooth and the Hermoso
atlas). Of the members of this second series, two sub-divisions here
designated (_A_) and (_B_) can be demonstrated; these with the first
examples complete the threefold grouping set out in the table following,
with which Table A, p. 85, should be compared.
GROUP I. Early ancestral forms. _Ex. gr. H. heidelbergensis._
GROUP II.
_Subdivision A. Homo primigenius. Ex. gr. La Chapelle._
{H. fossilis. _Ex.
_Subdivision B. H. recens_; with varieties {gr. Galley Hill._
{H. sapiens.
Taking the first group (Pithecanthropus and _Homo heidelbergensis_) it is
to be noticed that close correlation is quite possible. Besides this,
evidence exists in each case to the effect that far-distant human
ancestors are hereby revealed to their modern representatives. Of their
physical characters, distinct indications are given of the possession of
a small brain in a flattened brain-case associated with powerful jaws;
the lower part of the face being distinguished by the absence of any
projection of the chin. The teeth indicate with some degree of
probability that their diet was of a mixed nature, resembling in this
respect the condition of many modern savage tribes. Beyond this, the
evidence is weak and indefinite. It is highly probable that these men
were not arboreal: though whether they habitually assumed the distinctive
erect attitude is a point still in doubt. And yet again, while the
indications are not clear, it is probable that in stature they were
comparable, if not superior, to the average man of to-day.
Passing from this division to the second, a region of much greater
certainty is entered. Of the second group, one subdivision (_A_) retains
certain characters of the earlier forms. Thus the massive continuous
brow-ridge persists, as do also the flattened brain-case with a large
mass of jaw-muscle, and a ponderous chinless lower jaw. For the rest, the
points of contrast are much more prominent than those of similarity. The
brain has increased in size. This increase is very considerable in
absolute amount. But relatively also to the size of the possessor, the
increase in brain-material is even more striking, for the stature and
consequently bulk and weight are less. The thigh-bone offers important
points of difference, the earlier long slender form (in _P. erectus_)
being now replaced by a shorter, curved, thick substitute. If there has
been inheritance here, marked and aberrant variation is also observed.
The second subdivision (_B_) remains for consideration. Here the stature
has not appreciably changed. The limb bones are long, slender, and less
curved than those of the other associated human beings (_A_), and herein
the earliest type is suggested once more. But the differences occur now
in the skull. The brain is as large as in the other subdivision (_A_)
and in modern men. The brain-case is becoming elevated: the brow-ridges
are undergoing reduction; this process, commencing at their outer ends,
expresses to some extent the degree of reduction in the muscles and bone
of the lower jaw. The teeth are smaller and the chin becomes more
prominent. The distinction from modern types of humanity is often
impossible.
In the next chapter some account is given of the circumstances under
which the bones were discovered, and of the nature of their surroundings.