The Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature
PREHISTORIC MAN
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PREHISTORIC MAN
BY
W. L. H. DUCKWORTH
M.A., M.D., Sc.D.
University Lecturer in Physical
Anthropology, Cambridge
Cambridge:
at the University Press
1912
_First Edition_, 1912
_Second Edition_, 1912
_With the exception of the coat of arms at the foot, the design on the
title page is a reproduction of one used by the earliest known Cambridge
printer, John Siberch, 1521_
PREFACE
This book deals with the earliest phases in the past history of Mankind:
the selected period ends at the Aurignacian division of the Palaeolithic
Age. I regret to be unable to affix definite dates in years to the
several divisions of time now recognised. To illustrate the difficulty of
forming conclusions on this subject, it should be noted that in 1904
Professor Rutot (p. 103) assigned a duration of 139,000 years to the
Pleistocene period, while in 1909 Dr Sturge claimed 700,000 years for a
portion only of the same period. Evidently the present tendency is to
increase enormously the drafts on geological time, and to measure in
millions the years that have elapsed since the first traces of human
existence were deposited.
But in the face of estimates which differ so widely, it seemed preferable
to distinguish subdivisions of time by reference to animal-types or the
forms of stone-implements, rather than by the lapse of years.
In the attempt to summarise a considerable amount of evidence, I have
tried to select the facts most relevant to the subject in hand. And where
an opinion is expressed I have endeavoured to indicate the reasons for
the decision that is adopted.
Additional evidence is pouring in at the present time, and there is no
doubt but that the next few years will witness great extensions of
knowledge. In this connection, I take the opportunity of mentioning the
discovery made a few weeks ago by M. Henri Martin at La Quina, of a human
skeleton resembling the Neanderthal type but presenting (it is said)
definite features of inferiority to that type. Another subject of vast
importance is Mr Moir's recent demonstration (p. 106) of elaborately
worked implements resting beneath strata referred to the Pliocene period.
For the loan of blocks, or for permission to reproduce illustrations, my
cordial thanks are due to the editors and publishers of the journals
mentioned in the following list. The authors' names are appended to the
several illustrations.
Anatomischer Anzeiger,
Archiv für Anthropologie,
Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia,
Beiträge zur Urgeschichte Bayerns,
Korrespondenzblatt der deutschen anthropologischen Gesellschaft,
L'Anthropologie,
Royal Dublin Society,
Royal Society of Edinburgh,
Zeitschrift für Ethnologie.
W. L. H. DUCKWORTH
_December_ 11, 1911
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I. The Precursors of Palaeolithic Man 1
II. Palaeolithic Man 17
III. Alluvial Deposits and Caves 63
IV. Associated Animals and Implements 85
V. Human Fossils and Geological Chronology 112
VI. Human Evolution in the light of recent research 127
Table A _to face p._ 85
" B _to " "_ 118
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. Outline tracings of skulls of Pithecanthropus etc.
(From Dubois) 5
2. Outline tracings of Jawbones, (A) Mauer (B) ancient Briton 11
3. Tooth from Taubach: surface of crown. (From Nehring) 22
4. Tooth of Chimpanzee. (From Nehring) 22
5, 6. Tooth from Taubach: inner and outer sides. (From Nehring) 23
7. Human skull from Krapina. (From Birkner) 25
8. Tracings of teeth from Krapina and Mauer. (From Kramberger) 29
9. Human skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints. (From Birkner) 33
10. Outline tracings of skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints etc.
(From Boule) 35
11. Contours of skulls, (A) New Guinea man (B) European woman 36
12. Outline tracing of human skull from Le Moustier 40
13. Outline tracings of jawbones from Mauer and Le Moustier 41
14. Outline tracings of jawbones from Mauer, La Naulette, etc.
(From Frizzi) 42
15. Outline tracings of jawbones, (A) ancient Briton (B) Le
Moustier (C) Mauer 43
16. Outline tracings of the Forbes Quarry (Gibraltar) skull.
(From Sera) 48
17. Human skull of the Grimaldi-type. (From Birkner) 51
18. Outline tracings of skulls from Galley Hill etc. (From
Klaatsch) 58
19. Section of the strata at Trinil in Java. (From Dubois) 64
20. View of the Mauer sand-pit. (From Birkner) 65
21. Section of the Krapina rock-shelter. (From Birkner) 69
22. Plan of the cave at La Chapelle-aux-Saints. (From Boule) 72
23. Two sections of the Grotte des Enfants, Mentone. (From Boule) 77
24. Chart of the relative duration of Miocene, Pliocene, and
Pleistocene time. (From Penck) 107
25. Chart of oscillations of snow-level in the Glacial period.
(From Penck) 119
26. Outline tracings of skulls of Pithecanthropus etc.
(From Dubois) 129
27. Position of Palaeolithic Man in the scale of evolution.
(From Cross) 131
28. Thigh-bones arranged to illustrate Klaatsch's theory. 136
29. The human skeleton found beneath the Boulder-clay at Ipswich.
(From a drawing by Dr Keith, reproduced with permission) 153
CHAPTER I
THE PRECURSORS OF PALAEOLITHIC MAN
Our knowledge of prehistoric man is based naturally upon the study of
certain parts of the human skeleton preserved in a fossil state. In
addition to these materials, other evidence is available in the form of
certain products of human industry. These include such objects as
implements of various kinds, owing their preservation to the almost
indestructible nature of their material, or again artistic
representations, whether pictorial or glyptic.
The evidence of the bones themselves will be considered first, partly for
convenience and partly in view of the cogency possessed by actual remains
of the human frame. Other branches of the subject will come under review
afterwards.
Of all the discoveries of ancient remains, whether possibly or certainly
human, two in particular stand out pre-eminently in marked relief. The
specimens thus distinguished are known as the remains of _Pithecanthropus
erectus_, on the one hand, and on the other a jaw-bone which is
attributed to a human type described (from the locality of the discovery)
as _Homo heidelbergensis_.
The geological antiquity assigned in each instance is greater than that
claimed for any bones acknowledged unreservedly to be human.
It is thus clear that a high value attaches to these specimens if they be
regarded as documents testifying to the course of human evolution. When
the bones are examined, the contrast they provide with all human remains
is so marked as to emphasise at once the necessity for a thorough and
critical examination of their structure.
_Pithecanthropus erectus._
In the case of these bones, the facts are now so widely known and so
easily accessible as to render unnecessary any detailed exposition here.
The discoveries were made in the years 1891 and 1892 by Professor
Dubois[1], who was engaged at the time on an investigation of the remains
of various animals found embedded in a river-bank in Java. As is well
known, the actual remains are scanty. They comprise the upper part of a
skull, part of a lower jaw (which has never been described), three teeth,
and a left thigh-bone.
[1] The numbers refer to the Bibliography at the end of the volume.
Before entering upon any criticism of the results of Professor Dubois'
studies, it is convenient to give a general statement of his conclusions.
Here we find described a creature of Pliocene age, presenting a form so
extraordinary as hardly to be considered human, placed so it seems
between the human and simian tribes. It is Caliban, a missing link,--in
fact a Pithecanthropus.
With the erect attitude and a stature surpassing that of many modern men
were combined the heavy brows and narrow forehead of a flattened skull,
containing little more than half the weight of brain possessed by an
average European. The molar teeth were large with stout and divergent
roots.
The arguments founded upon the joint consideration of the length of the
thigh-bone and the capacity of the skull are of the highest interest. For
the former dimension provides a means of estimating approximately the
body-weight, while the capacity gives an indication of the brain-weight.
The body-weight is asserted to have been about 70 kgm. (eleven stone) and
the brain-weight about 750 gm. And the ratio of the two weights is
approximately 1/94. The corresponding ratios for a large anthropoid ape
(Orang-utan) and for man are given in the table following, thus:
Orang-utan 1/183
_Pithecanthropus erectus_ 1/94
Man 1/51
The intermediate position of the Javanese fossil is clearly revealed.
The same sequence is shewn by a series of tracings representative of the
cranial arc in the middle line of the head (Fig. 1). And the results of
many tests of this kind, applied not only by Professor Dubois but also
by Professor Schwalbe, are confirmatory of the 'intermediate' position
claimed for _Pithecanthropus erectus_. The molar teeth are of inadequate
size if the skull-cap is that of an ape, whereas they are slightly larger
than the corresponding teeth furnished by primitive existing human types.
And now some of the objections to this account may be taken.
In the first place, the claim to Pliocene antiquity is contested. So keen
an interest was excited by Professor Dubois' discovery that more than one
expedition has been dispatched to survey and review the ground. It is now
declared in certain quarters that the horizon is lower Quaternary: I do
not know that any attempt has been made to reduce the age of the strata
further. As the matter stands, the difference is not very material, but
Professor Dubois refuses to accept the revised estimate and still adheres
to his own determination. Incidentally the more recent work
(Blanckenhorn[2], 1910) has resulted in the discovery of a tooth claimed
as definitely human (this is not the case with the teeth of
_Pithecanthropus erectus_), and yet of an antiquity surpassing that of
the remains found by Professor Dubois. The latter appears unconvinced as
to the genuineness of the find, but no doubt the case will be fully
discussed in publications now in the course of preparation.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Outline tracings of skulls reduced in size to a
common dimension, viz. the line _Gl--Op_, representing a
base-line of the brain-case. _Pe_, Pithecanthropus.
_Papua_, a New Guinea native. _Hl_, _Sm_, _At_ are from
skulls of monkeys. (After Dubois.)]
Professor Dubois assigned the bones to one and the same skeleton, and for
this he has been severely criticised. Apart from arguments affecting the
geological age of the specimens, the question of their forming part of a
single individual is very momentous. For if two skeletons are
represented, one may be human, while the other is that of an ape. It is
admitted that the larger bones were separated by a distance of forty-six
feet. By way of meeting this criticism, it is submitted that the distance
is by no means so great as to preclude the possibility of the common and
identical origin of the various bones. Moreover it is at least curious
that if two skeletons are here represented, no further remains should
have been detected in the immediate vicinity.
The fact that the thigh-bone might easily have passed as that of a man,
while the skull-fragment is so divergent from all modern forms as to be
scarcely human, is of great interest. The contrast between the
indications provided by the two bones was remarked at once. Some writers,
rejecting certain other evidence on the point, then drew the inference
that the human thigh-bone had been evolved and had arrived at the
distinctive human condition in advance of the skull. The importance of
this conclusion lies in the fact that the human thigh-bone bears
indications of an erect attitude, while the form of the skull gives
guidance as to the size of the brain, and consequently to some extent
provides a clue to the mental endowment of the individual. Whether the
erect attitude or the characteristic brain-development was first obtained
by man has been debated for many years. In this case, the evidence was
taken to shew that the assumption of the erect attitude came as a means
of surmounting the crux of the situation. Thenceforth the upper limb was
emancipated entirely from its locomotor functions. Upon this emancipation
followed the liberation of jaws and mouth from their use as organs of
prehension. Simultaneously the mechanism whereby the head is attached to
the neck and trunk became profoundly modified. This alteration gave to
the brain an opportunity of growth and increase previously denied, but
now seized, with the consequent accession of intellectual activity so
characteristic of the Hominidae.
The story thus expounded is attractive from several points of view. But
while possessing the support of the Javan fossil remains, it is not
confirmed in the embryonic history of Man, for there the growth of the
brain is by far the most distinctive feature. Nor did those who adopted
this opinion (in 1896), take into account all the characters of the
ancient human remains even then available. For the evidence of those
remains points to an order exactly the reverse of that just stated, and
it indicates the early acquisition of a large and presumably active
brain. And now that additions have been lately made to those older
remains (other than the Javan bones), the same 'reversed' order seems to
be confirmed. On the whole therefore, the soundest conclusion is that
following a preliminary increment of brain-material, the erect attitude
came as a further evolutionary advance.
But to return from this digression to the objections against the
_Pithecanthropus erectus_, it must now be explained that the very
contrast between the thigh-bone and the skull-cap in respect of these
inferences, has been used as an argument against the association of these
bones as part of one skeleton.
The objection may be met in two ways at least. For instance, the
thigh-bone may yet possess characters which lessen its resemblance to
those of recent men, but are not recognised on a superficial inspection.
Careful investigation of the thigh-bone seems to shew that such indeed
is the case (indeed the human characters are by some absolutely denied).
But together with this result comes the discovery that the characters of
straightness and slenderness in the shaft of the bone from which the
inference as to the erect attitude was largely drawn, do not give
trustworthy evidence upon this point. In fact, a human thigh-bone may be
much less straight and less slender than that of arboreal animals such as
the Gibbon, the Cebus monkey, or the Lemurs (especially Nycticebus). The
famous Eppelsheim femur is straighter than, and as slender as that of
Pithecanthropus. It was regarded at first as that of a young woman, but
is now ascribed to an anthropoid ape. And in fact, even if the skull-cap
and thigh-bone of Pithecanthropus should be retained in association, it
seems that the title 'erectus' is not fully justified.
Another method of rebutting the objection is based on the suggestion that
Pithecanthropus is not a human ancestor in the direct line. Thus to
describe an uncle as a parent is an error not uncommon in palaeontology,
and it was treated leniently by Huxley. To my mind this position can be
adopted without materially depreciating the value of the evidence yielded
by the conjoint remains, provided only that their original association be
acknowledged. Should this assumption be granted, the claims put forward
on behalf of his discovery by Professor Dubois seem to be justified. On
the other hand, should the association of skull-cap and thigh-bone be
rejected, the former has not lost all claim to the same position. For the
most recent researches of Professor Schwalbe[3] of Strassburg, and the
further elaboration of these by Professor Berry[4] and Mr Cross[5] of
Melbourne, support Professor Dubois' view. And though the objections may
not have been finally disposed of, a review of the literature called
forth by Professor Dubois' publications will shew a slight margin of
evidence for, rather than against his view.
_The Heidelberg or Mauer Jaw_[6].
Professor Dubois' Javanese researches were carried out in the years 1891
and 1892. Fifteen years separate the discovery of the _Pithecanthropus
erectus_ from that of the second great find mentioned in the introductory
paragraph of this chapter. This period was by no means barren in respect
of other additions to the list of human fossils. But the other results
(including even the finds at Taubach) are regarded as of subsidiary
importance, so that their consideration will be deferred for the present.
In 1907 a lower jaw, known now as the Heidelberg or Mauer jaw, was
discovered by workmen in the sand-pit of Mauer near Heidelberg.
The Mauer jaw is indeed a most remarkable specimen. The first general
outcome of an inspection of the photographs or of the excellent casts
(which may now be seen in many museums) is a profound impression of its
enormous strength (Figs. 2, 13, and 15_c_). By every part of the specimen
save one, this impression is confirmed. This massiveness, together with
the complete absence of any prominence at the chin, would have caused
great hesitation in regard to the pronouncement of a decision as to the
probable nature of the fossil. The one paradoxical feature is the
relatively small size of the teeth. All of these have been preserved,
though on the left side the crowns of four have been removed by accident
in the process of clearing away some adherent earth and pebbles. The net
result shews that the teeth are actually within the range of variation
provided by human beings of races still extant, though commonly regarded
as 'primitive,' if not pithecoid (such as the aboriginal race of
Australia). Yet these teeth are implanted in a jaw of such size and
strength as render difficult the reference of the specimen to a human
being.
[Illustration: Fig. 2. _A_ outline tracing of a cast of the Mauer
Jawbone. _B_ a similar tracing from an unusually large
jaw of an ancient Briton. (From specimens in the
Cambridge Museum.)]
The most striking features of the Mauer jaw have been mentioned already.
Before entering upon a further discussion of its probable nature, it will
be well to note some of the other distinctive characters. Thus the
portion Fig. 2 (_a_) known technically as the ascending ramus is of great
size, and particularly wide, surpassing all known human specimens in this
respect. The upper margin of this part is very slightly excavated, a
slight depression (_b_) replacing the very definite 'sigmoid' notch found
in almost all human jaws (though the relative shallowness of this notch
has been long recognised as distinctive of the lowest human types). The
difference in vertical height between the uppermost points of the condyle
(_c_) and the coronoid process (_d_) is therefore unusually small. On
the other hand, the lower margin of the bone is undulating, so that it
presents a hollow on each side, as well as one near the middle line in
front. The two halves of the bone are definitely inclined to one another
and this convergence is faintly marked in the two rows of teeth behind
the canines. The latter teeth do not project markedly above the level of
those adjacent to them. The incisor teeth are remarkably curved in their
long axes, with a convexity in front. The prominences called 'genial
tubercles' behind the chin are replaced by a shallow pit or fossa.
In one sense the reception accorded by palaeontologists to the fossil jaw
of Mauer differs remarkably from most of the comparable instances. That
difference consists in the comparative absence of controversy excited by
its discovery. This must not be ascribed to any lack of ardour on the
part of archaeologists. More probable is it that with the lapse of time,
the acceptance of an evolutionary interpretation of the origin of man has
gained a wider circle of adherents, so that the claims of even so
sensational a specimen as this, are sifted and investigated with a
judicial calm much more appropriate and certainly more dignified than the
fierce outbursts occasioned by some of the earlier discoveries.
It remains to institute brief anatomical comparisons between the Mauer
jaw and those of the highest apes on the one hand, and of the most
primitive of human beings on the other.
(_a_) Of the three larger anthropoid apes available for comparison, it is
hard to say which presents the closest similarity. The Gibbons do not
appear to approach so nearly as these larger forms. Among the latter, no
small range of individual variations occurs. My own comparisons shew that
of the material at my disposal the mandible of an Orang-utan comes
nearest to the Mauer jaw. But other mandibles of the same kind of ape
(Orang-utan) are very different. The chief difficulty in assigning the
possessor of the Mauer jaw to a pithecoid stock has been mentioned
already. It consists in the inadequate size of the teeth. In addition to
this, other evidence comes from the results of an examination of the
grinding surfaces (crowns) of the molar teeth. These resemble teeth of
the more primitive human types rather than those of apes. Finally the
convergence of the two rows when traced towards the canine or eye-tooth
of each side, points in the same direction.
(_b_) If the apes be thus rejected, the next question is, Would the Mauer
jaw be appropriate to such a cranium as that of Pithecanthropus? I
believe an affirmative answer is justifiable. It is true that an
excellent authority (Keith[7]) hesitates on the ground that the mandible
seems too massive for the skull, though the same writer recognises that,
in regard to the teeth, the comparison is apt. This is a difficult point.
For instance the _H. moust. hauseri_ (cf. Chapter II) has a mandible
which is far 'lower' than the capacity of the brain-case would lead one
to expect. Therefore it seems that the degree of correlation between
mandible and capacity is small, and to predict the size of the brain from
evidence given by the jaw is not always safe. It is to be remembered that
special stress was laid by Professor Dubois (cf. p. 4) on the fact that
the teeth of Pithecanthropus when compared with the skull-cap are
inadequately small, if judged by the ape-standard of proportion. The
characters of the teeth, in so far as upper and lower molars can be
compared, present no obstacle to such an association, and in fact provide
some additional evidence in its favour. The crucial point seems therefore
to be the massiveness of the jaw. With regard to this, the following
remarks may be made. First, that the skull-cap of Pithecanthropus is on
all sides admitted to shew provision for powerful jaw-muscles. And
further, in respect of actual measurements, the comparison of the
transverse width of the Javanese skull-cap with that of the Mauer jaw is
instructive. For the skull-cap measures 130 mm. in extreme width, the jaw
130 mm. The association of the two does not, in my opinion, make an
extravagant demand on the variability in size of either part. A curious
comparison may be instituted between the Mauer jaw and the corresponding
bone as represented by Professor Manouvrier (cf. Dubois[8], 1896) in an
attempted reconstruction of the whole skull of Pithecanthropus. Professor
Manouvrier's forecast of the jaw differs from the Mauer specimen chiefly
in regard to the size of the teeth, and the stoutness of the ascending
ramus. The teeth are larger and the ascending ramus is more slender in
the reconstruction than in the Mauer specimen.
(_c_) Passing from the consideration of Pithecanthropus to that of human
beings, the general results of the comparisons that can be made will shew
that the gap separating the jaw of Mauer from all modern human
representatives is filled by human jaws of great prehistoric antiquity.
The progress of an evolutionary development is accordingly
well-illustrated by these specimens. And although _Homo heidelbergensis_
is seen to be separated from his modern successors by great differences
in form as well as a vast lapse of time, still the intervening period
does provide intermediate forms to bridge the gulf. Not the least
interesting of many reflections conjured up by the Mauer jaw, is that
this extraordinary form should be met with in a latitude so far north of
that corresponding to the Javanese discoveries. This difference, together
with that of longitude, suggests an immense range of distribution of
these ancestral types. Some of their successors are considered in the
next chapter.