ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS AND CAVES
The principal characters of the oldest known human remains having been
thus set forth, the circumstances of their surroundings next demand
attention. A brief indication of these will be given with the aid of the
illustrations provided in the original memoirs in each case, and the
order of descriptions followed in the preceding chapter will be observed.
_Pithecanthropus._ The remains of Pithecanthropus were recovered from an
alluvial deposit at Trinil. A section of this is shewn in Fig. 19. An
idea may thus be gained of the very considerable amount of superincumbent
materials. The associated fauna cannot be compared directly to that of
any Western European locality. But in comparison with the modern fauna of
Java, the strata in which the Pithecanthropus was found shew a
predominance of extinct species, though not of genera. Elephants and
hippopotami were present: they point to a close relation between the
fauna of Trinil and that of certain Siwalik strata in India, referred to
a late Pliocene age. The difference of opinion upon this point has been
mentioned in the preceding chapter: here it will suffice to repeat that a
final conclusion does not appear to have been reached, and that the
experts who have examined the strata in situ still differ from each
other.
[Illustration: Fig. 19. Section of the strata at Trinil in Java. _A_
vegetable soil. _B_ Sand-rock. _C_ Lapilli-rock. _D_
Level at which the bones were found. _E_ Conglomerate.
_F_ Clay. _H_ Rainy-season level of river. _I_ Dry-season
level of river. (From Dubois.)]
_Mauer._ Impressed by the similarity of the conditions at Mauer to those
of the fossiliferous tufa-beds near Taubach and Weimar, Dr Schoetensack
had anticipated the possibility of obtaining valuable fossil relics from
the former locality. For some twenty years, Dr Schoetensack kept in touch
with the workmen of Mauer, and thus when the jawbone was found, he was
summoned at once. Even so, the jaw had been removed from its
resting-place, and broken in two fragments. Yet there is no doubt as to
the exact position in which it was found. Sand and löss (a fine earthy
deposit) had accumulated above it to a thickness of seventy feet. The
nature of the surroundings may be estimated by reference to the
illustration (Fig. 20) reproducing Dr Schoetensack's photograph of the
sand-pit. The sands which contained the mandible represent an alluvial
deposit, and so far resemble the Trinil beds in Java. The attempt to
institute an exact comparison would be unprofitable, but on the whole it
would seem that, of the two, the Mauer sands represent the later stage.
The fauna associated with the Mauer jaw includes such forms as _Elephas
antiquus_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, _Ursus arvernensis_, _U. deningeri_ (an
ancestral form of _U. spelaeus_), together with a species of horse
intermediate between _Equus stenonis_, and the fossil horse found at
Taubach. The cave-lion, bison, and various deer have also been
recognised.
[Illustration: Fig. 20. View of the Mauer sand-pit. X (in white)
position of jawbone when found. (From Birkner, after
Schoetensack.)]
The aspect of this collection shews a marked similarity to that of the
so-called Forest-bed of Cromer, though at the same time indicating a
later age. The Mauer jaw must therefore be assigned to the very earliest
part of the Pleistocene epoch. In his original memoir, Dr Schoetensack
gave no account of any associated 'industry,' in the form of stone
implements. But now (1911) Professor Rutot unhesitatingly (though the
reasons are not stated) ascribes to the horizon of the Mauer jaw, that
division of the eolithic industries termed by him the "Mafflien." Upon
the correctness of such a view judgment may well be reserved for the
present.
_Taubach_. The bone-bed (_Knochenschicht_) of Taubach whence the two
human teeth were recovered, lies at a depth of some 15 feet (5·2 m.) from
the adjacent surface-soil. No fewer than eleven distinct horizons have
been recognised in the superincumbent strata. Palaeoliths had often been
obtained from the same stratum as that which yielded the human teeth. Dr
Weiss referred it to the first, i.e. the earlier of two inter-glacial
periods judged to have occurred in this region. The associated fauna
includes _Elephas antiquus_, _Rhinoceros merckii_, _Bison priscus_, with
Cervidae and representatives of swine, beaver and a bear. The similarity
of this assemblage to that of the Mauer Sands has been noted already.
The hippopotamus however does not seem to have been recorded in either
locality. Nevertheless, the general aspect of the mammalian fauna is
'southern' (_faune chaude_ of French writers). Upon this conclusion, much
depends, for the Palaeolithic implements (claimed as contemporaneous with
the extinct 'southern' mammals recorded in the foregoing paragraphs) are
said to correspond to the type of Le Moustier. But Mousterian implements
are (it is alleged) practically never associated with 'southern' animals,
so that in this respect the Taubach bone-bed provides a paradox. Without
discussing this paradox at length, it may be stated that the implements
just described as 'Mousterian' are not recognised as such by all the
experts. Thus Obermaier identifies them with those of Levallois, _i.e._ a
late S. Acheul type (cf. Obermaier, 1909). Others declare that the type
is not that of Le Moustier, but of Chelles. The latter type of implement
is found habitually in association with the southern fauna, and thus the
paradox described above may prove to be apparent only and not real. But
the unravelling of the different opinions relating to the Taubach finds
is among the easier tasks presented to anyone desirous of furnishing a
clear statement of the actual state of our knowledge on these matters.
The difficulties with which the whole subject bristles may thus be
realised.
_Krapina._ Researches productive of evidence as to the existence of
Palaeolithic man in Croatia, were commenced at Krapina so long ago as
August, 1899, by Professor Kramberger. A preliminary report was
published in December, 1899. Until the year 1904 these researches passed
almost unnoticed in this country. The site was not exhausted until 1905.
The actual excavations were made in a rock-shelter on the right bank of
the Krapini[vc]a river, near the village of Krapina. The rock-shelter had
been to some extent invaded not long before the archaeological work
commenced, and evidence of early human occupation of the site was
revealed in the form of dark bands of earth, containing much charcoal.
These bands were seen as lines in the lower parts of the exposed section
of the cave contents. Fragments of human and other bones to the number of
several thousands were removed. In one season's work six hundred stone
implements were found.
A section of the several strata has been published and is reproduced in
Fig. 21. Human bones or artefacts were found throughout a wide series of
strata, in which no variations of a cultural nature were detected.
Throughout the period of human occupation, the Palaeolithic inmates of
the cave remained on an unaltered and rather lowly level of culture. This
is described by some authorities as Mousterian, by others as Aurignacian;
in either case as of an early Palaeolithic aspect.
[Illustration: Fig. 21. Section of the Krapina rock-shelter. 3, 4
strata with human remains. 1 _b_ former level of
river-bed. (From Birkner, after Kramberger.)]
But when the animal remains are considered, Krapina seems to present the
difficulty already encountered in the case of Taubach. For there is no
doubt but that the 'southern' fauna is to some extent represented at
Krapina. This qualified form of statement is employed because one
representative only, viz. _Rhinoceros merckii_, has been discovered,
whereas its habitual companions, _Elephas antiquus_ and Hippopotamus,
have left no traces at Krapina. Other animals associated with the
cave-men of Krapina are not so commonly found in the presence of the
_Rhinoceros merckii_. Thus the _Ursus spelaeus_, _U. arctos_, _Bos
primigenius_, and the Arctomys (Marmot) are suggestive of a more northern
fauna. But the presence of even a possibly stray _Rhinoceros merckii_ is
sufficient to confer an aspect of great antiquity on this early Croatian
settlement. No evidence of formal interments has come to light, and as
regards the cannibalistic habits of the human cave-dwellers, no more than
the merest surmise exists.
_S. Brélade's Bay, Jersey._ In the cave thus designated, old hearths were
met with at a depth of twenty-five feet below the surface. Human beings
are represented by teeth only. No evidence of interments has been
recorded. The implements are of Mousterian type. Associated with the
hearths and implements were many fragmentary remains of animals. Up to
the present time, the following forms have been identified: _Rhinoceros
tichorhinus_ (the hairy rhinoceros), the Reindeer, and two varieties of
Horse. So far as this evidence goes, the age assigned to the implements
is supported, or at least not contra-indicated. It is most improbable
that the period represented can be really earlier than the Mousterian,
though it might be somewhat later. That the Krapina teeth (which so
curiously resemble those of S. Brélade's Bay in respect of the fusion of
their roots) should be assigned to the same (Mousterian) epoch is perhaps
significant.
_La Chapelle-aux-Saints_ (_Corrèze_). This is the best example of an
interment referable to the early Palaeolithic age (Fig. 22). Two reasons
for this statement may be given. In the first place, the skeleton lay in
a distinctly excavated depression, beneath which no signs of an earlier
settlement are recorded. Secondly, the superincumbent strata can be
assigned to one period only of the archaeological series, viz. that of Le
Moustier. Indications of the preceding period (S. Acheul) as well as of
the subsequent one (Aurignac) are practically negligible. Moreover the
surroundings had not been disturbed since the interment: this is shewn by
the leg-bones of a large bovine animal (Bison or Bos) found in their
natural relations just above the head of the human skeleton.
[Illustration: Fig. 22. Plan of the cave at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(Corrèze). (From Boule.)]
The latter lay on the back, the right arm bent, the left extended; both
legs were contracted and to the right. In general, this attitude recalls
that of the skeletons of La Ferrassie and the Grotte des Enfants
(Grimaldi). At Le Moustier too, the skeleton was found in a somewhat
similar position.
At La Chapelle-aux-Saints, the associated fauna includes the Reindeer,
Horse, a large bovine form (? Bison), _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, the Ibex,
Wolf, Marmot, Badger and Boar.
It would seem that this particular cave had served only as a tomb. For
other purposes its vertical extent is too small. The stone artefacts are
all perfect tools: no flakes or splinters being found as in habitations.
The animal remains are supposed to be relics of a funeral feast (or
feasts). But the presence of the Rhinoceros is perhaps antagonistic to
such an explanation.
_Le Moustier_ (_Dordogne_). The skeleton lay on its right side, the right
arm bent and supporting the head; the left arm was extended. The stratum
upon which the body rested consisted largely of worked flint implements.
These are assigned to the later Acheulean and earlier Mousterian epochs.
Two features in contrast with the conditions at La Chapelle are to be
noticed. It is doubtful whether the skeleton at Le Moustier had been
literally interred. It seems rather to have been placed on what was at
the time the floor of the grotto, and then covered partly with earth on
which implements were scattered. Indications of a definite grave were
found at La Chapelle. Again at Le Moustier, other parts of the same
grotto had been occupied as habitations of the living. At La Chapelle
this seems not to have been the case.
The evidence of the accompanying animal remains also differs in the two
cases. At Le Moustier, only small and very fragmentary animal bones with
the tooth of an ox were found in the immediate vicinity of the human
skeleton. An extended search revealed bones of _Bos primigenius_ in the
cave. No bones of the Reindeer were found and their absence is specially
remarked by Professor Klaatsch, as evidence that the skeleton at Le
Moustier is of greater antiquity than the skeleton accompanied by
reindeer bones at La Chapelle. In any case, it would seem that no great
lapse of time separates the two strata.
_La Ferrassie._ The skeleton was found in the same attitude as those of
La Chapelle and Le Moustier, viz. in the dorsal position, the right arm
bent, the left extended, both legs being strongly flexed at the knee and
turned to the right side. The bones were covered by some 3·5 m. of
_débris_: stone implements were yielded by strata above and below the
body respectively. Beneath the skeleton, the implements are of Acheulean
type, while above and around it the type of Le Moustier was encountered.
Aurignacian implements occurred still nearer the surface.
In regard to the evidence of interment the conditions here resemble those
at Le Moustier rather than those of La Chapelle. The human skeleton did
not appear to have been deposited in a grave, but simply laid on the
ground, covered no doubt by earth upon which flint implements were
scattered. But the cave continued to be occupied until at the close of
the Aurignacian period a fall of rock sealed up the entrance. It is
difficult to realise the conditions of life in such a cave, after the
death of a member of the community, unless, as among the cave-dwelling
Veddas of Ceylon, the cave were temporarily abandoned (Seligmann, 1911).
It is possible that the normal accumulation of animal remains created
such an atmosphere as would not be greatly altered by the addition of a
human corpse, for Professor Tylor has recorded instances of such
interments among certain South American tribes. But it is also
conceivable that the enormously important change in custom from
inhumation to cremation, may owe an origin to some comparatively simple
circumstance of this kind. The animal remains at La Ferrassie include
Bison, Stag, and Horse, with a few Reindeer. The general aspect is thus
concordant with that at La Chapelle.
_Pech de l'Aze._ It is impossible to decide whether the child's skull had
been buried intentionally or not. The associated fauna is apparently
identical with that of La Ferrassie and La Chapelle.
_Forbes Quarry_ (_Gibraltar_). Of the surroundings of the Forbes Quarry
skull at the time of its discovery nothing is known. In 1910 the present
writer explored Forbes Quarry and a small cave opening into it. But no
evidence of the presence of prehistoric man was obtained. Bones of recent
mammalia and certain molluscs found during the excavations, throw no
light on this subject.
_Andalusia._ At the time of writing, only the following information is
available as to the surroundings of these human cave-bones. They were
discovered on or near the floor of a deep fissure leading to a series of
labyrinthine passages. The walls of the fissure or cave were decorated
with drawings of animals resembling those at Cretas in Aragon. Besides
the mineralised bones, other fragments of less antiquated aspect were
found. Potsherds were also obtained, but I have no information as to the
occurrence of implements.
_Grotte des Enfants_ (_Mentone_). With regard to the two 'negroid'
skeletons of this cave, the first important point is the enormous
thickness of accumulated _débris_ by which the bones were covered. A
depth of some twenty-four feet had been reached before the discovery was
made (Fig. 23).
[Illustration: Fig. 23. Two sections of the Grotte des Enfants, Mentone.
_I._ stratum in which the "Grimaldi" skeletons were
found. (From Boule.)]
The bodies had been definitely interred, large stones being found in
position, adjusted so as to protect the heads particularly. The bodies
had been placed on the right side. Of the woman, both arms were bent as
were the lower limbs. The male skeleton has the right arm flexed, but the
left extended (as in the cases of La Chapelle, Le Moustier, and La
Ferrassie).
It is practically certain that the skeletons do not belong to an epoch
represented, as regards its culture or fauna, by strata lower than that
which supported the human remains. This conclusion is very important
here. For the evidence of the stone implements accompanying the human
bones is fairly definite: it points to the Mousterian age. The animal
bones are those of the Reindeer and Cave Hyaena. The presence of the
former animal supports the conclusion arrived at on the evidence of the
human artefacts. The presence of the Cave Hyaena does not controvert that
conclusion.
But an interesting fact remains to be considered. Below the two human
skeletons, the animal remains are those of the 'southern' fauna. All the
characteristic representatives were found, viz. _Elephas antiquus_,
_Rhinoceros merckii_, and Hippopotamus. The Hyaena was also associated
with these large animals. It is not clearly stated whether implements of
Mousterian type occurred in these, the deepest strata of the cave-floor.
Were this so, the contention made in respect of the Taubach implements
(cf. _supra_, p. 67) would be remarkably corroborated, as would also the
somewhat similar suggestion made in regard to Krapina. For the moment,
however, it must suffice to attribute these human remains of negroid
aspect to the Mousterian period at Mentone. Inasmuch as the reindeer
appears in several strata overlying the remains of the Grimaldi race (for
so it has been named by Dr Verneau), it is certainly conceivable that the
two individuals are Aurignacian or even later. But this is to enter a
wilderness of surmise. Human skeletons were actually found in those more
superficial strata and also were associated with the Reindeer. But their
cranial features are of a higher type (Cro-Magnon) and contrast very
clearly with those of the more deeply buried individuals.
_South America._ The two discoveries mentioned in the preceding chapter
were made in the so-called Pampas formation of Argentina. This formation
has been subdivided by geologists into three successive portions, viz.
upper, middle and lower. The distinction is based partly upon evidence
derived from the actual characters of deposits which differ according to
their level. But the molluscan fauna has also been used as a means of
distinction. The whole formation is stated by some to be fluviatile.
Other observers speak of it as Löss. This need not necessarily exclude a
fluviatile origin, but speaking generally that term now suggests an
aerial rather than a subaqueous deposit. The upper subdivision is
designated the yellow löss in contrast to the brown löss forming the
middle layer. Opinion is much divided as to the exact geological age of
the Pampas formation. Ameghino refers it to the Pliocene period,
excepting the lower divisions which he regards as upper Miocene.
Professor Lehmann-Nitsche assigns Pliocene antiquity to the lowest
subdivision only. Dr Steinmann regards the middle and lower subdivisions
as equivalents of the 'older' löss of European Pleistocene deposits. The
latter determinations are more probably correct than is the first.
_Baradero._ The Baradero skeleton was obtained from the middle formation
or brown löss, in a locality marked by the presence of mollusca
corresponding with modern forms, and contrasted with the Tertiary
Argentine mollusca. The skeleton was in a 'natural' (_i.e._ not a
contracted) position, the head being depressed on the front of the chest.
No associated implements or remains of mammalian skeletons are recorded.
_Monte Hermoso._ The vertebra and femur were found in the lower
subdivision of the Pampas formation. We have seen that Ameghino refers
this to the Miocene epoch: Lehmann-Nitsche speaks of it as Pliocene,
Steinmann's opinion suggests a still later date, while Scott also
declares that no greater age than that of the Pleistocene period can be
assigned. The two specimens were obtained at very different times, an
interval of many years separating the dates of the respective
discoveries. So far as is known, no mammalian or other animal remains
have been yielded by the strata in question, so that the whole case in
regard to evidence is one of the most unsatisfactory on record. Indeed
the whole question of 'dating' the Argentine discoveries, whether
absolutely or relatively, must be regarded as an unsolved problem.
_Combe Capelle_ (_Dordogne_). The circumstances of this discovery were as
follows. The skeleton lay in an extended position, and it had been placed
in an excavation made for the purpose of interment. This excavation
entered a stratum distinguished as Mousterian. But the interment is
considered to be later, and of Aurignacian antiquity. Stone implements of
Aurignacian type were disposed around the skeleton: in addition to these,
a number of molluscan shells were arranged about the skull. This
suggestion of ornament would of itself suggest the later period to which
the skeleton is assigned. No remains of animals are mentioned in the
accounts accessible to me.
_Brüx_ (_Bohemia_). The Brüx skeleton was discovered in 1871. It lay some
five feet beneath the surface in a deposit which seems to be an ancient
one of fluviatile origin. The Biela river is not far from the spot. The
bones were very fragmentary, and in particular the skull-cap has been
reconstructed from no less than a dozen fragments. The limb bones were
also fractured. Near the skeleton, some remains of an Ox were found on
the same level. Two feet above the skeleton, a stone implement, seemingly
a Neolithic axe, was brought to light.
The information is thus meagre in the extreme, and when the condition of
the skull is taken into account, it is evident that the Brüx skeleton is
not one upon which far-reaching arguments can be successfully based. The
interest of the specimen depends above all upon the results of the
careful analysis of its characters made by Professor Schwalbe[25] (1906).
_Brünn_ (1871). This discovery was made at a depth of 4·5 metres in red
löss. Close to the human bones lay the tusk and the shoulder-blade of a
Mammoth. The same stratum subsequently yielded the skull of a young
Rhinoceros (_R. tichorhinus_): some ribs of a Rhinoceros are scored or
marked in a way suggestive of human activity: other ribs of the same kind
were artificially perforated. More noteworthy, however, is a human
figurine carved in ivory of a Mammoth tusk. Several hundreds of the shell
of _Dentalium badense_ lying close to the human remains were truncated in
such a way as to suggest that they had once formed a necklace.
_Galley Hill_ (_Kent_). The gravel-pit whence the skeleton was obtained
invades the 'high-level terrace-gravel' of the Thames valley. Such is the
opinion of expert geologists (Hinton[26]). In the gravel-pit a section
through ten feet of gravel is exposed above the chalk. The bones were
eight feet from the top of the gravel. Palaeolithic implements of a
primitive type have been obtained from the same deposit at Galley Hill.
No precise designation seems to have been assigned to them. From the
published figures, they seem to correspond to the earlier Acheulean or to
the Chellean type. One in particular, resembles the implements found at
Reculver, and I have recently seen similar specimens which had been
obtained by dredging off the Kentish coast near Whitstable. Some of the
Galley Hill implements are compared to the high plateau forms from
Ightham. These must be of great antiquity. Professor Rutot in 1903
assigned the Galley Hill skeleton to a period by him named Mafflian. This
diagnosis seems to have been based upon the characters of the implements.
Recently however (1909) Professor Rutot has brought the skeleton down
into the Strépyan epoch, which is much less ancient than that of Maffle.
The associated fauna comes now into consideration. From the Galley Hill
gravel-pit no mammalian remains other than the human skeleton have been
reported, but the fauna of the 'high-level terrace' has been ascertained
by observations in the vicinity of Galley Hill as well as in other parts
of the Thames basin. The mollusc _Cyrena fluminalis_, indicative of a
sub-tropical climate, has been found in these strata. As regards the
mammalian fauna, it is interesting to compare the list given by Mr E. T.
Newton in 1895, with that published by Mr M. A. C. Hinton in 1910 on the
basis of independent observations.
_Mr Newton's list_, 1895.
1. Elephas primigenius.
2. Hippopotamus.
3. Rhinoceros: species uncertain.
4. Bos. " "
5. Equus. " "
6. Cervus. " "
7. Felis leo. " "
_Mr Hinton's list_, 1910.
1. Elephas antiquus (a more primitive form than E. primigenius).
2. No Hippopotamus (this occurs later, in the Middle Terrace).
3. Rhinoceros megarhinus.
4. Bos: species uncertain.
5. Equus: species similar to the Pliocene E. stenonis.
6. Cervus: 3 species: one resembles the Fallow-deer (C. dama), a
'southern' form.
7. Felis leo.
8. Sus: species uncertain: bones of limbs shew primitive features.
9. Canis: species uncertain.
10. Delphinus: species uncertain.
11. Trogontherium: species differing from the Pliocene form.
12. Various smaller rodents, such as Voles.
No definitely 'Arctic' mammals are recorded: the general aspect of the
above fauna shews a strong similarity to the Pliocene fauna, which
appears to have persisted to this epoch without much alteration of the
various types represented.
TABLE A
Table headings:
Col I: Classification by characters of human bones[1]
Col II: Example
Col III: Circumstances and surroundings - Immediate Surroundings (ImS)
Col IV: Circumstances and surroundings - Associated animals (Asa)
Col V: Circumstances and surroundings - Name of types of associated
implements (Nai)
I II III, IV, V VI
Division II
Subdivision (1) Combe Capelle ImS Cave Interment
_B_ Asa Reindeer
Nai Aurignacian
" (2) Galley Hill ImS Alluvial drift of ?
High Terrace[3] No
Asa {Elephas antiquus interment
{Rhinoceros megarhinus[2]
{Trogontherium (Rodent)
{Mimomys (Rodent)
Nai Acheulean to ?Strépyan
" (3) Grimaldi ImS Cave Interment
(Mentone) Asa {Reindeer
{Hyaena spelaea
{Felis spelaea
{(Marmot in higher strata)
Nai Mousterian ?
also Aurignacian
Subdivision (4) La Ferrassie ImS Cave Interment
_A_ Asa {Reindeer
{Bison priscus
Nai Mousterian
" (5) Pech de l'Aze ImS Cave (Head
Asa {Reindeer only
{Bison priscus found?)
Nai Mousterian
" (6) Le Moustier ImS Cave Interment
Asa {Bos primigenius
{_No reindeer_
Nai Mousterian
" (7) La Chapelle ImS Cave Interment
Asa {Reindeer (_scarce_)
{Bison priscus
Nai Mousterian
" (8) S. Brélade ImS Cave ?
Asa {Reindeer
{Bos ? sp.
{Rhinoceros tichorhinus
Nai Mousterian
" (9) Krapina ImS Cave (Rock-shelter)
Asa {Rhinoceros merckii
{Cave Bear
{Bos primigenius
{Marmot (Arctomys)
Nai Mousterian
" (10) Taubach ImS Alluvial Deposit[4] No
Asa {Elephas antiquus interment
{Rhinoceros merckii
{Felis leo
{No Hippopotamus
Nai {? Mousterian
{? Upper Acheulean
{ = Levallois
{? Chellean
Division I (11) Mauer ImS Alluvial deposit No
Asa {Elephas antiquus interment
{Rhinoceros etruscus(5)
{Ursus arvernensis
{No Hippopotamus
Nai None found
" (12) Trinil ImS Alluvial deposit No
Asa {Hippopotamus? interment
{Rhinoceros sivasoudaicus
{Other Sivalik types
Nai None found by Dubois
[1] South American remains and some others are omitted owing to
insufficiency of data relating to their surroundings.
[2] Names of fossil varieties of Rhinoceros. These are very confused.
The term R. _leptorhinus_ should be avoided altogether. R.
_megarhinus_ represents the R. _leptorhinus_ of Falconer and
Cuvier. R. _merckii_ represents R. _hemitoechus_ of Falconer, which
is the R. _leptorhinus_ of Owen and Boyd Dawkins. R. _tichorhinus_
is R. _antiquitatis_ of Falconer and some German writers.
[3] The formation of the High Terrace drift is earlier than the date of
arrival of the 'Siberian' invasion of Britain by certain Voles.
Already in Pliocene times, some Voles had come into Britain from
the south-east of Europe. But the Galley Hill man, if contemporary
with the High Terrace drift, had arrived in Britain ages before the
appearance of _Homo aurignacensis_ supposed by Klaatsch to be
closely allied, and to have come into Europe through Central if not
Northern Asia. The 'High Terrace' mammals have a 'Pliocene' facies.
[4] The upper strata at Taubach yielded Reindeer and Mammoth. Near
Weimar, Wüst says the stratigraphical positions of _R. merckii_ and
_R. antiquitatis_ have been found inverted.
[5] Typical Val d'Arno (Pliocene) form.