Dictionary_. "In all senses _between_ has been, from its earliest
appearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word available
to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and
individually--_among_ expressing a relation to them collectively and
vaguely: we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates,'
or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower.'"--_The New
English Dictionary_.
We have collected hundreds of instances of _between_ used by good writers
with three or more.
Guard against such expressions as _between each_ page; a choice _between
one_ of several.]
+Direction+.--_We give below a few words with the prepositions which
usually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these words
combined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and note
carefully the different relations expressed by the different
prepositions_:--
(Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompanying
word.)
Abide _at, by, with_; accommodate _to, with_; advantage _of, over_; agree
_to, with_; angry _at, with_; anxious _about, for_; argue _against, with_;
arrive _at, in_; attend _on_ or _upon, to_; careless _about, in, of_;
communicate _to, with_; compare _to, with_; consists _in, of_; defend
_against, from_; die _by, for, of_; different _from_; disappointed _in,
of_; distinguish _by, from_; familiar _to, with_; impatient _for, of_;
indulge _in, with_; influence _on, over, with_; insensible _of, to_; sat
_beside_; many _besides_.
* * * * *
LESSON 97.
CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.
+Direction+.--_Do with the following words as with those above_:--
Inquire _after, for, into, of_; intrude _into, upon_; joined _to, with_;
liberal _of, to_; live _at, in, on_; look _after, for, on_; need _of_;
obliged _for, to_; part _from, with_; placed _in, on_; reconcile _to,
with_; regard _for, to_; remonstrate _against, with_; sank _beneath, in,
into_; share _in, of, with_; sit _in, on_ or _upon_; smile _at, on_;
solicitous _about, for_; strive _for, with, against_; taste _for, of_;
touch _at, on_ or _upon_; useful _for, in, to_; weary _of, in, with_; yearn
_for, towards_.
* * * * *
LESSON 98.
CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.
+Caution+.--Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--
1. This book is different to that.
2. He stays to home.
3. They two quarreled among each other.
4. He is in want for money.
5. I was followed with a crowd.
6. He fell from the bridge in the water. [Footnote: _In_ denotes motion or
rest in a condition or place; _into_, change from one condition or place
into another. "When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get
_into_ it; but he cannot do anything _in_ it until he has got _into_
it."]
7. He fought into the Revolution. [See previous footnote]
8. He bears a close resemblance of his father.
9. He entered in the plot.
10. He lives at London.
11. He lives in the turn of the road.
12. I have need for a vacation.
13. The child died with the croup.
14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it.
15. He did not take a walk; he was disappointed in it.
16. He was accused with felony.
17. School keeps upon Monday.
18. Place a mark between each leaf.
19. He is angry at his father.
20. He placed a letter into my hands.
21. She is angry with your conduct.
22. What is the matter of him?
23. I saw him over to the house.
24. These plants differ with each other.
25. He boards to the hotel.
26. I board in the hotel.
27. She stays at the North.
28. I have other reasons beside these. [Footnote: Beside = _by the side
of_; besides = _in addition to_.]
29. You make no use with your talents.
30. He threw himself onto the bed.
31. The boys are hard to work.
32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers.
33. He went in the park.
34. You can confide on him.
35. He arrived to Toronto.
36. I agree with that plan.
37. The evening was spent by reading.
38. Can you accommodate me in one of those?
39. What a change a century has produced upon our country!
40. He stays to school late.
41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty.
42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England.
43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by
fishing.
* * * * *
LESSON 99.
CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.[Footnote: "A preposition is a
feeble word to end a sentence _with_," we are told. Sentences (10) and
(13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate the
rule so carelessly expressed.
Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated,
Prof. Austin Phelps says, "A preposition as such is by no means a feeble
word;" and he quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus:
"Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Rock a piece large enough to
make a gunflint _of_!" "This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic
English." He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative, 'What _for_?' is as pure
English in written as in colloquial speech."
Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly common
in English--"The language itself is inseparable _from_, or essentially a
part _of_, the _thoughts_." Such sentences have been condemned, but the
worst that can be urged against them is, that they lack smoothness. But
smoothness is not always desirable.
Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are
very common--"Powerless to _affect_, or to be affected _by_, the _times_."]
CAUTION.--Do not use prepositions needlessly.
DIRECTION.--_Correct these errors_:--
1. I went there at about noon.
2. In what latitude is Boston in?
3. He came in for to have a talk.
4. I started a week ago from last Saturday.
5. He was born August 15, in 1834.
6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's.
7. He went to home.
8. I was leading of a horse about.
9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by?
10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey.
11. Where are you going to?
12. They admitted of the fact.
13. Raise your book off of the table.
14. He took the poker from out of the fire.
15. Of what is the air composed of?
16. You can tell by trying of it.
17. Where have you been to?
18. The boy is like to his father.
19. They offered to him a chair.
20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about.
21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound.
22. Give to me a knife.
23. I have a brother of five years old.
24. To what may Italy be likened to?
25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed.
26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards.
27. Before answering of you, I must think.
28. He lives near to the river.
29. Keep off of the grass.
+Caution+.--Do not omit prepositions when they are needed.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--
1. There is no use going there.
2. He is worthy our help.
3. I was prevented going.
4. He was banished the country.
5. He is unworthy our charity.
6. What use is this to him?
7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834.
8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden.
9. It was the size of a pea.
10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea.
11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly.
12. He received dispatches from England and Russia.
+Direction+.--_Point out the prepositions in Lessons_ 80 _and_ 81, _and
name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation_.
* * * * *
LESSON 100.
CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES.
+Introductory Hints+.--The stars look down upon the roofs of the living
_and_ upon the graves of the dead, _but neither_ the living _nor_ the dead
are conscious of their gaze. Here _and_, _but_, _neither_, and _nor_
connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are
called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. Both clauses may be independent, or both
dependent but of equal rank.
At the burning of Moscow, it seemed _as_ [it would seem] _if_ the heavens
were lighted up _that_ the nations might behold the scene. Here _as_, _if_,
and _that_ connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of
higher rank, and hence are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. One clause
may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of
unequal rank.
+DEFINITIONS.+
+A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+.
[Footnote: Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as _and_ and _but_,
connect, in thought, sentences separated by the period, and even connect
paragraphs. In analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentence
and treat such connectives as introductory.]
+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses
of the same rank+.
+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.
+Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are
relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in
addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the
conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses.
To THE TEACHER.--We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils
should he able to name the different groups, and some of the most common
connectives of each group.
+Co-ordinate Connectives.+ [Footnote: +Copulative+ conjunctions join parts
in the same line of thought; +Adversative+ conjunctions join parts
contrasted or opposed in meaning; +Alternative+ conjunctions join parts so
as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76.]
+Copulative+.--_And_, _both_ ... _and_, _as well as_ [Footnote: The _as
well as_ in, _He, as well as I, went_; and not that in, _He is as well as I
am_.] are conjunctions proper. _Accordingly_, _also_, _besides_,
_consequently_, _furthermore_, _hence_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _now_,
_so_, _then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs.
+Adversative+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _However_,
_nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_,
_still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs.
+Alternative+.--_Neither_, _nor_, _or_, _either_ ... _or_, and _neither_
... _nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive
adverbs.
+Subordinate Connectives.+
CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
_That_, _what_, _whatever_, _which_, _whichever_, _who_, and _whoever_ are
relative pronouns. _When_, _where_, _whereby_, _wherein_, and _why_ are
conjunctive adverbs.
CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES.
_Time_.--_After_, _as_, _before_, _ere_, _since_, _till_, _until_, _when_,
_whenever_, _while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs.
_Place_.--_Whence_, _where_, and _wherever _are conjunctive adverbs.
_Degree_.--_As_, _than_, _that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs,
correlative with adjectives or adverbs.
_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an
adjective or an adverb.
_Real Cause_.--_As_, _because_, _for_, _since_, and _whereas_ are
conjunctions proper.
_Evidence_.--_Because_, _for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper.
_Purpose_.--_In order that_, _lest_ (= _that not_), _that_, and _so that_
are conjunctions proper.
Condition.--Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided
that, and unless are conjunctions proper.
_Concession_.--_Although_, _if_ (= _even if_), _notwithstanding_, _though_,
and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb.
_Whatever_, _whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used
indefinitely.
CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES.
_If_, _lest_, _that_, and _whether_ [Footnote: Etymologically, _whether_ is
restricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very
freely used with three or more.
The repetition of _whether_, like the use of it with three or more things,
has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it.
_Whether or no_ is also allowed.] are conjunctions proper. _What_, _which_,
and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; and _how_, _when_, _whence_,
_where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions.
+Direction+.--_Study the lists above_, _and point out all the connectives
in Lessons_ 80 and 81, _telling which are relative pronouns_, _which are
conjunctions proper_, _and which are conjunctive adverbs_.
+TO THE TEACHER+.--If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary
to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study,
the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these
exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the
course.
* * * * *
LESSON 101.
COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES.
+Direction+.--_Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be
joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinate
connectives_.
* * * * *
LESSON 102.
COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.
+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined
by connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of adverb clauses
of time, place, degree, and manner_.
* * * * *
LESSON 103.
COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.
+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined
by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose,
condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses_.
* * * * *
LESSON 104.
CONNECTIVES.
Analysis.
+Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and
what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the
sentences_:--
+As+ may connect a clause expressing +manner+, +time+, +degree+, +cause+,
or +evidence+.
1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington.
2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription.
3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas.
4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing.
5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand.
+If+ may connect a clause expressing +condition+, +time+, or +concession+,
or it may introduce a +noun+ clause.
6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free.
7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride.
8. Who knows if one of the Pleiads is really missing? [Footnote: Many
grammarians say that _if_ here is improperly used for _whether_. But
this use of _if_ is common with good authors in early and in modern
English.]
9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing.
+Lest+ may connect a clause expressing +purpose+, or it may introduce a
+noun+ clause.
10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India.
11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation.
+Since+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +evidence+.
12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas.
13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built.
14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted.
* * * * *
LESSON 105.
CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.
Analysis.
+Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and
what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the
sentences_:--
+That+ may connect a +noun+ clause, an +adjective+ clause, or a clause
expressing +degree+, +cause+, or +purpose+.
1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men.
2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried.
3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may harden the
metal.
4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle.
5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them.
+When+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +condition+, an
+adjective+ clause or a +noun+ clause, or it may connect +co-ordinate+
clauses.
6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses.
7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns.
8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present.
9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question.
10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common people?
11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and weights
protested their innocence.
+Where+ may connect a clause expressing +place+, an +adjective+ clause, or
a +noun+ clause.
12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried.
13. Where Moses was buried is still a question.
14. No one has been where Moses was buried.
+While+ may connect a clause expressing +time+ or +concession+, or it may
connect +co-ordinate+ clauses.
15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents.
16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt.
17. While Charles I. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king.
* * * * *
LESSON 106.
CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.
Analysis.
+Direction+.--_Use the appropriate connectives, and change these compound
sentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyze
them_:--
(Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause; let three express cause;
five, condition; and two, concession.)
1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have had it.
2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it becomes
carnage.
3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee.
4. You must eat, or you will die.
5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom.
6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead
Caesar's wounds.
7. Men are carrying umbrellas; it is raining.
8. Have ye brave sons? look in the next fierce brawl to see them die.
9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor lives.
10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a rebel instead
of the purest of patriots.
11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon.
+Direction+.--_Two of the dependent clauses below express condition, and
three express concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and
then analyze the sentences_:--
12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us.
13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never have been
an England.
14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him.
15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader.
16. Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, _more frigates_ would be
found written on my heart.
* * * * *
LESSON 107.
CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES.
+Caution+.--Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may stand in
correlation with other words. _And_ may be accompanied by _both_; _as_, by
_as_, by _so_, or by _such_; _but_ (_but also_ and _but likewise_), by _not
only_; _if_, by _then_; _nor_, by _neither_; _or_, by _either_ or by
_whether_; _that_, by _so_; _the_, by _the_; _though_, by _yet_; _when_, by
_then_; and _where_, by _there_.
Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and stand where they
belong.
+Examples+.--Give me neither riches _nor_ (not _or_) poverty. I cannot find
either my book _or_ (not _nor_) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not _not only
dogs_ bark) but also bite. _Not only dogs_ (not _dogs not only_) bark but
wolves also. He _was neither_ (not _neither was_) rich nor poor.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. He not only gave me advice but also money.
2. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a
dissimulation of my real sentiments.
3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully.
4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New York.
5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature but also for his
moral wisdom.
6. Not only he is successful but he deserves to succeed.
7. There was nothing either strange nor interesting.
+Caution+.--Choose apt connectives, but do not use them needlessly or
instead of other parts of speech.
+Examples+.--Seldom, _if_ (not _or_) ever, should an adverb stand between
_to_ and the infinitive. I will try _to_ (not _and_) do better next time.
No one can deny _that_ (not _but_) he has money. [Footnote: See foot-note,
page 176.] A harrow is drawn over the ground, _which_ (not _and which_)
covers the seed. Who doubts _that_ (not _but that_ or _but what_) Napoleon
lived [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176.] The doctor had scarcely left
_when_ (not _but_) a patient called. He has no love for his father _or_
(not _nor_) for his mother (the negative _no_ is felt throughout the
sentence, and need not be repeated by _nor_). He was not well, _nor_ (not
_or_) was he sick (_not_ is expended in the first clause; _nor_ is needed
to make the second clause negative).
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these
errors_:--
1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other poets, is
tenderness.
2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow.
3. Who can doubt but that there is a God?
4. No one can eat nor drink while he is talking.
5. He seldom or ever went to church.
6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season.
7. I do not know as I shall like it.
8. He said that, after he had asked the advice of all his friends, that he
was more puzzled than before.
+Caution+.--_Else_, _other_, _otherwise_, _rather_, and adjectives and
adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by _than_. But _else_,
_other_, and _more_, implying something additional, but not different in
kind, may be followed by _but_ or _besides_.
+Examples+.--A diamond is nothing _else than_ carbon. Junius was no _other
than_ Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk _otherwise than_ on
crutches. Americans would _rather_ travel _than_ stay at home. I rose
_earlier than_ I intended. He can converse on _other_ topics _besides_
politics.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these
errors_:--
1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns.
2. The moon is something else but green cheese.
3. Cornwallis could not do otherwise but surrender.
4. It was no other but the President.
5. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran.
+Caution+.--Two or more connected words or phrases referring to another
word or phrase should each make good sense with it.
+Examples+.--I have always (add _said_) and still do say that labor is
honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add
_lived_) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not so
tall (not The boy is _stronger_, but not _so tall, as_ his sister).
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these
errors_:--
1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron.
2. Gold is not so useful, but heavier, than iron.
3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than that.
4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn their lessons.
5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes.
6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or may be
published.
* * * * *
LESSON 108.
MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors, telling what Caution each violates_:--