Lessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, shape,
position, size, moral qualities, or whether they modify in some other way_.
* * * * *
LESSON 90.
CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.
+Caution+.--_An_ and _a_ are different forms of _one_. _An_ is used before
vowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, _an_ drops _n_ and becomes _a_
before consonant sounds.[Footnote: Some writers still use _an_ before words
beginning with unaccented _h_; as, _an historian_.]
+Examples+.--_An_ inkstand, _a_ bag, _a_ historian, _a_ humble petition,
_an_ hour (_h_ is silent), _a_ unit (_unit_ begins with the consonant sound
of _y_), such _a_ one (_one_ begins with the consonant sound of _w_).
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an uniform,
an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero.
+Caution.+--_An_ or _a_ is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class--to
any one. _The_ is used to distinguish (1) one thing or several things from
others, and (2) one class of things from other classes.
+Explanation.+--We can say _a horse_, meaning _any one horse_; but we
cannot say, _A gold_ is heavy, This is a poor kind of a _gas_, William Pitt
received the title of _an earl_ because _gold, gas,_ and _earl_ are here
meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to one
thing of a class.
_The horse_ or _the horses_ must be turned into _the lot_. Here _the_
before _horse_ distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horses
distinguishes certain animals, from others of the same class; and _the_
before _lot_ distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable--things in
other classes. _The horse_ is a noble animal. Here _the_ distinguishes
_this class_ of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, _The man_
(meaning the race) is mortal, _The anger_ is a short madness, _The truth_
is eternal, _The poetry_ and _the painting_ are fine arts, because _man,
anger, truth, poetry,_ and _painting_ are used in their widest sense, and
name things that are sufficiently distinguished without _the_.
+Direction.+--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--
1. This is another kind of a sentence.
2. Churchill received the title of a duke.
3. A _hill_ is from the same root as _column_.
4. Dog is a quadruped.
5. I expected some such an offer.
6. The woman is the equal of man.
7. The sculpture is a fine art.
8. Unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros.
9. Oak is harder than the maple.
+Caution.+--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before _each_ of two or more connected
adjectives, when these adjectives modify different nouns, expressed or
understood; but, when they modify the same noun, the article should not be
repeated.
+Explanation+.--_A cotton and a silk umbrella_ means two umbrellas--one
cotton and the other silk; the word umbrella is understood after _cotton_.
_A cotton and silk umbrella_ means one umbrella partly cotton and partly
silk; _cotton_ and _silk_ modify the same noun--_umbrella_. _The wise and
the good_ means two classes; _the wise and good_ means one class.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--
1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere.
2. The Northern and the Southern Hemispheres.
3. The right and left hand.
4. A Pullman and Wagner sleeping-coach.
5. The fourth and the fifth verses.
6. The fourth and fifth verse.
7. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary.
+Caution+.--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before each of two or more connected
nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or
emphasized.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner.
2. We criticise not the dress but address of the speaker.
3. A noun and pronoun are alike in office.
4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb.
5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe.
6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached.
7. The secretary and treasurer were both absent.
(_The secretary and treasurer was absent_--referring to one person--is
correct.)
+Caution+.--_A few_ and _a little_ mean _some_ as opposed to _none_; _few_
means _not many_, and _little_ means _not much_.
+Examples+.--He saved _a few_ things and _a little_ money from the wreck.
_Few_ shall part where many meet. _Little_ was said or done about it.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month.
2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night.
3. Few men live to be & hundred years old, but not many.
4. Little can be done, but not much.
+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these
Cautions_.
* * * * *
LESSON 91.
CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES--CONTINUED.
+Caution+.--Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them needlessly; avoid
such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it.
+Remark+.--The following adjectives are obviously needless: _Good_ virtues,
_verdant_ green, _painful_ toothache, _umbrageous_ shade.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors_:--
1. It was splendid fun.
2. It was a tremendous dew.
3. He used less words than the other speaker.
4. The lad was neither docile nor teachable.
5. The belief in immortality is common and universal.
6. It was a gorgeous apple.
7. The arm-chair was roomy and capacious.
8. It was a lovely bun, but I paid a frightful price for it.
+Caution+.--So place adjectives that there can be no doubt as to what you
intend them to modify. If those forming a series are of different rank,
place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If they are of
the same rank, place them where they will sound best--generally in the
order of length, the shortest first.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. A new bottle of wine.
2. The house was comfortable and large.
3. A salt barrel of pork.
4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky.
5. A fried dish of bacon.
6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, towering mountain.
7. Two gray fiery little eyes.
8. A docile and mild pupil.
9. A pupil, docile and mild.
+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these
two Cautions_.
Miscellaneous Errors.
+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these expressions violate, and
correct the errors_:--
1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter.
2. The North and South Pole.
3. The eldest son of a duke is called _a marquis_.
4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him.
5. An old and young man.
6. A prodigious snowball hit my cheek.
7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne.
8. The fat, two lazy men.
9. His penmanship is fearful.
10. A white and red flag were flying.
11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him.
12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple.
13. A dried box of herrings.
14. He received a honor.
15. Such an use!
16. The day was delightful and warm.
17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, frugal, and simple.
18. The victory was complete, though a few of the enemy were killed or
captured.
19. The truth is mighty and will prevail.
20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me poor things for great
men to contend for.
21. A few can swim across the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and
the current strong.
22. I have a contemptible opinion of you.
23. She has less friends than I.
LESSON 92.
CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS.
+Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying _Washington
captured_ we do not fully express the act performed. Adding _Cornwallis_,
we complete the predicate by naming the one that receives the act that
passes over from the doer. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all
verbs that represent an act as passing over from a doer to a receiver are
called +Transitive Verbs+. If we say _Cornwallis was captured by
Washington_, the verb is still transitive; but the object, _Cornwallis_,
which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and not, as
before, the object complement. You see that the object, the word that names
the receiver of the act, may be the subject, or it may be the object
complement.
All verbs that, like _fall_ in _Leaves fall_, do not represent the act as
passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of
being are called +Intransitive Verbs+.
A verb transitive in one sentence; as, He _writes_ good English, may be
intransitive in another; as, He _writes_ well--meaning simply He _is_ a
good _writer_. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or
obviously understood.
_Washington captured Cornwallis_. Here _captured_ represents the act as
having taken place in past time. _Tense_ means _time_, and hence this verb
is in the past tense. _Cornwallis captured, the war speedily closed_. Here
_captured_ is, as you have learned, a participle; and, representing the act
as past at the time indicated by _closed_, it is a past participle. Notice
that _ed_ is added to _capture_ (final _e_ is always dropped when _ed_ is
added) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that form
the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present are
called +Regular Verbs+.
All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding
_ed_ to the present; as, _fall, fell, fallen; go, went, gone_, are called
+Irregular Verbs+.
_Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently_, etc., used to modify any
verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go soon_--by expressing time, are called
+Adverbs of Time+.
_Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within_, etc., used to modify any
verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go away_--by expressing direction or place,
are called +Adverbs of Place+.
_Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very_, etc., used to modify
a word--as the adjective _hot_ in, The tea is _very hot_--by expressing
degree, are called +Adverbs of Degree+.
_Plainly, so, thus, well, not_, [Footnote: It may be worth remarking that
while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and
conjunctions in oar language, negation is more frequently expressed in
English by the adverb than by any other part of speech--than by all other
parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb.
That is to say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate
expresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject. It
is very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial--is taken
up in telling not what is true of things but what is not true of them.
"The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant +n+. In
Saxon it existed as a word +ne+; but we have lost that word, and it is now
a letter only, which, enters into many words, as into _no, not, nought,
none, neither, nor, never_."--_Earle_.
_No_ and _yes_ (_nay_ and _yea_), when used to answer Questions, show how
the thought presented is regarded, and may therefore be classed with
adverbs of manner. They are sometimes called _independent adverbs_. They
seem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question;
as, Did you see him? _No_ = I did _no_ (_not_) see him; Will you go? _Yes_.
The force of _yes_ may be illustrated by substituting _certainly_--Will you
go? _Certainly_. _Certainly_ I will go, or I will _certainly_ go. As _no_
and _yes_ represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called
+sentence-words+.] etc., used to modify a word--as, _spoke_ in, He _spoke
plainly_--by expressing manner, are called +Adverbs of Manner+.
_Hence, therefore, why_, etc., used in making an inference or in expressing
cause--as, It is dark, _hence_, or _therefore_, the sun is down; _Why_ is
it dark?--are called +Adverbs of Cause+.
Some adverbs fall into more than one class; as, _so_ and _as_.
Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and are therefore
called +Conjunctive Adverbs+.
DEFINITIONS.
+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+.
CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.
+A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The
+object+ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the
action, may be the +object complement+, or it may be the +subject+; as,
Brutus stabbed _Caesar_; _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus. See page 187.]
+An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+.
CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.
+A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by
adding _ed_ to the present+.
+An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past
participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.
+An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
[Footnote: Adverbs have several exceptional uses. They may be used
independently; as, _Now, there_ must be an error here. They may modify a
phrase or a preposition; as, He came _just_ in time; It went _far_ beyond
the mark. They may modify a clause or a sentence; as, He let go _simply_
because he was exhausted; _Certainly_ you may go.
It may also be noted here that adverbs are used interrogatively; as, _How,
when_, and _where_ is this to be done? and that they may add to the office
of the adverb that of the conjunction; as, I go _where_ I am sent.]
CLASSES OF ADVERBS.
+_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_
+_Adverbs of Place_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Where?_
+_Adverbs of Degree_ are those that generally answer the question+, _To
what extent?_
+_Adverbs of Manner_ are those that generally answer the question+, _In
what way?_
+_Adverbs of Cause_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Why?_
+Direction+.--_Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regular
and the irregular verbs in Lesson_ 14, _and classify the adverbs_.
* * * * *
LESSON 93.
CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS.
+Caution+.--Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them needlessly or instead
of other forms of expression; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate
it.
+Examples+.--I could _ill_ (not _illy_) afford the time. Do _as_ (not
_like_) I do. A diphthong is _the union of_ two vowels (not _where_ or
_when_ two vowels unite) in the same syllable. _This_ (not _this here_ or
_this 'ere_) sentence is correct. He wrote _that_ (not _how that_) he had
been sick. The belief in immortality is _universally_ held (not
_universally_ held _everywhere_). His nose was _very_ (not _terribly_ or
_frightfully_) red,
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these
errors_.--
1. I returned back here yesterday.
2. He had not hardly a minute to spare.
3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peacefully.
4. It was awfully amusing.
5. This 'ere knife is dull.
6. That 'ere horse has the heaves.
7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied.
8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea.
9. He seldom or ever went home sober.
10. The belief in immortality is universally held by all.
11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that.
12. This is a fearfully long lesson.
13. He said how that he would go.
+Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you
intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They seldom stand
between _to_ and the infinitive. [Footnote: Instances of the "cleft, or
split, infinitive"--the infinitive separated from its _to_ by an
intervening adverb--are found in Early English and in English all the way
down, Fitzedward Hall and others have shown this.
But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an
adverb's standing between _to_ and the infinitive. Few writers ever place
an adverb there at all; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and that
adverb only occasionally.
Whether the adverb should be placed before the _to_ or after the infinitive
is often a nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. It
should never stand, however, where it would leave the meaning ambiguous or
in any way obscure.]
+Examples+.--_I only_ rowed across the river = _I only_ (= _alone_, an
adjective), and no one else, rowed etc., or = I _only rowed_ etc., +but+
did not _swim_ or _wade_. I rowed _only across_ the river = _across_, not
_up_ or _down_ etc. I rowed across the _river only_ = the _river only_, not
the _bay_ etc. _Merely to see_ (not _to merely see_) her was sufficient.
_Not every collegian_ is a scholar (not _Every collegian_ is _not_ a
scholar).
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these
errors_:--
1. I have thought of marrying often.
2. We only eat three meals a day.
3. He hopes to rapidly recruit.
4. All is not gold that glitters.
5. He tries to distinctly speak.
6. He tries distinctly to speak.
7. All that glitters is not gold.
8. His sagacity almost appears miraculous.
+Caution+.--Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two negative words so
that they shall contradict each other. [Footnote: _Not in_frequently we use
two negatives to make an affirmation; as, He is _not un_just; _No_ man can
do _nothing_.]
+Examples+.--No one _has_ (not _hasn't_) yet reached the North Pole. _No
un_pleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to
affirm).
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these
errors_:--
1. No other reason can never be given.
2. He doesn't do nothing.
3. He isn't improving much, I don't think.
4. There must be something wrong when children do not love neither father
nor mother.
5. He isn't no sneak.
6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found.
+Caution+.--Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for adverbs.
+Examples+.--The moon looks _calm_ and _peaceful_ (not _calmly_ and
_peacefully_, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The moon
looks down _calmly_ and _peacefully_ on the battlefield (not _calm_ and
_peaceful_, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). I
slept _soundly_ (not _good_ or _sound_).
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these
errors_:--
1. It was a softly blue sky.
2. The river runs rapid.
3. You must read more distinct.
4. It was an uncommon good harvest.
5. She is most sixteen.
6. The discussion waxed warmly.
7. The prima donna sings sweet.
8. She is miserable poor.
9. My head feels badly.
10. He spoke up prompt.
11. He went most there.
12. He behaved very bad.
13. This is a mighty cold day.
+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these
four Cautions_.
* * * * *
LESSON 94.
CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED.
Miscellaneous Errors.
+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct
the errors_:--
1. Begin it over again.
2. This can be done easier.
3. The house is extra warm.
4. Most every one goes there.
5. I have a pencil that long.
6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe.
7. A circle can't in no way be squared.
8. This is a remarkable cold winter.
9. The one is as equally deserving as the other.
10. Feathers feel softly.
11. It is pretty near finished.
12. Verbosity is when too many words are used.
13. It is a wonderful fine day.
14. He is some better just now.
15. Generally every morning we went to the spring.
16. I wish to simply state this point.
17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man.
18. The lesson was prodigiously long.
19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings.
20. He can do it as good as any one can.
21. Most everybody talks so.
22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't believe.
23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly.
24. That 'ere book is readable.
25. I will not go but once.
26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends.
27. They were nearly dressed alike.
28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again.
29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent.
30. I am real glad to see you.
31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise.
LESSON 95.
PREPOSITIONS.
+DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier,
and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word
modified.+
Composition.
+Direction+.--_We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. Make
short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or
three of them in a single sentence if you wish_:--
Aboard,
about,
above,
across,
after,
against,
along,
amid,
amidst,
among,
amongst,
around,
at,
athwart,
before,
behind,
below,
beneath,
beside,
besides,
between,
betwixt,
beyond,
but,
by,
down,
ere,
for,
from,
in,
into,
of,
on,
over,
past,
round,
since,
through,
throughout,
till,
to,
toward,
towards,
under,
underneath,
until,
unto,
up,
upon,
with,
within,
without.
+Remarks+.--_Bating_, _concerning_, _during_, _excepting_,
_notwithstanding_, _pending_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _saving_, and
_touching_ are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use. But
in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they
express mere relations.
_But_, _except_, and _save_, in such a sentence as, All _but_ or _except_
or _save him_ were lost, are usually classed with prepositions.
The phrases _aboard of_, _according to_, _along with_, _as to_, _because
of_ (by cause of), _from among_, _from between_, _from under_, _instead of_
(in stead of), _out of_, _over against_, and _round about_ may be called
compound prepositions. But _from_ in these compounds; as, He crawled _from
under the ruins_, really introduces a phrase, the principal term of which
is the phrase that follows _from_.
Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows
them is omitted; as, He rode _past_; He stands _above_.
* * * * *
LESSON 96.
CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS.
+To the Teacher+.--Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so
delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based
upon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use of
prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. We
do below all that we think it prudent or profitable to do with them. He
should he a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils
that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words.
Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That grammarian
exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower
than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast
up. [Footnote: Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teach
that _between_ and _betwixt_ "refer to two," are used "only when two things
or sets of things are referred to." Ordinarily, and while clinging to their
derivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be? "There
was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."--
_L'Estrange_. "A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden."--
_J. B. Green_. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and
Ethiopia."--_Gibbon_. "His flight between the several worlds."--_Addison_.
"The identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocative
cases in the neuter." --_G. P. Marsh_. "The distinction between these three
orders has been well expressed by Prof. Max Mueller."--_W. D. Whitney_.
"Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, The Imperial, and Webster's."--
_B. G. White_. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory
neck."--_Bryant_. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be
filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology! What
simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this
sentence, for instance: There were forty desks in the room with ample space
_between them_?