Europe; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the other on
the southern.
2. The right and left lung were diseased.
3. The right and the left lungs were diseased.
4. My friend has sailed for Europe, who was here yesterday.
5. There are some men which are always young.
6. I cannot think but what God is good.
7. Thimbles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle.
8. A told B that he was his best friend.
9. Them scissors are very dull.
10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada.
11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up
insensible, died.
12. The eye and ear have different offices.
13. I only laugh when I feel like it.
14. This is the same man who called yesterday.
15. He was an humble man.
16. He was thrown forward onto his face.
17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B.
18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price.
19. At what wharf does the boat stop at?
20. The music sounded harshly.
21. He would neither go himself or send anybody.
22. It isn't but a short distance.
23. The butter is splendid.
24. The boy was graceful and tall.
25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much.
26. One would rather have few friends than a few friends.
27. He is outrageously proud.
28. Not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it.
29. He has gone way out West.
30. Who doubts but what two and two are four?
31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water.
32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand.
33. It was the length of your finger.
34. He bought a condensed can of milk.
35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs.
36. The death is inevitable.
37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress.
38. When shall we meet together?
39. He talks like you do. [Footnote: The use of the verb _do_ as a
substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most remarkable idioms in
the language. In its several forms it stands for the finite forms and
for the infinitive and the participle of verbs, transitive and
intransitive, regular and irregular. It prevents repetition, and hence
is euphonic; it abbreviates expression, and therefore is energetic.]
40. This word has a different source than that.
41. No sooner did I arrive when he called.
* * * * *
LESSON 109.
VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT.
+What+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +interrogative pronoun+, a
+definitive adjective+, an +adverb+, and an +interjection+.
+Examples+.--He did _what_ was right. _What_ did he say? _What_ man is
happy with the toothache? _What_ with confinement and _what_ with bad diet,
the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here _what_ = _partly_,
and modifies the phrase following it). _What_! you a lion?
+That+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +adjective+ +pronoun+, a
+definitive adjective+, a +conjunction+, and a +conjunctive adverb+.
+Examples+.--He _that_ does a good deed is instantly ennobled. _That_ is
heroism. _That_ man is a hero. We eat _that_ we may live. It was so cold
_that_ the mercury froze.
+But+ may be used as a +conjunction+, an +adverb+, an +adjective+, and a
+preposition+.
+Examples+.--The ostrich is a bird, _but_ (adversative conjunction) it
cannot fly. Not a sparrow falls _but_ (= unless--subordinate conjunction)
God wills it. He was all _but_ (conjunction or preposition) dead = He was
all dead, _but_ he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that line)
_except_ (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked _but_ (conjunctive adverb)
he loves virtue = No man is wicked _to that degree in which_ he loves _not_
virtue (_so_ = _to that degree_, _but_ = _in which not_). We meet _but_
(adverb = _only_) to part. Life is _but_ (adjective = _only_) a dream. All
_but_ (preposition = _except_) him had fled. The tears of love were
hopeless _but_ (preposition = _except_) for thee. I cannot _but_ remember =
I cannot do anything _but_ (preposition = _except_) remember. There is no
fireside _but_ (preposition) has one vacant chair (_except the one which_
has); or, regarding _but_ as a negative relative = _that not_, the sentence
= There is no fireside _that_ has _not_ one vacant chair.
+Direction+.--_Study the examples given above, point out the exact use of
what, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences_:--
1. He did nothing but laugh.
2. It was once supposed that crystal is ice frozen so hard that it cannot
be thawed.
3. What love equals a mother's?
4. There is nobody here but me.
5. The fine arts were all but proscribed.
6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name.
7. The longest life is but a day.
8. What if the bee love not these barren boughs?
9. That life is long which answers life's great end.
10. What! I the weaker vessel?
11. Whom should I obey but thee?
12 What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a fortune.
13. I long ago found that out.
14. One should not always eat what he likes.
15. There's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of
gravity.
16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, would have seemed disdain.
17. He came but to return.
* * * * *
LESSON 110.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
_Lesson_ 85.--Define a noun. What is the distinction between a common and a
proper noun? Why is _music_ a common noun? What is a collective noun? An
abstract noun? Define a pronoun. What are the classes of pronouns? Define
them. What is an antecedent?
_Lesson_ 86.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting _he_, _it_, and
_they_; the needless use of pronouns; the two styles of the pronoun; the
use of _them_ for _those_, and of _what_ for _that_; and the use of _who_,
_which_, _that_, and _what_.
_Lesson_ 87.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected
relative clauses; the relative in clauses not restrictive; the use of
_that_ instead of _who_ or _which_; the position of the relative clause;
and the use of _this_ and _that_, _the one_ and _the other_.
_Lesson_ 89.--Define an adjective. What two classes are there? Define them.
What adjectives do not limit? Illustrate.
_Lesson_ 90.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of the
adjectives _an_, _a_, and _the_; and the use of _a few_ and _few_, _a
little_ and _little_.
_Lesson_ 91.--Give and illustrate the Cautious respecting the choice and
the position of adjectives.
Lesson_ 93.--Define a verb. What are transitive verbs? Intransitive?
_Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and the object
complement? What are regular verbs? Irregular? Illustrate. What are the
several classes of adverbs? Define them. What is a conjunctive adverb?
_Lesson_ 93.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and
the position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use of
adverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs.
* * * * *
LESSON 111.
REVIEW QUESTIONS--CONTINUED.
_Lesson_ 95.--Define a preposition. Name some of the common prepositions.
What is said of some prepositions ending in _ing_? Of _but_, _except_, and
_save_? Of certain compound prepositions? When do prepositions become
adverbs?
_Lesson_ 98.--Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice of
prepositions. What, in general, is the difference between _in_ and _into_?
_Lesson_ 99.--Give and illustrate the two Cautions relating to the use of
prepositions.
_Lesson_ 100.--Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes of
conjunctions, and what is their difference? What other parts of speech
besides conjunctions connect? What are adverbs that connect called? Into
what three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided? Give some of the
conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class. What three kinds of
clauses are connected by subordinate connectives? The connectives of adverb
clauses are subdivided into what classes? Give a leading connective of each
class.
_Lessons_ 104, 105.--Illustrate two or more offices of each of the
connectives _as_, _if_, _lest_, _since_, _that_, _when_, _where_, and
_while_.
_Lesson_ 107.--Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to the
construction of connectives.
_Lesson_ 109.--Illustrate the offices of _what_, _that_, and _but_.
* * * * *
GENERAL REVIEW.
Schemes for the Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection.
(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)
| Co-Ordinate. |
THE CONJUNCTION. +Classes+. + Subordinate + 106-107.
| |
THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (95, 98, 99).
THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (20, 21).
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
* * * * *
LESSON 112.
+Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that two words may express a
thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You
are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply
changing its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections,
or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words
are not now marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, the
meaning, and the use of the parts of speech we call their +Modifications+.
[Footnote: Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode,
etc.--what we here call _Modifications_--to form, find themselves within
bounds which they continually overleap. They define number, for instance,
as a form, or inflection, and yet speak of nouns "plural in form but
singular in sense," or "singular in form but plural in sense;" that is, if
you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form but singular or
plural form in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insist
that nouns have three cases, though only two forms; and speak of the
nominative and the objective case of the noun, "although in fact the two
cases are always the same in form"--the two forms always the same in form!
On the other hand, those that make what we call _Modifications_ denote only
relations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For
instance, they ask the pupil to "pronounce and write the possessive of
nouns," hardly expecting, we suppose, that the "condition" of a noun will
be sounded or written; and they speak of "a noun in the singular with a
plural application," in which expression _singular_ must be taken to mean
_singular form_ to save it from sheer nonsense.
We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do
what by the common use of the word we are allowed; viz., to take
_Modifications_ with such breadth of signification that it will apply to
meaning and to use, as well as to form. Primarily, of course, it meant
inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words. But we
shall use _Modifications_ to indicate changes in meaning and use when the
form in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizing
that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form.]
Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns.
NUMBER.
_The boy shouts_. _The boys shout_. The form of the subject _boy_ is
changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes one
lad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning of
nouns is called +Number+; the word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the
+Singular Number+; and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the
+Plural Number+. Number expresses only the distinction of one from more
than one; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, and say
_two boys_, _four boys_, _many_ or _several boys_.
+DEFINITIONS+.
+_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning,
and use+.
+_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing
or more than one.+
+The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+.
+The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+.
NUMBER FORMS.
+RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the
singular+.
To this rule there are some exceptions.
When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of _s_, _es_
is added and forms another syllable.[Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _as_ was the
plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In later English, _as_ was
changed to _es_, which became the regular plural ending; as, _bird-es_,
_cloud-es_. In modern English, _e_ is dropped, and _s_ is joined to the
singular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends in an
_s_-sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, as two hissing sounds
will not unite.]
+Remark+.--Such words as _horse_, _niche_, and _cage_ drop the final _e_
when _es_ is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 137.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note
what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of +s+_:--
Ax _or_ axe, arch, adz _or_ adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch,
face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz.
The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_ without
increase of syllables.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto,
mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico (_oes_ or _os_), potato, tornado,
torpedo, veto, volcano.
The following nouns in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _s_ only.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Canto, domino (_os_ or _oes_), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento,
octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (_os_ or
_oes_).
Nouns in _o_ preceded by a vowel add _s_.
Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio.
Common nouns [Footnote: See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English, such words
as _lady_ and _fancy_ were spelled _ladie_, _fancie_. The modern plural
simply retains the old spelling and adds _s_,] in _y_ after a consonant
change _y_ into _i_ and add _es_ without increase of syllables. Nouns in
_y_ after a vowel add _s_.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, [Footnote: _U_ after _q_ is
a consonant] daisy, essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey,
mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity.
The following nouns change _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff,
[Footnote: _Staff_ (a stick or support), _staves_ or _staffs_; _staff_ (a
body of officers), _staffs_. The compounds of _staff_ are regular; as,
_flagstaffs_.] thief, wharf, [Footnote: In England, generally _wharfs_.]
wife, wolf.
The following nouns in _f_ and _fe_ are regular.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof,
reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif.
(Nouns in _ff_, except _staff_, are regular; as, _cuff_, _cuffs_.)
The following plurals are still more irregular.
+Direction+.--_Learn to form the following plurals_:--
Child, children; foot, feet; goose, geese; louse, lice; man, men; mouse,
mice; Mr., Messrs.; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; woman, women.
(For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124.)
* * * * *
LESSON 113.
NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED.
Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain their original
plural forms. Some of these take the English plural also.
+Direction+.--_Learn to form the following plurals_:--
Analysis, analyses; antithesis, antitheses; appendix, appendices _or_
appendixes; automaton, automata _or_ automatons; axis, axes; bandit,
banditti _or_ bandits; basis, bases; beau, beaux _or_ beaus; cherub,
cherubim _or_ cherubs; crisis, crises; datum, data; ellipsis, ellipses;
erratum, errata; focus, foci: fungus, fungi _or_ funguses; genus, genera;
hypothesis, hypotheses; ignis fatuus, ignes fatui; madame, mesdames; magus,
magi; memorandum, memoranda _or_ memorandums; monsieur, messieurs; nebula,
nebulae; oasis, oases; parenthesis, parentheses; phenomenon, phenomena;
radius, radii _or_ radiuses; seraph, seraphim _or_ seraphs; stratum,
strata; synopsis, synopses; terminus, termini; vertebra, vertebrae; vortex,
vortices _or_ vortexes.
The following compound nouns, in which the principal word stands first,
vary the first word; as, _sons_-in-law.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of the following words_:--
Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet-doux, [Footnote: Plural, billets-doux,
pronounced _bil'-la:-doo:z_ ] commander-in-chief, court-martial,
cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, man-of-war.
The following, and most compounds, vary the last word; as, pailfuls,
gentle_men_. [Footnote: _Pails full_ is not a compound. This expression
denotes a number of pails, each full.]
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Courtyard, dormouse, Englishman, fellow-servant, fisherman, Frenchman,
forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man-trap, mouthful,
pianoforte, portemonnaie, spoonful, stepson, tete-a-tete, tooth-brush.
The following nouns (except _Norman_) are not compounds of _man_--add _s_
to all.
Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman.
The following compounds vary both parts; as, _man-singer_, _men-singers_.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer.
Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title form the plural
by varying either the title or the name; as, the Miss _Clarks_ or the
_Misses_ Clark; but, when the title _Mrs._ is used, the name is usually
varied; as, the Mrs. _Clarks_. [Footnote: Of the two forms, the _Miss
Clarks_ and the _Misses Clark_, we believe that the former is most used by
the best authors. The latter, except in formal notes or when the title is
to be emphasized, is rather stiff if not pedantic. Some authorities say
that, when a numeral precedes the title, the name should always be varied;
as, the _two Miss Clarks_.
The forms, the _Misses Clarks_ and the _two Mrs. Clark_, have little
authority.]
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of the following compounds_:--
Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green.
A title used with two or more different names is made plural; as, _Drs_.
Grimes and Steele, _Messrs_. Clark and Maynard.
+Direction+.--_Put each of the following expressions in its proper form_:--
General Lee and Jackson; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott; Mr, Green,
Stacy, & Co.
Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe and _s_ to form
the plural; [Footnote: Some good writers form the plural of words named
merely as words, in the same way; as, the _if's_ and _and's_; but the (')
is here unnecessary.] as, _a's, 2's, ----'s_.
+Direction.+--_Form the plural of each of the following characters_:--S,
i, t, +, x, [Dagger], 9, 1, 1/4, [Yough], [Cyrillic: E].
* * * * *
LESSON 114.
NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED.
Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning.
+Direction.+--_Learn these plurals and their meanings:_--
Brother,
brothers (by blood),
brethren (of the same society).
Cannon,
cannons (individuals),
cannon (in a collective sense).
Die,
dies (stamps for coining),
dice (cubes for gaming).
Fish,
fishes (individuals),
fish (collection). [Footnote: The names of several sorts of fish, as,
_herring, shad, trout_, etc. are used in the same way. The compounds of
_fish_, as _codfish_, have the same form in both numbers.]
Foot,
feet (parts of the body),
foot (foot-soldiers).
Genius,
geniuses (men of genius),
genii (spirits).
Head,
heads (parts of the body),
head (of cattle).
Horse,
horses (animals),
horse (horse-soldiers).
Index,
indexes (tables of reference),
indices (signs in algebra).
Penny,
pennies (distinct coins),
pence (quantity in value).
Sail,
sails (pieces of canvas),
sail (vessels).
Shot,
shots (number of times fired),
shot (number of balls).
The following nouns and pronouns have the same form in both numbers.
+Direction.+--_Study the following list:_--
Bellows, corps, [Footnote: The singular is pronounced _ko:r_, the plural
_ko:rz_.] deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, pains (care), series,
sheep, species, swine, vermin, who, which, that (relative), what, any,
none.
(The following have two forms in the plural).
Apparatus, apparatus _or_ apparatuses; heathen, heathen _or_ heathens.
(The following nouns have the same form in both numbers when used with
numerals; they add _s_ in other cases; as, _four score, by scores_.)
Dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand.
The following nouns have no plural.
(These are generally names of materials, qualities, or sciences.)
Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have no
plural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made of
it are referred to; as, _cottons, coffees, tins, coppers_.
+Direction.+--_Study the following list of words:_--
Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not a
book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, molasses,
music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water.
The following plural forms are commonly used in the singular.
Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences in
_ics_), amends, measles, news.
The following words are always plural.
(Such words are generally names of things double or multiform in their
character.)
+Direction+.--_Study the following list_:--
Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, literati,
mumps, nippers, oats, pincers, rickets, scissors, shears, snuffers, suds,
thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, victuals, vitals.
The following were originally singular forms, but they are now treated as
plural.
Alms (Anglo-Saxon _aelmaesse_), eaves (A. S. _efese_), riches (Norman
French _richesse_).
The following have no singular corresponding in meaning.
Colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs),
letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service); morals
(character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stays (corsets),
vespers (evening service).
(The singular form is sometimes an adjective.)
Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc.
Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individuals in the
collection are thought of, and as singular when the collection as a whole
is thought of.
+Examples+.--The _committee were_ unable to agree, and _they_ asked to be
discharged. A _committee was_ appointed, and _its_ report will soon be
made.
(Collective nouns have plural forms; as, _committees, armies_.)
* * * * *
LESSON 115.
REVIEW IN NUMBER.
+Direction+.--_Write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns in the
following list, and the singular of those that are plural; give the Rule or
the Remark that applies to each; and note those that have no plural, and
those that have no singular:_--
Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, colony,
piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flagstaff, handkerchief,
Mr., child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus, genius, bagnio,
theory, galley, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law, man-of-war, spoonful,
maid-servant, Frenchman, German, man-servant, Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown and
Smith, x, 1/2, deer, series, bellows, molasses, pride, politics, news,
sunfish, clothes, alms, goods, grounds, greens, who, that.
+Direction.+--_Give five words that have no plural, five that have no
singular, and five that have the same form in both numbers._
+Direction.+--_Correct the following plurals, and give the Remark that
applies to each:_--
Stagees, foxs, mosquitos, calicos, heros, soloes, babys, trioes, chimnies,
storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, phenomenons, axises, terminuses,
genuses, mother-in-laws, aldermans, Mussulmen, teeth-brushes, mouthsful,
attorney-at-laws, man-childs, geese-quills, 2s, ms. swines.
* * * * *
LESSON 116.
NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION.
The number of a noun may be determined not only by its form but also by the
verb, the adjective, and the pronoun used in connection with it.
+Remark.+--_These scissors are_ so dull that I cannot use _them_. The
plurality of _scissors_ is here made known in four ways. In the following
sentence _this, is_, and _it_ are incorrectly used: _This_ scissors _is_ so
dull that I cannot use _it_.
+Direction+.--_Construct sentences in which the number of each of the
following nouns shall be indicated by the form of the verb, by the
adjective, and by the pronoun used in connection with it_:--
(With the singular nouns use the verbs _is, was_, and _has been_; the
adjectives _an, one, this_, and _that_; the pronouns _he, his, him, she,
her, it_, and _its_.)
(With the plural nouns use the verbs _are, were_, and _have been_; the
adjectives _these, those_, and _two_; the pronouns _they, their_, and
_them_.)
Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, trout, iron,
irons, news, eaves, riches, oats, vermin, molasses, Misses, brethren, dice,
head (of cattle), pennies, child, parent, family, crowd, meeting.
+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which the first three of the following
adjective pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fourth as a
plural subject, and the remainder both as singular and as plural
subjects_:--
Each, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any.
* * * * *
LESSON 117.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--GENDER.