The name _girl_ is held in common by all girls, and hence does not
distinguish one girl from another. The name _Sarah_ is not thus held in
common; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name which
belongs in common to all things of a class we call a +Common Noun+; and any
particular name of an individual, distinguishing this individual from
others of its class, we call a +Proper Noun+. The "proper, or individual,
names" which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you were told to begin with capital
letters are proper nouns.
Such a word as _wheat_, _music_, or _architecture_ does not distinguish one
thing from others of its class; there is but one thing in the class denoted
by each, each thing forms a class by itself; and so we call these words
common nouns.
In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words used instead
of names. Any one speaking of himself may use _I_, _my_, etc., instead of
his own name; speaking to one, he may use _you_, _thou_, _your_, _thy_,
etc., instead of that person's name; speaking of one, he may use _he_,
_she_, _it_, _him_, _her_, etc., instead of that one's name. These little
words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one
spoken of are called +Personal Pronouns+.
By adding _self_ to _my_, _thy_, _your_, _him_, _her_, and _it_, and
_selves_ to _our_, _your_, and _them_, we form what are called +Compound
Personal Pronouns+, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of
the verb back upon the actor; as, _Xerxes himself_ was the last to cross
the Hellespont; The _mind_ cannot see _itself_.
If a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, is to be modified by a
clause, the clause is introduced by _who_, _which_, _what_, or _that_; as,
I know the man _that_ did that. These words, relating to words in another
clause, and binding the clauses together, are called +Relative Pronouns+.
By adding _ever_ and _soever_ to _who_, _which_, and _what_, we form what
are called the +Compound Relative Pronouns+ _whoever_, _whosoever_,
_whichever_, _whatever_, etc., used in a general way, and without any word
expressed to which they relate.
If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for
it, he uses _who_, _which_, or _what_; as, _Who_ did that? These pronouns,
used in asking questions, are called +Interrogative Pronouns+.
Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words pointing them
out as near or remote; as, Is _that_ a man? What is _this_? or by words
telling something of their number, order, or quantity; as, _None_ are
perfect; The _latter_ will do; _Much_ has been done. Such words we call
+Adjective Pronouns+.
DEFINITIONS.
+A _Noun_ is the name of anything+. [Footnote: Most common nouns are
derived from roots that denote qualities. The root does not necessarily
denote the most essential quality of the thing, only its most obtrusive
quality. The sky, a shower, and scum, for instance, have this most
noticeable feature; they are a cover, they hide, conceal. This the root
+sku+ signifies, and _sku_ is the main element in the words _sky_, _shower_
(Saxon _scu:r_), and _scum_ that name these objects, and in the adjective
_obscure_.
A noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comes
gradually, by the association of this quality with the rest, to denote them
all.
Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived, as _Smith_ is from
the man's office of smoothing, or _White_ from his color, the name soon
ceases to denote quality, and becomes really meaningless.]
+A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.
+A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+.
+Remark+.--It may be well to note two classes of common nouns--_collective_
and _abstract_. A +Collective Noun+ is the name of a number of things taken
together; as, _army_, _flock_, _mob_, _jury_. An +Abstract Noun+ is the
name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state; as, _whiteness_,
_beauty_, _wisdom_, (the) _singing_, _existence_, (the) _sleep_.
+A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+. [Footnote: In our definition and
general treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the traditional
views of grammarians; but it may be well for the student to note that
pronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that their
primary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns.
1. Pronouns are not the names of things. They do not, like nouns, lay hold
of qualities and name things by them. They seize upon relations that
objects sustain to each other and denote the objects by these relations.
_I_, _you_, and _he_ denote their objects by the relations these objects
sustain to the act of speaking; _I_ denotes the speaker; _you_, the one
spoken to; and _he_ or _she_ or _it_, the one spoken of. _This_ and _that_
denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker;
_some_ and _few_ and _others_ indicate parts separated from the rest.
Gestures could express all that many pronouns express.
2. It follows that pronouns are more general than nouns. Any person, or
even an animal or a thing personified, may use _I_ when referring to
himself, _you_ when referring to the one addressed, and _he_, _she_, _it_,
and _they_ when referring to the person or persons, the thing or things,
spoken of--and all creatures and things, except the speaker and the one
spoken to, fall into the last list. Some pronouns are so general, and hence
so vague, in their denotement that they show the speaker's complete
ignorance of the objects they denote. In, _Who_ did it? _Which_ of them did
you see? the questioner is trying to find out the one for whom _Who_
stands, and the person or thing that _Which_ denotes. To what does _it_
refer in, _it_ rains; How is _it_ with you?
3. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, going before
or coming after. _To be_ or _not to be_--_that_ is the question. _It_ is
doubtful _whether the North Pole will ever be reached_. _The sails turned,
the corn was ground_, after _which_ the wind ceased. _Ought you to go_? I
cannot answer _that_. In the first of these sentences, _that_ stands for a
phrase; in the last, for a sentence. _It_ and _which_ in the second and
third sentences stand for clauses.
4. _Which_, retaining its office as connective, may as an adjective
accompany its noun; as, I craved his forbearance a little longer, _which
forbearance_ he allowed me.]
+A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker,
the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.
+A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words
and connects clauses+.
+An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+.
+An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an
adjective and a noun+.
The simple personal pronouns are:--_I, thou, you, he, she, and it_.
The compound personal pronouns are:--_Myself, thyself, yourself, himself,
herself, and itself_.
The simple relative pronouns are:--_Who, which, that_, and _what_.
[Footnote: _As_, in such sentences as this: Give such things _as_ you can
spare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence
_as_ is seen to be a conjunctive adverb--Give such things _as those are
which_ you can spare.
_But_ used after a negative is sometimes called a "negative relative" =
_that not_; as, There is not a man here _but_ would die for such a cause.
When the sentence is expanded, _but_ is found to be a preposition--There is
not a man here _but_ (= _except_) the one who would die, etc.]
The compound relative pronouns are:--
_Whoever or whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever_, _whatever_ or
_whatsoever_.
The interrogative pronouns are:--
_Who, which_, and _what_.
Some of the more common adjective pronouns are:--
All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little,
many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these,
this, those, whole, etc. [Footnote: The adjective pronouns _this, that,
these_, and _those_ are called +Demonstrative+ pronouns. _All, any, both,
each, either, many, one, other_, etc. are called +Indefinite+ pronouns
because they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives.
_Each, either_, and _neither_ are also called +Distributives+.
But for the fact that such words as _brave, good_, etc. in the phrases _the
brave_, _the good_, etc. describe--which pronouns never do--we might call
them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives
modifying nouns to be supplied.
Some adjectives preceded by _the_ are abstract nouns; as, the _grand_, the
_sublime_, the _beautiful_.]
The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is
called an +Antecedent+.
+Direction+.--_Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these
sentences_:--
Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To
lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companions
were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward,
which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to
repair and renew the body.
+Remark+.--When the interrogatives _who_, _which_, and what introduce
indirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them from
relatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example--I found _who_ called
and _what_ he wanted; I saw _what_ was done. The first sentence does not
mean, I found the _person who_ called and the _thing that_ he wanted.
"_Who_ called" and "_what_ he wanted" here suggest questions--questions
referred to but not directly asked. I saw _what_ was done = I saw the
_thing that_ was done. No question is suggested.
It should be remembered that _which_ and _what_ may also be interrogative
adjectives; as, _Which_ side won? _What_ news have you?
+Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns_:--
1. Who steals my purse steals trash.
2. I myself know who stole my purse.
3. They knew whose house was robbed.
4. He heard what was said.
5. You have guessed which belongs to me.
6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad.
7. What was said, and who said it?
8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs.
9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which.
10. Whatever is done must be done quickly.
* * * * *
LESSON 86.
CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS.
TO THE TEACHER.--In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for
correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be
read by you. To insure care in preparation, and close attention in the
class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific
reasons.
+Caution+.--Avoid _he_, _it_, _they_, or any other pronoun when its
reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead,
quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their
ambiguity_:--
+Model+.--The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him_,
_he_ would die = The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave
_his father, his father_ would die. Lysias promised his father never to
abandon _his_ friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will never
abandon _your_ (or _my_) friends."
1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller,
he told him it was a dry subject.
2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought
he had better go home.
(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may
suppose were the speaker's words.)
3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short.
4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his
to his wife, which he intercepted.
5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it
was but fair that he should pay him for his loss.
+Caution+.--Do not use pronouns needlessly.
+Direction+.--_Write, these sentences, omitting needless pronouns_:--
1. It isn't true what he said.
2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were
taken sick.
3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted.
4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways.
5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English.
+Caution+.--In addressing a person, do not, in the same sentence, use the
two styles of the pronoun.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news?
2. You cannot always have thy way.
3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing.
4. Love thyself last, and others will love you.
+Caution+.--The pronoun _them_ should not be used for the adjective
_those_, nor the pronoun _what_ for the conjunction _that_. [Footnote:
_What_ properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect
question, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction
_that_. _But_ may be placed before this conjunction to give a negative
force to the noun clause.
This use of _but_ requires careful discrimination. For example--"I have no
fear _that_ he will do it"; "I have no fear _but that_ he will do it." The
former indicates certainty that he will not do it, and the latter certainty
that he will do it. "No one doubts but that he will do it" is incorrect,
for it contains three negatives--_no_, _doubts_, and _but_. Two negatives
may be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, "_No_ one
_doubts_ that he will do it," or "_No_ one believes _but_ that he will do
it," or "Every one _believes_ that he will do it."
_But what_, for _but that_ or _but_, is also incorrectly used to connect an
adverb clause; as, "He is not so bad _but what_ he might be worse." For
this office of _but_ or _but that_ in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109,
fourth "Example" of the uses of _but_.]
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. Hand me them things.
2. Who knows but what we may fail?
3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again.
4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good.
+Caution+.--The relative _who_ should always represent persons; _which_,
brute animals and inanimate things; _that_, persons, animals, and things;
and _what_, things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. Those which say so are mistaken.
2. He has some friends which I know.
3. He told that what he knew.
4. The dog who was called Fido went mad.
5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose.
6. All what he saw he described.
7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus.
+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these
five Cautions_.
LESSON 87.
CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED.
+Caution+.--Several connected relative clauses relating to the same
antecedent require the same relative pronoun.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land,
and which saved his father and brothers from famine.
2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget
him.
3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last.
4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate.
+Caution+.--When the relative clause is not restrictive, [Footnote: See
Lesson 61.] _who_ or _which_, and not _that_, is generally used.
+Example+.--Water, _which_ is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers
three-fourths of the earth's surface.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen.
and nitrogen.
2. Longfellow, that is the most popular American poet, has written
beautiful prose.
3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted.
4. Man, that is born of woman, is of few days and full of trouble.
+Caution+.--The relative _that_ [Footnote: _That_ is almost always
restrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine _who_ and _which_ to
unrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice.
The wide use of _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses is not accounted
for by saying that they occur after _this_, _these_, _those_, and _that_,
and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds. This may
frequently be the reason for employing _who_ and _which_ in restrictive
clauses; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that _who_ and _which_ stand
in such clauses oftener without, than with, _this_, _these_, _those_, or
_that_ preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than _that_
itself does. Especially may this be said of _which_.] should be used
instead of _who_ or _which_ (1) when the antecedent names both persons and
things; (2) when _that_ would prevent ambiguity; and (3) when it would
sound better than _who_ or _which_, _e. g._, after _that_, _same_, _very_,
_all_, the interrogative _who_, the indefinite _it_, and adjectives
expressing quality in the highest degree.
+Example+.--He lived near a _pond that_ was a nuisance. (_That_ relates to
_pond_--the pond was a nuisance. _Which_ might have, for its antecedent,
_pond_, or the whole clause _He lived near a pond_; and so its use here
would be ambiguous.)
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes.
2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick.
3. Who who saw him did not pity him?
4. He is the very man whom we want.
5. He is the same who he has ever been.
6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good.
7. All who knew him respected him.
8. It was not I who did it.
9. That man that you just met is my friend.
+Caution+.--The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the
word which it modifies.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--
1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent.
2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy.
3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar.
4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather.
5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of
man.
6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride.
+Caution+.--When _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, _the one_ and _the
other_ refer to things previously mentioned, _this_ and _these_ refer to
the last mentioned, and _that_ and _those_ to the first mentioned; _the
one_ refers to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last mentioned.
When there is danger of obscurity, repeat the nouns.
+Examples+.--_High_ and _tall_ are synonyms: _this_ may be used in speaking
of what grows--a tree; _that_, in speaking of what does not grow--a
mountain. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist: in _the one_ we most
admire the man; in _the other_, the work.
+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--
1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar; tact, triumphantly: this is
complimented by the bench; that gets the fees.
2. Charles XII. and Peter the Great were sovereigns: the one was loved by
his people; the other was hated.
3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community; these are
shunned, while those are sought after.
+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these
five Cautions_.
* * * * *
LESSON 88.
CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED.
Miscellaneous Errors.
+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct
the errors_:--
1. He who does all which he can does enough.
2. John's father died before he was born.
3. Whales are the largest animals which swim.
4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress.
5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light.
6. He did that what was right.
7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer.
8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house.
9. They need no spectacles that are blind.
10. They buy no books who are not able to read.
11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth.
12. Do you know that gentleman that is speaking?
13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find
mistakes in it.
14. The reporter which said that was deceived.
15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem.
16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed.
17. _Reputation_ and _character_ do not mean the same thing: the one
denotes what we are; the other, what we are thought to be.
18. Kosciusko having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary
struggle.
19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the
general appearance of the class.
20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were
infants.
21. Witness said that his wife's father came to his house, and he ordered
him out, but he refused to go.
22. Shall you be able to sell them boots?
23. I don't know but what I may.
24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad: the one is made from grapes;
the other, from barley.
25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout; these have
scales, and those have not.
26. They know little of men, who reason thus.
27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you.
* * * * *
LESSON 89.
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.
+Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences
_Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful_, the adjectives
_ripe_ and _unripe_ limit, or narrow, the application of _apples_ by
describing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learned
also that _the_, _this_, _an_, _no_, _some_, and _many_ limit, or narrow,
the application of any noun which they modify, as _apple_ or _apples_, by
pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting the
quantity of it.
Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called +Descriptive
Adjectives+; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denoting
quantity are called +Definitive Adjectives+.
Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1)
when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as,
_yellow_ gold, the _good_ God, the _blue_ sky; or (2) when they are
attribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as, The
fields were _green_; The ground was _dry_ and _hard_.
+DEFINITIONS+.
+An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.[Footnote:
Pronouns, like nouns, are often modified by an "appositive" adjective, that
is, an adjective joined loosely without restricting: thus--_Faint_ and
_weary_, _he_ struggled on or, _He_, _faint_ and _weary_, struggled on.
Adjectives that complete the predicate belong as freely to pronouns as to
nouns.]
+A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+.
+A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering,
or denoting quantity+.[Footnote: The definitive adjectives _one_, _two_,
_three_, etc.; _first_, _second_, _third_, etc. are called +Numeral+
adjectives. _One_, _two_, _three_, etc. are called +Cardinal+ numerals; and
_first_, _second_, _third_--etc. are called +Ordinal+ numerals]
The definitive adjectives _an_ or _a_ and _the_ are commonly called
+Articles+. _An_ or _a_ is called the _Indefinite Article_, and _the_ is
called the _Definite Article_.
A noun may take the place of an adjective.
+Examples+.--_London_ journals, the _New York_ press, _silver_ spoons,
_diamond_ pin, _state_ papers, _gold_ bracelet.
+Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives
below, and name such as do not limit_:--
Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, Mansard
roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt diamond, the
patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, moving spectacle, the
martyr president, tin pans, few people, less trouble, this toy, any book,
brave Washington, Washington market, three cats, slender cord, that libel,
happy children, the broad Atlantic, The huge clouds were dark and
threatening, Eyes are bright, What name was given? Which book is wanted?