words and their order in an interrogative sentence (see Lesson 55) are
preserved, and which is followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked,
"_Am I my brother's keeper_?" An +indirect question+ is one which is
referred to as a question, but not directly asked or quoted as such, and
which is not followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked _whether he
was his brother's keeper_.
The direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the comma (but
no comma is used after the interrogation point), begins with a capital
letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be
omitted. An indirect question is not generally set off by a comma, does not
necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within
quotation marks.
If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced
(see Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon; as, Nathan's words to David
were these: "_Thou art the man_." He put the question thus: "_Can you do
it_?"
+Direction+.--_Point out the direct and the indirect quotations and
questions in the sentences of Lesson_ 71, _tell why they do or do not begin
with capital letters, and justify the use or the omission of the comma, the
interrogation point, and the quotation marks_.
+Direction+.--_Rewrite these same sentences, changing the direct quotations
and questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct_.
+Direction+.--_Write five sentences containing direct quotations, some of
which shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be questions
occurring at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence. Change these
to the indirect form, and look carefully to the punctuation and the
capitalization._
+Direction+.--_Write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of the
Remarks under the Rule for Quotation Marks_.
* * * * *
LESSON 75.
ANALYSIS.
+Direction+.--_Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction
in Lesson_ 73.
* * * * *
LESSON 76.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
+Introductory Hints+.--_Cromwell made one revolution, and Monk made
another_. The two clauses are independent of each other. The second clause,
added by the conjunction _and_ to the first, continues the line of thought
begun by the first.
_Man has his will, but woman has her way_. Here the conjunction connects
independent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with each other.
_The Tudors were despotic, or history belies them_. The independent
clauses, connected by _or_, present thoughts between which you may choose,
but either, accepted, excludes the other.
_The ground is wet, therefore it has rained_. Here the inferred fact, the
raining, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, as
cause to effect--the raining made the ground wet. _It has rained_, _hence
the ground is wet_. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the ground,
really stands to the other fact, the raining, as effect to cause--the
ground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logical relation
between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of the
compound form--an _and_ may be placed before _therefore_ and _hence_.
Unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses,
the grammarian regards them both as independent.
_Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it_. Here the
independent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in the
sentence--connected without any conjunction. This kind of connection is
common.
Sentences made up of independent clauses we call +Compound Sentences.
+DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing' a subject and
its predicate.+
+DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb,
or a noun.+
+DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another
clause.+
SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM.
+DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is a sentence that contains but one
subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.+
+DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is a sentence composed of an independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses.+
+DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is a sentence composed of two or more
independent clauses.+
Analysis.
+Independent Clauses+ in the +same line+ of thought.
1. Light has spread, and bayonets think.
Light | has spread
=======|=============
| '
'
' and
.......
'
'
bayonets | ' think
===========|==========
|
+Explanation+.--The clauses are of equal rank, and so the lines on which
they stand are shaded alike, and the line connecting them is not slanting.
As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is
drawn between the predicates merely for convenience.
+Oral Analysis+.--This is a compound sentence because it is made up of
independent clauses.
2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams
of revenue gushed forth.
3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness
thrust upon them.
+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +contrast.+
4. The man dies, but his memory lives.
5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust.
6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings on ready
writing.
+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +alternation+.
7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age.
8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they
extremely warm in summer.
(Here a choice is denied.)
9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably.
(See (16), Lesson 20.)
+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts one of which is an +inference+
from the other.
10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be raining.
11. I have seen, therefore I believe.
I | have seen
===|===========
| '
'
I | ' believe
===|='=========
|\'
\therefore
+Explanation+.--In such constructions _and_ may be supplied, or the adverb
may be regarded as the connective. The diagram illustrates _therefore_ as
connective.
+Independent Clauses+ joined in the sentence +without a conjunction+.
12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the reindeer is the camel
of the desert of snow.
13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is master of
thee.
14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow.
+Explanation+.--_As it were_ is an independent clause used parenthetically.
_As_ simply introduces it.
15. Religion--who can doubt it?--is the noblest of themes for the exercise
of intellect.
16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the two
Pitts) contains such a father and such a son!
* * * * *
LESSON 77.
COMPOSITION--COMPOUND SENTENCE.
+COMMA and SEMICOLON--RULE.--_Independent Clauses_, when short and closely
connected, are separated by the+ +comma; but, when the clauses are slightly
connected, or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, the
semi-colon is used+.
+Remark+.--A parenthetical clause may be set oil by the comma or by the
dash, or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis--the marks of
parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense. See the last
three sentences in the preceding Lesson.
+Examples+.--
1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us.
2. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself.
3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil; but good is in the
ascendant, and must triumph at last.
(The rule above is another example.)
+Direction+.--_Punctuate the following sentences, and give your reasons_:--
1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven over the
green hill flies the inconstant sun.
2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a
disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind
pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender
emotions of the heart.
3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought.
4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong.
5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood finds its
greatest satisfaction in self-abasement. [Footnote: In this sentence we
have a figure of speech called +Antithesis+, in which things unlike in
some particular are set over against each other. Each part shines with
its own light and with the light reflected from the other part.
Antithesis gives great force to the thought expressed by it. Sentences
containing it furnish us our best examples of +Balanced Sentences+. You
will find other antitheses in this Lesson and in the preceding.]
6. The more discussion the better if passion and personality be avoided and
discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from error.
+Direction+.--_Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent
clauses in the preceding Lesson_.
+Direction+.--_Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and the
alternative or or nor, form compound sentences out of the following simple
sentences, and give the reasons for your choice of connectives_:--
Read not that you may find material for argument and conversation. The rain
descended. Read that you may weigh and consider the thoughts of others. Can
the Ethiopian change his skin? Righteousness exalteth a nation. The floods
came. Great was the fall of it. Language is not the dress of thought. Can
the leopard change his spots? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin
is a reproach to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell.
Compound sentences may be contracted by using but once the parts common to
all the clauses, and compounding the remaining parts.
+Example+.--_Time_ waits for no man, and _tide waits for no man_ = _Time_
and _tide wait for no man_.
+Direction+.--_Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully to
the punctuation_:--
1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben fought for
American independence.
2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind to
benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn dispose
the mind for contemplation.
3. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty is
around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us.
A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omitting from one clause
such words as may readily be supplied from the other.
_Example_.--He is witty, _but he is vulgar_ = He is witty _but vulgar_.
+Direction+.--_Contract these sentences_:--
1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should not be the
web.
2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so.
3. Was Cabot the discoverer of America, or was he not the discoverer of
America?
4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has justly
been likened to him.
5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress that
pleased me.
A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a complex sentence without
materially changing the sense.
+Example+.--_Take care of the minutes_, and the hours will take care of
themselves = _If you take care of the minutes_, the hours will take care of
themselves. (Notice that the imperative form adds force.)
+Direction+.--_Change these compound sentences to complex sentences_:--
1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you.
2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you.
3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming.
4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of music.
5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded.
+Direction+.--_Change one of the independent clauses in each of these
sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to a
participle phrase_:--
+Model+.--The house was built upon a rock, _and therefore_ it did not fall
= The house did not fall, _because_ it was built upon a rock = The house,
_being built_ upon a rock, did not fall.
1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered.
2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us.
+Direction+.--_Using and, but, and or as connectives, compose three
compound sentences, each containing three independent clauses_.
* * * * *
LESSON 78.
COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES.
+Introductory Hints+.--_Sun and moon and stars_ obey. Peter the Great went
_to Holland, to England_, and _to France_. _I came, I saw, I conquered_.
Here we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinate
clauses, that is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order.
Leaves fall _so very quietly_. They ate _of the fruit from the tree in the
garden_. Regulus would have paused _if he had been the man that he was
before captivity had unstrung his sinews_. Here just as the word modifier
_quietly_ is itself modified by _very_, and _very_ by _so_; and just as
_fruit_, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modified by another
phrase, and the principal word of that by another: so _man_, in the adverb
clause which modifies _would have paused_, is itself modified by the
adjective clause _that he was_, and _was_ by the adverb clause _before
captivity had unstrung his sinews_. These three dependent clauses in the
complex clause modifier, like the three words and the three phrases in the
complex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate,
or of equal rank.
_Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although Parliament
frequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded it_. This is a
compound sentence, composed of the simple clause which precedes _but_ and
the complex clause which follows it--the complex clause being composed of
an independent clause and two dependent clauses, one co-ordinate with the
other, and the two connected by _and_.
Analysis.
The +clauses+ of +complex+ and +compound+ sentences may themselves be
+complex+ or +compound+.
insects
----------
` ` `
` ` `which | are admired
` ` `=====|=============
` ` | '
` ` ' x
` ` .....
` ` '
` `which | are decorated
` ======|===============
` | '
` 'and
` ........
` '
` which | soar '
`======|=======
|
hour | had passed
=========|=============
\The |` '
` ' and
` .......
` '
opportunity | ` had escaped
============|==`============
\the | ` \
` '
` '
`'
`
`while
`
he | ` tarried
----|-------------
|
that
-----
'
earth | ' is \ round
=========|======'========
| '
that ' and
----- ......
' '
it | ' revolves '
===|='============'=
|
He | proved | / \
====|=============
|
+Explanation+.--The first diagram illustrates the analysis of the compound
adjective clause in (3) below. Each adjective clause is connected to
_insects_ by _which_. _And_ connects the co-ordinate clauses. The second
diagram shows that the clause _while he tarried_ modifies both predicates
of the independent clauses. _While_ modifies _had passed, had escaped_, and
_tarried_, as illustrated by the short lines under the first two verbs and
the line over _tarried_. The office of _while_ as connective is shown by
the dotted lines. The third diagram illustrates the analysis of a complex
sentence containing a compound noun clause.
1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them all.
2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be, "Shall we
gather at the river?"
3. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated with the
most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal wings, have
passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of the earth.
4. Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he knew.
5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, or making
furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration tubes pour
out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled.
6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the languages,
because one tongue was enough for a woman. [Footnote: In _tongue_, as
here used, we have a +Pun+--a witty expression in which a word agreeing
in sound with another word, but differing in meaning from it, is used in
place of that other.]
7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers; the
upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the center faster than
the adjacent sides.
8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New England
thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the catechism.
9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the frogs and
worms that would injure the dikes.
10. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that, though
hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of
combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is
destructive to fire.
11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by disaster,
when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the Northwest had
surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency hung, like a cloud, over
the land, who first relit the fires of national glory, and made the
welkin ring with the shouts of victory? [Footnote: The _when_ clauses
in (11), as the _which_ clauses in (3), are formed on the same plan,
have their words in the same order. This principle of +Parallel
Construction+, requiring like ideas to be expressed alike, holds also
in phrases, as in (10) and (14), Lesson 28, and in (14) and (15),
Lesson 46, and holds supremely with sentences in the paragraph, as is
explained on page 168. Parallel construction contributes to the
clearness, and consequently to the force, of expression.]
* * * * *
LESSON 79.
EXPANSION.
+Participles+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.
+Direction+.--_Expand the participles in these sentences into the clauses
indicated_:--
1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adjective clause.)
2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.)
3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.)
4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in summer.
(Cause.)
5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Evidence.)
6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.)
7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of "Fire!" (Time.)
8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.)
9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around,
(Independent clause.)
+Absolute phrases+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.
+Direction+.--_Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated_:--
1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, Aeneas came into Italy. (Time.)
2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.)
3. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.)
4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself.
(Concession.)
5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or windy last
night. (Evidence.)
6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Independent
clause.)
+Infinitive+ phrases may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.
+Direction+.--_Expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses
indicated_:--
1. They have nothing to wear. (Adjective clause.)
2. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.)
3. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.)
4. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on _but_.
(Condition.)
5. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.)
6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.)
7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.)
+Direction+.--_Complete these elliptical expressions_:--
1. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought before.
2. Oh, that I might have one more day!
3. He is braver than wise.
4. What if he is poor?
5. He handles it as if it were glass.
6. I regard him more as a historian than as a poet.
7. He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman.
8. Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better.
9. I will go whether you go or not.
10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances.
11. No examples, however awful, sink into the heart.
* * * * *
LESSON 80.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.
Analysis.
1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship adrift, he
steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the
Maelstrom.--_Holmes_.
2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steamships
through the waves comes from the sun.--_Cooke_.
3. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human labor, smooth
in field, fair in garden, full in orchard.--_Ruskin_.
4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief by the
throat every morning?--_German Proverb_.
5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the level
landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds, and they
became as blood.--_Longfellow_.
6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as the
felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live.--_Sir T. Browne_.
7. There is a good deal of oratory in me, but I don't do as well as I can,
in any one place, out of respect to the memory of Patrick
Henry.--_Nasby_.
8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of
everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and streaked
with dusky red, like a spitzenburg apple.--_Irving_.
9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is
robbing the human race.--_Mill_.
10. There is no getting along with Johnson; if his pistol misses fire, he
knocks you down with the butt of it.--_Goldsmith_.
11. We think in words; and, when we lack fit words, we lack fit
thoughts.--_White_.
12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the bottom of
his subject.--_Whately_.
13. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it will
disgrace every man who is not.--_Holland_.
14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, are the men and
women who bless their species.--_Parton_.
* * * * *
LESSON 81.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.
Analysis.
1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his dominions
another man better qualified for it sins against God and against the
state.--_Koran_.
2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not Lot's wife in
solution.--_Curtis_.
3. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid the roof
will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs.--_Phillips_.
4. Kind hearts are more than coronets; and simple faith, than Norman
blood.--_Tennyson_.
5. All those things for which men plow, build, or sail obey
virtue.--_Sallust_.
6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for you;
but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that.--_Holmes_.
7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these: "It might have
been."--_Whittier_.
8. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets.
--_Napoleon_.
9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is trodden
on.--_Kant_.
10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on the
water or the sand.--_Gladstone_.
11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old England's
ale.--_Higginson_.
12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.--_Sir H. Gilbert_.
13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for it in
the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound and lusty
book.--_Lowell_.
14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what are human
ills and what is human wrong.--_Boyd_.
15. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both [Footnote: See Lesson
20.] great and small; for the dear God, who loveth us, he made and
loveth all.--_Coleridge_.
* * * * *
LESSON 82.
REVIEW.
Show that an adjective may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause.
Give examples of adjective clauses connected by _who, whose, which, what,
that, whichever, when, where, why_, and show that each connective performs
also the office of a pronoun or that of an adverb. Give and illustrate
fully the Rule for punctuating the adjective clause, and the Caution
regarding the position of the adjective clause. Show that an adjective
clause may be equivalent to an Infinitive phrase or a participle phrase.