Illustrate the different kinds of adverb clauses, and explain the office of
each and the fitness of the name. Give and explain fully the Rule for the
punctuation of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different positions of adverb
clauses. Illustrate the different ways of contracting adverb clauses.
* * * * *
LESSON 83.
REVIEW.
Illustrate five different offices of a noun clause. Explain the two
different ways of treating clauses introduced by _in order that_, etc.
Explain the office of the expletive _it_. Illustrate the different
positions of a noun clause used as object complement. Show how the noun
clause may be made prominent. Illustrate the different ways of contracting
noun clauses. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for quotation marks.
Illustrate and explain fully the distinction between direct and indirect
quotations, and the distinction between direct and indirect questions
introduced into a sentence. Tell all about their capitalization and
punctuation.
* * * * *
LESSON 84.
REVIEW.
Illustrate and explain the distinction between a dependent and an
independent clause. Illustrate and explain the different ways in which
independent clauses connected by _and, but, or_, and _hence_ are related in
sense. Show how independent clauses may be joined in sense without a
connecting word. Define a clause. Define the different kinds of clauses.
Define the different classes of sentences with regard to form. Give the
Rule for the punctuation of independent clauses, and illustrate fully.
Illustrate the different ways of contracting independent clauses.
Illustrate and explain the difference between compound and complex word
modifiers; between compound and complex phrases; between compound and
complex clauses. Give participle phrases, absolute phrases, and infinitive
phrases, and expand them into different kinds of clauses. What three parts
of speech may connect clauses?
GENERAL REVIEW.
TO THE TEACHER.--This scheme will be found very helpful in a general
review. The pupils should be able to reproduce it except the Lesson
numbers.
Scheme for the Sentence.
(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)
+PARTS.+
+Subject.+
Noun or Pronoun (8).
Phrase (38, 40).
Clause (71).
+Predicate.+
Verb (11).
+Complements.+
+Object.+
Noun or Pronoun (28).
Phrase (38, 40).
Clause (71).
+Attribute.+
Adjective (29, 30).
Participle (37).
Noun or Pronoun (29, 30).
Phrase (37, 40).
Clause (72).
+Objective.+
Adjective (31).
Participle (37).
Noun (or Pronoun) (31).
Phrase (37, 41).
+Modifiers.+
Adjectives (12).
Adverbs (14).
Participles (37).
Nouns and Pronouns (33, 35).
Phrases (17, 37, 38, 40, 41).
Clauses (59, 60, 63, 64, 65).
+Connectives.+
Conjunctions (20, 64, 65, 71, 76).
Pronouns (59, 60).
Adverbs (60, 63, 64).
+Independent Parts+ (44).
+Classes.+
+Meaning.+ Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (46).
+Form.+ Simple, Complex, Compound (76).
Additional Selections.
TO THE TEACHER.--We believe that you will find the preceding pages
unusually full and rich in illustrative selections; but, should additional
work be needed for reviews or for maturer classes, the following selections
will afford profitable study. Let the pupils discuss the thought and the
poetic form, as well as the logical construction of these passages. We do
not advise putting them in diagram.
Speak clearly, if you speak at all;
Carve every word before you let it fall.--_Holmes_.
The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud,
Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee;
The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud
Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be;
And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd,
Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly,
Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said,
"Give us, O Lord, this day, our daily bread!"
--_Longfellow_,
Better to stem with heart and hand
The roaring tide of life than lie,
Unmindful, on its flowery strand,
Of God's occasions drifting by.
Better with naked nerve to bear
The needles of this goading air
Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego
The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know.
--_Whittier_.
Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her wretched crust,
Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous to be just;
Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward stands aside,
Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is crucified.--_Lowell_.
Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.
TO THE TEACHER.--These and similar "Exercises" are entirely outside of the
regular lessons. They are offered to those teachers who may not, from lack
of time or of material, find it convenient to prepare extra or
miscellaneous work better suited to their own needs.
The questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer,
but in continuing such exercises the teacher will, of course, so frame the
questions as more and more to throw responsibility on the pupil.
It will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instruction
given before Lesson 17, but, by an easy and familiar examination of words
and groups of words, to prepare the way for what is afterwards presented
more formally and scientifically. ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK."
1. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the hall.
2. This hall formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual
residence.
3. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his
eyes.
4. In one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun.
5. In another corner stood a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom.
6. Ears of Indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches hung in gay
festoons along the walls.
7. These were mingled with the gaud of red peppers.
8. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor.
9. In this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like
mirrors.
10. Andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened from
their covert of asparagus tops. [Footnote: _Asparagus tops_ were
commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace in summer.]
11. Mock-oranges and conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece.
12. Strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it.
13. A corner-cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of
old silver and well-mended china.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find the two chief words in each
of the first three sentences. As a part of the sentence what is each of
these words called? To what class of words, or part of speech, does each
belong? Notice that in the fourth and the fifth sentence the subject is put
after the predicate. Change the order of words and read these sentences.
Read in their regular order the two chief words of each. In the sixth
sentence what word says, or asserts, something about both ears and strings?
In the ninth sentence put _what_ before the predicate _shone_ and find two
nouns that answer the question. In the eleventh sentence what two things
does _decorated_ tell something about? In the seventh sentence _these_
stands for what two nouns, or names, found in the preceding sentence? Find
the subject and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to the
thirteenth inclusive. To what class of words does each of these chief parts
belong? Find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects. Find several
compound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen.
_The_ and _wondering_ in the first sentence go with what noun? The group of
words _from this piazza_ goes with what word? In the second sentence put
_what_ before, and then after, _formed_, and find the names that answer
these questions. What does _of the mansion_ go with? What does _of usual
residence_ describe? In the third sentence what word tells where the
dazzling occurred? Find a group of three words telling what the rows were
composed of. What group of words tells the position of the rows? In the
fourth sentence what group of words shows where the bag stood? _Of wool
ready to be spun_ describes what? _A_ and _huge_ are attached to what?
TO THE TEACHER.--We have here suggested some of the devices by which pupils
may be led to see the functions of words and phrases. We recommend that
this work be varied and continued through the selection above and through
others that may easily be made. Such exercises, together with the more
formal and searching work of the regular lessons, will be found of
incalculable value to the pupil. They will not only afford the best mental
discipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in expressing
thought.
+The Force and the Beauty of the Description above.--+ Can you find any
reason why we are invited to see this picture through the eyes of the
interested and wondering Ichabod? Do you think the word _wondering_ well
chosen and suggestive? Look through this picture carefully and tell what
there is that indicates thrift, industry, and prosperity. Find more common
expressions for _center of the mansion_ and _place of usual residence_.
Notice in the third sentence the effect of _resplendent_ and _dazzled_. How
is a similar effect produced in the ninth and the tenth sentence? You see
that this great artist in words does not here need to repeat his language.
We can easily imagine that he could produce the same effect in a great
variety of ways. In the fourth sentence does the expression _ready to be
spun_ tell what is actually seen, or what is only suggested? What is gained
by this expression and by _just from the loom_ in the next sentence? Do you
think an unskillful artist would have used _in gay festoons?_ Read the
seventh and make it more common but less quaint. Do you think the picture
gains, or loses, by representing the door as "ajar" instead of wide open?
Why? Can you see any similar effect from introducing _their covert_ in the
tenth sentence? What does the expression _knowingly left open_ suggest to
you? This selection from Irving illustrates the +Descriptive+ style of
writing.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.
In the description above we have taken some liberties with the original,
for we have broken it up into single sentences. The parts of this picture
as made by Irving were smoothly and delicately blended together.
You may rewrite this description; and, where it can be done to advantage,
you may join the sentences neatly together. Perhaps some of these sentences
may be changed to become parts of other sentences,
TO THE TEACHER.--It will be found profitable for pupils to break up for
themselves into short sentences model selections from classic English, and,
after examining the structure and style as suggested above, to note and, so
far as possible, explain how these were blended together in the original. A
written reproduction of the selection may then be made from memory.
This study of the thought, the structure, and the style of the great
masters in language must lead to a discriminating taste for literature; and
the effect upon the pupil's own habits of thought and expression will
necessarily be to lift him above the insipid, commonplace matter and
language that characterize much of the so-called "original" composition
work.
In the study of these selections, especially in the work of copying, the
rules for punctuation, and other rules, formally stated further on, may
easily be anticipated informally.
For composition work more nearly original the class might read together or
discuss, descriptions of home scenes; then, drawing from imagination or
experience, they might make descriptions of their own. In these
descriptions different persons might be introduced, with their attitudes,
employments, and acts of hospitality.
For exercises in narration pupils might write about trips to these homes,
telling about the preparation, the start, the journey, and the reception.
(For studies on narrative style, see pages 157-162.)
To insure thoroughness, all such compositions should he short.
Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.
ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK."
1. Every window and crevice of the vast barn seemed bursting forth with the
treasures of the farm.
2. The flail was busily resounding within from morning till night.
3. Swallows and martins skimmed twittering about the eaves.
4. Rows of pigeons were enjoying the sunshine on the roof.
5. Some sat with one eye turned up as if watching the weather.
6. Some sat with their heads under their wings or buried in their bosoms.
7. Others were swelling and cooing and bowing about their dames.
8. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abundance of
their pens.
9. From these pens sallied forth, now and then, troops of sucking pigs, as
if to snuff the air.
10. A stately squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining pond,
convoying whole fleets of ducks.
11. Regiments of turkeys were gobbling through the farmyard.
12. Guinea fowls fretted about, like ill-tempered housewives, with their
peevish, discontented cry.
13. Before the barn-door strutted the gallant cock, clapping his burnished
wings, and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart--sometimes
tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously calling his
ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich morsel which
he had discovered.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--In the first sentence _seemed_
asserts something about what two things? _Every_ goes with what word or
words? What word or words does the phrase _of the vast barn_ make more
definite in meaning? The two words _window_ and _crevice_ are joined
together by what word? The group of words _bursting forth with the
treasures of the farm_ describes what? Notice that _bursting_ also helps
_seemed_ to say something about window and crevice. _Seemed_ does not make
sense, but _seemed bursting_ does. What does _forth_ modify? What does
_with the treasures of the farm_ modify? In the third sentence what two
nouns form the subject of _skimmed?_ What connects these two nouns? In the
fourth what word tells what the rows were enjoying? In the fifth _turned up
as if watching the weather_ describes what? _As if watching the weather_
goes with what? The expression introduced by _as if_ is a shortened form.
Putting in some of the words omitted, we have _as if they were watching the
weather. They were watching the weather_, if standing by itself, would make
a complete sentence. You see that one sentence may be made a part of
another sentence. What does each of the two phrases _under their wings_ and
_buried in their bosoms_ describe? What connects these two phrases? In the
seventh sentence _were_ is understood before _cooing_ and before _bowing_.
How many predicate verbs do you find, each asserting something about the
pigeons represented by _others_? Why are these verbs not separated by
commas? What two nouns form the principal part of the phrase in the eighth
sentence? What connects these two nouns? Read the ninth sentence and put
the subject before the predicate. You may now explain _as if to snuff the
air_, remembering that a similar expression in the fifth sentence was
explained. In the tenth sentence _convoying whole fleets of ducks_
describes what? Does _convoying_ assert anything about the squadron? Change
it into a predicate verb. In the twelfth sentence find one word and two
phrases joined to _fretted_. _Clapping, crowing, tearing_, and _calling_,
in the thirteenth, all describe what? Notice that all the other words
following the subject go with these four. Find the three words that answer
the questions made by putting _what_ after _clapping, tearing, calling_.
What phrase tells the cause of crowing? The phrase _to enjoy the rich
morsel which he had discovered_ tells the purpose of what? _Which he had
discovered_ limits the meaning of what? The pronoun _which_ here stands for
_morsel_. _Which he had discovered_ = _He had discovered morsel_. Here you
will see a sentence has again been made a part of another sentence. Notice
that without _which_ there would be no connection.
TO THE TEACHER.--It may be well to let the pupils complete the examination
of the structure of the sentences above and point out nouns, verbs,
pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
It will be noticed that in the questions above we especially anticipate the
regular lessons that follow Lesson 27. This we do in all such "Exercises."
+The Beauty and the Force of the Description above+.--Why may we say that
this farmyard scene is surrounded by an atmosphere of plenty, happiness,
and content? Which do you prefer, the first sentence above, or this
substitute for it: "The large barn was entirely full of the products of the
farm"? Give every reason that you can find for your preference. We often
speak of a barn or storehouse as "bursting with plenty," or of a table as
"groaning with a load of good things," when there is really no bursting nor
groaning. Such expressions are called +Figures of Speech+. Examine the
second sentence and compare it with the following: "The men were busy all
day pounding out the grain with flails." Do the words _busily resounding_
joined to _flail_ bring into our imagination men, grain, pounding, sound,
and perhaps other things? A good description mentions such things and uses
such words as will help us to see in imagination many things not mentioned.
In the third sentence would you prefer _skimmed_ to _flew_? Why? Compare
the eighth sentence with this: "Large fat hogs were grunting in their pens
and reposing quietly with an abundant supply of food." _Sleek, unwieldy
porkers_ would be too high-sounding an expression for you to use
ordinarily, but it is in tone with the rest of the description. _In the
repose and abundance of their pens_ is much better than the words
substituted above. It is shorter and stronger. It uses instead of the verb
_reposing_ and the adjective _abundant_ the nouns _repose_ and _abundance_,
and makes these the principal words in the phrase. Repose and abundance are
thus made the striking features of the pen. Arrange the ninth sentence in
as many ways as possible and tell which way you prefer. Is a real squadron
referred to in the tenth sentence? and were the geese actually convoying
fleets? These are figurative uses of words. What can you say of _regiments_
in the eleventh? In the twelfth Guinea fowls are compared to housewives.
Except in this one fancied resemblance the two are wholly unlike. Such
comparisons frequently made by _as_ and _like_ are called +Similes+. If we
leave out _like_ and say, "Guinea fowls are fretting housewives," we have a
figure of speech called +Metaphor+. This figure is used above when flocks
are called "squadrons" and "fleets." In the thirteenth sentence notice how
well chosen and forceful are the words _strutted, gallant, burnished,
generously, ever-hungry, rich morsel_. See whether you can find substitutes
for these italicized words. Were the wings actually burnished? What can you
say of this use of _burnished_?
SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.
The sentences in the description above, when read together, have a somewhat
broken or jerky effect. You may unite smoothly such as should be joined.
The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh can all be put into one. There is
danger of making your sentences too long. Young writers find it difficult
to make very long sentences perfectly clear in meaning.
TO THE TEACHER.--While the pupils' thoughts and style are somewhat toned up
by the preceding exercises, it may he well to let them write similar
descriptions drawn from their reading, their observation, or their
imagination.
If the compositions contain more than two or three short paragraphs each,
it will be almost impossible to secure good work.
Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.
FROM FRANKLIN'S "AUTOBIOGRAPHY."
1. I was dirty from my journey, my pockets were stuffed out with shirts and
stockings, and I knew no soul nor where to look for lodging. 2. I was
fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; I was very hungry; and
my whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar and about a shilling in
copper. 3. The latter I gave the people of the boat for my passage, who at
first refused it on account of my rowing; but I insisted on their taking
it.
1. Then I walked up the street, gazing about, till near the markethouse I
met a boy with bread. 2. I had made many a meal on bread, and, inquiring
where he got it, I went immediately to the baker's he directed me to, in
Second Street, and asked for biscuit, intending such as we had in Boston;
but they, it seems, were not made in Philadelphia. 3. Then I asked for a
three-penny loaf, and was told they had none such. 4. So not considering or
knowing the difference of money, or the greater cheapness and the names of
his bread, I bade him give me three-penny worth of any sort. 5. He gave me,
accordingly, three great puffy rolls. 6. I was surprised at the quantity,
but took it; and, having no room in my pockets, walked off with a roll
under each arm, and eating the other.
* * * * *
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Break up sentence 1, paragraph 1,
into three distinct sentences, and tell what changes this will make in
capitals and punctuation. Do the same for 2. Which read more closely
together, and are more closely connected, the parts of 2, or of 1? How is
this shown to the eye? Analyze the first two sentences you made from 1.
Find two object complements of _knew_, one a noun and the other a group of
five words. Find in 2 a phrase whose principal part is made up of three
nouns. What have you learned about the commas used with these nouns? In
making separate sentences of 3 what words do you change or drop? Are these
the words that bind the parts of 3 together? What noun is used adverbially
after _gave_? Supply a preposition and then tell what phrases modify
_gave_. Find the object complement of _gave_. What modifies _refused_ by
telling when? What, by telling _why_?
In 1, paragraph 2, who is described as gazing about? What does _gazing
about_ modify? Read the group of words that tells how far or how long
Franklin walked up the street. Notice that this whole group is used like an
adverb. Find in it a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. Drop
_till_ and see whether the parts of 1 make separate sentences. What word,
then, binds these two sentences into one? Read 2 and make of it three
distinct sentences by omitting the first _and_ and the word _but_. The
second of these three sentences just made contains several sentences which
are not so easily separated, as some are used like single words to make up
the main, or principal, sentence. In this second part of 2 find the leading
subject and its two predicates. Find a phrase belonging to _I_ and
representing Franklin as doing something. Put _what_ after _inquiring_ and
find the object complement. What phrase belongs to _went_, telling where?
_He directed me to (whom)_ belongs to what? Who is represented as
intending? _Intending such as we had in Boston_ belongs to what? _As we had
in Boston_ goes with what? Notice that _it seems_ is a sentence thrown in
loosely between the parts of another sentence. Such expressions are said to
be parenthetical. Notice the punctuation.
Notice that _gazing, inquiring, intending, considering, knowing_, and
_having_ are all modifiers of _I_ found in the different sentences of
paragraph 2. Put _I_ before any one of these words, and you will see that
no assertion is made. These words illustrate one form of the verb (the
participle), and _look_ in 1, paragraph 1, illustrates the other form (the
infinitive), spoken of in Lesson 11 as not asserting. Change each of these
participles to a predicate, or asserting form, and then read the sentences
in which these predicates are found. You will notice that giving these
words the asserting form makes them more prominent and forcible--brings
them up to a level with the other predicate verbs. Participles are very
useful in slurring over the less important actions that the more important
may have prominence. Show that they are so used in Franklin's narrative.
Examine the phrase _with a roll under each arm, and eating the other_, and
see if you do not find an illustration of the fact that even great men
sometimes make slips. Does _other_ properly mean one of three things? Try
to improve this expression.