8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws
off its impurities.
9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people ventilate
their sleeping rooms.
10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it combines fresh
air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits.
11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its
flour.
The +adverb clause+ may express +evidence+.
12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the
wilderness.
13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them
here.
14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning.
15. We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes in the nests
of other birds.
* * * * *
LESSON 65.
ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED.
+Introductory Hints+.--_If it rains, the ground will be wet_. The adverb
clause, introduced by _if_, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the cause
of the ground's being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a +Condition+
ready to become a cause.
_He takes exercise that he may get well_. The adverb clause, introduced by
_that_, assigns the cause or the motive or the +Purpose+ of his exercising.
_The ground is dry, although it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced
by _although_, expresses a +Concession+. It is conceded that a cause for
the ground's not being dry exists; but, in spite of this opposing cause, it
is asserted that the ground is dry.
All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, purpose,
and concession come, as you see, under the general head of +Cause+,
although only the first kind assigns the cause proper.
Analysis.
The +adverb clause+ may express +condition+.
1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to produce
combustion.
2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose.
(_Unless_ = _if not_.)
3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an image of
a dull speaker and a lively listener.
4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors and the
rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part of the
year.
+Explanation+.--The relative position of the subject and the verb renders
the _if_ unnecessary. This omission of _if_ is a common idiom.
5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is thrown
into the grate to keep the furnace in play.
The +adverb clause+ may express +purpose+.
6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other.
+Explanation+.--_That_, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere
conjunction.
7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at
one time.
+Explanation+.--The phrases _in order that_, _so that_ = _that_.
8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that European
vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Orient.
9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains them
dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may drop
them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth.
The +adverb clause+ may express +concession+.
10. Although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body, about one-sixth of
the blood is sent to it.
11. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on
every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight.
12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his
foolishness depart from him.
13. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it
arrested its progress for a hundred years.
+Explanation+.--_If_ here = _even if_ = _though_.
14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not sufficient
to make up the loss caused by evaporation.
* * * * *
LESSON 66.
COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES.
+COMMA--RULE.--An _Adverb Clause_ is set off by the comma unless it closely
follows and restricts the word it modifies+.
+Explanation+.--I met him in Paris, _when I was last abroad_. I will not
call him villain, _because it would be unparliamentary_. Paper was invented
in China, _if the Chinese tell the truth_. In these sentences the adverb
clauses are not restrictive, but are supplementary, and are added almost as
afterthoughts.
Glass bends easily _when it is red-hot_. Leaves do not turn red _because
the frost colors them_. It will break _if you touch it_. Here the adverb
clauses are restrictive; each is very closely related in thought to the
independent clause, and may almost be said to be the essential part of the
sentence.
When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off.
+Direction+.---_Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in
Lessons_ 63 _and_ 64.
+Direction+.---_Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses of
time, place, degree, etc. (for connectives, see Lesson _100_), and
punctuate according to the Rule_:--
1. The leaves of the water-maple turn red--_time_.
2. Our eyes cannot bear the light--_time_.
3. Millions of soldiers sleep--_place_.
4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands--_place_.
5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew--_degree_.
6. Vesuvius threw its lava so far--_degree_.
7. The tree is inclined--_manner_.
8. The lion springs upon his prey--_manner_.
9. Many persons died in the Black Hole of Calcutta--_cause_.
10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night--_cause_.
11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away--_evidence_.
12. We dream in our sleep--_evidence_.
13. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise--_purpose_.
14. We put salt into butter and upon meat--_purpose_.
15. Iron bends and molds easily--_condition_.
16. Apples would not fall to the ground--_condition_.
17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last--_concession_.
18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's laws--_concession_.
* * * * *
LESSON 67.
+COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLASSES+.
ARRANGEMENT.
The adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between the
parts of it, or after it.
+Direction+.---_Think, if you can, of another adverb clause to follow each
independent clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a caret (^)
indicate where this adverb clause may properly stand in the sentence. Note
its force in its several positions, and attend to the punctuation. Some of
these adverb clauses can stand only at the end_.
* * * * *
LESSON 68.
COMPOSITION--ADVERB CLAUSES.
An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or a participle
phrase.
+Example+.--_When he saw me_, he stopped = _Seeing me_, he stopped.
+Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:--
1. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands with their bodies.
2. The water will freeze, for it has cooled to 32 deg.
3. Truth, though she may be crushed to earth, will rise again.
4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his
worshipers.
5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb heat.
An adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute phrase.
+Example+.--_When night came_ on, we gave up the chase = _Night coming_ on,
we gave up the chase.
+Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:--
1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels, heat is
produced.
2. It will rain to-morrow, for "Probabilities" predicts it.
3. Washington retreated from Long Island because his army was outnumbered.
4. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry, Wycliffe
should be called the father of our later English prose.
An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional phrase having for its
principal word (1) a participle, (2) an infinitive, or (3) a noun.
+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional
phrase having a participle for its principal word_:--
+Model+.--They will call _before they leave_ the city = They will call
_before leaving_ the city.
1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the Atlantic.
2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood.
3. He grew rich because he attended to his business.
4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate them.
+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive
phrase_:--
+Model+.--She stoops _that she may conquer_ = She stoops _to conquer_.
1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors.
2. Philip II. built the Armada that he might conquer England.
3. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life.
4. What would I not give if I could see you happy!
5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently.
+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional
phrase having a noun for its principal word_:--
+Model+.--He fought _that he might obtain glory_ = He fought _for glory_.
1. Luther died where he was born.
2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs.
3. The general marched as he was ordered.
4. Criminals are punished that society may be safe.
5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age.
An adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting such words as may
easily be supplied.
+Example+.--_When you are right_, go ahead = _When right_, go ahead.
+Direction+.--_Contract these adverb clauses_:--
1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I.
2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended.
+Explanation+.--_However_ modifies _strongly_, and connects a concessive
clause.
3. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease.
4. No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as Shakespeare
has uttered.
(Frequently, clauses introduced by _as_ and _than_ are contracted.)
5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large.
(Sentences like this never appear in the full form.)
6. This is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era.
An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjective clause or phrase.
+Example+.--This man is to be pitied, _because he has no friends_ = This
man, _who has no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _having no friends_,
is to be pitied = This man, _without friends_, is to be pitied.
+Direction+.--_Change each of the following adverb clauses first to an
adjective clause and then to an adjective phrase_:--
1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music.
2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three good
things.
* * * * *
LESSON 69.
ANALYSIS.
+Direction.+--_Tell the kind of adverb clause in each of the sentences in
Lesson 68, and note the different positions in which these clauses stand.
Select two sentences containing time clauses; one, a place clause; two,
degree; one, manner; two, real cause; two, evidence; two, purpose; two,
condition; and two, concession, and analyze them_.
* * * * *
LESSON 70.
REVIEW.
+Direction.+--_Compose sentences illustrating the different kinds of adverb
clauses named in Lessons 63, 64, 65, and explain fully the office of each.
For connectives, see Lesson 100. Tell why the adverb clauses in Lesson 68
are or are not set off by the comma. Compose sentences illustrating the
different ways of contracting adverb clauses_.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+
(SEE PAGES 165-168.)
TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150.
* * * * *
LESSON 71.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE-NOUN CLAUSE.
+Introductory Hints.+--In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an infinitive
phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are now to learn that
a clause may do the same.
_Obedience_ is better than sacrifice = _To obey_ is better than sacrifice =
_That men should obey_ is better than sacrifice. The dependent clause _that
men should obey_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Subject+ of _is_.
_Many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by lightning_. The
dependent clause, introduced by _that_, is equivalent to a noun, and is the
+Object Complement+ of _believe_.
_The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful_. The clause
introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is +Explanatory+ of
_fact_.
_A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words_. The
clause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is an +Attribute
Complement+ relating to _peculiarity_.
_Your future depends very much on who your companions are_. The clause _who
your companions are_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Principal Term+
of a +Phrase+ introduced by the preposition _on_.
A clause that does the work of a noun is a +Noun Clause+.
Analysis.
The +noun clause+ may be used as +subject+.
1. That the earth is round has been proved.
That
--------
'
earth | is ' \ round
-------|--------------
\the | |
|
/ \ | has been proved
=============|=================
|
+Explanation+.--The clause _that the earth is round_ is used like a noun as
the subject of _has been proved_. The conjunction _that_ [Footnote: "_That_
was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, used to point to the fact
stated in an independent sentence; as, It was good; he saw _that_. By an
inversion of the order this became, He saw _that_ (namely) it was good, and
so passed into the form _He saw that it was good_, where _that_ has been
transferred to the accessory clause, and has become a mere sign of
grammatical subordination."--_C. P. Mason._] introduces the noun clause.
This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence. Strictly speaking, there is
here no principal clause, for the whole sentence cannot be called a clause,
_i.e._, a part of a sentence. We may say that it is a complex sentence in
which the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause.
2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass of gin is
singular.
3. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and the thief.
4. Who was the discoverer of America is not yet fully determined by
historians.
+Explanation+.--The subject clause is here an indirect question. See Lesson
74.
5. When letters were first used is not certainly known.
6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty Cain.
7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem never solved
by some.
+Explanation+.--_When to quit business and enjoy their wealth_ is an
indirect question. _When to quit business = When they are to quit
business_, or _When they ought to quit business_. Such constructions may be
expanded into clauses, or they may be treated as phrases equivalent to
clauses.
The +noun clause+ may be used as +object complement+.
8. Galileo taught that the earth moves.
that
-------
'
earth | ' moves
------|-------
\the |
|
Galileo | taught | / \
=========|==============
|
+Explanation+.--Here the clause introduced by _that_ is used like a noun as
the object complement of _taught_.
9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber are the
dishes for his table.
10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are.
11. It will ask of you, "What can you do?"
12. The peacock struts about, saying, "What a fine tail I have!"
13. He does not know which to choose.
(See explanation of (7), above.)
14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die.
15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control over
the current of thought in our dreams.
* * * * *
LESSON 72.
NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED.
Analysis.
The +noun clause+ may be used as +attribute complement+.
1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words.
2. Tweed's defiant question was, "What are you going to do about it?"
3. The question ever asked and never answered is, "Where and how am I to
exist in the Hereafter?"
4. Hamlet's exclamation was, "What a piece of work is man!"
5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in every part
except the heel.
The +noun clause+ may be used as +explanatory modifier+.
6. It has been proved that the earth is round.
that
-------
'
earth | is ' \ round
------|--------------
\the |
|
It (/ \) | has been proved
==========|==================
|
+Explanation+.--The grammatical subject _it_ has no meaning till explained
by the noun clause.
7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply of
blood to the brain.
8. The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful.
9. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might save a
tree mentioned by Caesar.
+Explanation+.--Unless _in order that_ is taken as a conjunction connecting
an adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clause introduced by
_that_ is a noun clause explanatory of _order_. [Footnote: A similar
explanation may be made of _on condition that, in case that_, introducing
adverb clauses expressing condition.]
10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt out," is one of the
finest in literature.
11. The advice that St. Ambrose gave St. Augustine in regard to conformity
to local custom was in substance this: "When in Rome, do as the Romans
do."
12. This we know, that our future depends on our present.
The +noun clause+ may be used as +principal term+ of a +prepositional
phrase+.
13. Have birds any sense of why they sing?
birds | Have | sense
=======|================ they | sing
| \any \ -----|------
\ of | \why
\ / \
\-------------
+Explanation+.--_Why they sing_ is an indirect question, here used as the
principal term of a prepositional phrase.
14. There has been some dispute about who wrote "Shakespeare's Plays."
15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole.
+Explanation+.--By supposing _of_ to stand before _that_, the noun clause
may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifying
the adjective _certain_. By supplying _of the fact_, the noun clause will
become explanatory.
16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and triumph.
17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor of his
slain enemy pass into himself.
* * * * *
LESSON 73.
COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE.
+COMMA--RULE.--The _Noun Clause_ used as attribute complement is generally
set off by the comma.+
+Remarks+.--Present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with the
clause used as subject or as object complement, except where the comma
would contribute to clearness.
The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatory
modifiers. See Lesson 34. But the real subject made explanatory of _it_ is
seldom set off. See next Lesson for the punctuation of noun clauses that
are questions or quotations.
+Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the use or the omission of the comma
with the noun clauses in the preceding Lesson_.
By using _it_ as a substitute for the subject clause, this clause may be
placed last.
+Example+.--_That the story of William Tell is a myth_ is now believed =
_It_ is now believed _that the story of William Tell is a myth_.
+Direction+.--_By the aid of the expletive it, transpose five subject
clauses in Lesson 71_.
Often the clause used as object complement may be placed first.
+Direction+.--_Transpose such of the clauses used as object complements, in
the preceding Lessons, as admit transposition. Punctuate them if they need
punctuation_.
The noun clause may be made prominent by separating it and inserting the
independent clause between its parts,
+Example+.--The story of William Tell, _it is now believed_, is a myth.
(Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set off by the
comma.)
+Direction+.--_Write the following sentences, using the independent clauses
parenthetically_:--
1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in Mexico
in 1536.
2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually
result from grammatical studies.
3. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as cheerily
on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace.
+Direction+.--_Vary the following sentence so as to illustrate five
different kinds of noun clauses_:--
+Model+.--
1. _That stars are suns_ is the belief of astronomers.
2. Astronomers believe _that stars are suns_.
3. The belief of astronomers is, _that stars are suns_.
4. The belief _that stars are suns_ is held by astronomers.
5. Astronomers are confident _that stars are suns_.
1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of government suit different
stages of civilization.
The noun clause may be contracted by changing the predicate to a
participle, and the subject to a possessive.
+Example+.--_That he was brave_ cannot be doubted = _His being brave_
cannot be doubted.
+Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the
noun clauses to phrases_:--
1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact.
2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader.
3. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect for the
newspaper.
4. The thought that we are spinning around the sun at the rate of twenty
miles a second makes us dizzy.
5. She was aware that I appreciated her situation.
The noun clause may be contracted by making the predicate, when changed to
an infinitive phrase, the objective complement, and the subject the object
complement.
+Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the
predicates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the subjects
to object complements_:--
+Model+.--King Ahasuerus commanded that _Haman should be hanged_ = King
Ahasuerus commanded _Haman to be hanged_.
1. I believe that he is a foreigner.
2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free.
3. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American statesmen.
4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is?
5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust.
+Direction+.--_Expand into complex sentences such of the sentences in
Lesson_ 41 _as contain an objective complement and an object complement
that together are equivalent to a clause_.
A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase.
+Example+.--_That he should vote_ is the duty of every American citizen =
_To vote_ is the duty of every American citizen.
+Direction+.--_Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases_:--
1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty.
2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily.
3. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded.
4. Caesar Augustus issued a decree that all the world should be taxed.
5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression.
6. He does not know whom he should send.
7. He cannot find out how he is to go there.
* * * * *
LESSON 74.
COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED.
+QUOTATION MARKS--RULE.--Quotation marks ("") inclose a copied word or
passage+.
+Remarks+.--Single marks (' ') inclose a quotation within a quotation. If,
within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made,
the double marks are again used; as, "The incorrectness of the dispatches
led Bismarck to declare, 'It will soon come to be said, "He lies like the
telegraph."'" This introduction of a third quotation should generally be
avoided, especially where the three marks come at the end, as above.
When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression, each part of the
quotation is inclosed; as, "I would rather be right," said Clay, "than be
president."
In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the
quotation marks; as, He asked, "What are you living for?" but, when a
question contains a quotation, this order is reversed; as, May we not find
"sermons in stones"? So also with the exclamation point.
+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of a direct quotation making
complete sense or of a direct question introduced into a sentence should
begin with a capital letter+.
+Remarks+.--A +direct quotation+ is one whose exact words, as well as
thought, are copied; as, Nathan said to David, "_Thou art the man_." An
+indirect quotation+ is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, is
copied; as, Nathan told David _that he was the man_. The reference here of
the pronoun _he_ is somewhat ambiguous. Guard against this, especially in
indirect quotations.
The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital letter,
and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. The
indirect quotation is not generally set off by the comma, does not
necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within
quotation marks.