great writer.
2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alliances,
they became powerful.
3. Samuel Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious.
4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental!
5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy.
6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrances and
resolutions and defiance.
7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations.
+Direction+.--_Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the
preposition, and the conjunction_:--
1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend.
2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine.
3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous.
4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart.
+Direction+.--_Write six sentences, each with one of these words used four
times; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of the
repetition and of the omission_:--
Poor, how, with, through, or, and.
+Direction+.--Expand these sentences by supplying subjects:--
1. Give us this day our daily bread.
2. Why dost stare so?
3. Thank you, sir.
4. Hear me for my cause.
5. Where hast been these six months?
6. Bless me!
7. Save us.
+Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it_:--
1. Nobody there.
2. Death to the tyrant.
3. All aboard!
4. All hands to the pumps!
5. What to me fame?
6. Short, indeed, his career.
7. When Adam thus to Eve.
8. I must after him.
9. Thou shalt back to France.
10. Whose footsteps these?
+Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note
the loss in vivacity_:--
1. Upon them with the lance.
2. At your service, sir.
3. Why so unkind?
4. Forward, the light brigade!
5. Half-past nine.
6. Off with you.
7. My kingdom for a horse!
8. Hence, you idle creatures!
9. Coffee for two.
10. Shine, sir?
11. Back to thy punishment, false fugitive.
12. On with the dance.
13. Strange, strange!
14. Once more unto the breach.
15. Away, away!
16. Impossible!
+Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb_:--
1. Art thou gone?
2. Will you take your chance?
3. His career was ably run.
4. Are you a captain?
5. May long life be to the republic.
6. How great is the mystery!
7. Canst thou wonder?
8. May a prosperous voyage be to you.
9. Are you here?
+Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and note
the gain in force and animation_:--
1. I offer a world for sale.
2. Now, then, go you to breakfast.
3. Sit you down, soothless insulter.
4. I want a word with you, wife.
5. Those are my sentiments, madam.
6. Bring ye lights there.
7. It is true, sir.
8. We will drink a health to Preciosa.
9. I offer a penny for your thoughts.
10. Whither are you going so early?
+Direction+.--_Construct ten full sentences, using in each, one of these
adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by omitting
both subject and verb_:--
Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for the
guns, water.
* * * * *
LESSON 58.
REVIEW.
TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.
+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 51 _to Lesson_ 57, _inclusive_.
Illustrate the different positions--Usual and Transposed--that the words
and phrases of a declarative sentence may take; illustrate the different
positions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, and of an
exclamatory sentence; illustrate the different ways of contracting
sentences.
Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.
(SEE PAGES 162-165.)
TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150.
* * * * *
LESSON 59.
COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
+Introductory Hints+.--The sentences given for analysis in the preceding
Lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called
+Simple Sentences+.
_A discreet youth makes friends_. In Lesson 17 you learned that you could
expand the adjective _discreet_ into a phrase, and say, A youth of
discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into
an expression that asserts, and say, A youth _that is discreet_ makes
friends. This part of the sentence and the other part, _A youth makes
friends_, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call +Clauses+.
The adjective clause _that is discreet_, performing the office of a single
word, we call a +Dependent Clause+; _A youth makes friends_, not performing
such office, we call an +Independent Clause+.
The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we
call a +Complex Sentence+.
A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an
+Adjective Clause+.
Analysis.
1. They that touch pitch will be defiled.
They | will be defiled
=======|=====================
` |
`
`
that ` | touch | pitch
--------|--------'-------
|
+Explanation+.--The relative importance of the two clauses is shown by
their position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shading
of the lines. The pronoun _that_ is written on the subject line of the
dependent clause. _That_ performs the office of a conjunction also. This
office is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting
lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _that
touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_.
+Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence because it consists of an
independent clause and a dependent clause. _They will be defiled_ is the
independent clause, and _that touch pitch_ is the dependent. _That touch
pitch_ is a modifier of _they_ because it limits the meaning of _they_; the
dependent clause is connected by its subject _that_ to _they_.
TO THE TEACHER.--Illustrate the connecting force of _who, which_, and
_that_ by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting
the loss of connection.
2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press.
3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits.
+Explanation+.--The adjective clause does not always modify the subject.
4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like
genius.
5. In 1685 Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of
Nantes.
6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel
Adams framed.
+Explanation+.--The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a
subject.
7. The guilt of the slave-trade, [Footnote: See Lesson 61, foot-note.]
which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins.
8. I found the place to which you referred.
I | found | place
====|==================
| \the `
`
you | referred `
------|---------- `
| \to `
\ which `
\-------
9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter.
10. It was the same book that I referred to.
+Explanation+.--The phrase _to that_ modifies _referred_. _That_ connects
the adjective clause. When the pronoun _that_ connects an adjective clause,
the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8).
11. She that I spoke to was blind.
12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him.
+Explanation+.--A preposition is wanting. _That = in which_. (Can you find
a word that would here sound better than _that_?)
13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of.
14. It is to you that I speak.
+Explanation+.--Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in the
sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In
analysis restore the preposition to its usual place--It is you that I speak
_to_. _That I speak to_ modifies the subject.
15. It was from me that he received the information.
(_Me_ must be changed to _I_ when _from_ is restored to its usual
position.)
16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the
ocean.
mountains
-----------
`
` base | is
` ------|-----
` \
`.....\whose
+Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of
_base_.
17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting.
* * * * *
LESSON 60.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES--CONTINUED.
Analysis.
1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time
you take to breathe.
+Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun _that_ [Footnote: When _whom_,
_which_, and _that_ would, if used, be object complements, they are often
omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never
omits them.] is omitted.
2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on.
3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw.
4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth.
+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of
_whom_. Supply _him_.
5. He did what was right.
He | did | x
====|======================
| `
`
what ` | was \ right
---------|-------------
+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted word _thing_, or
some word whose meaning is general or indefinite. [Footnote: Many
grammarians prefer to treat _what was right_ as a noun clause (see Lesson
71), the object of _did_. They would treat in the same way clauses
introduced by _whoever_, _whatever_, _whichever_.
"_What_ was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses.
Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect
interrogative; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as
substantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to be
expressed. Its possessive _whose_ has, however, attained the full
construction of a relative."--_Prof. F. A. March_.]
6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show.
7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived.
8. What men he had were true.
The relative pronoun _what_ here precedes its noun like an adjective.
Analyze as if arranged thus: The men _what_ (= _that_ or _whom_) _he had_
were true.
9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled.
+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (_man_ or
_he_) of the independent clause.
10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest.
11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism.
12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited.
depot | is \ place
=======|==============
\A | \a `
\where
stores | ` are deposited
-------|---------------------
|
+Explanation+.--The line representing _where_ is made up of two parts. The
upper part represents _where_ as a conjunction connecting the adjective
clause to _place_, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying
_are deposited_. As _where_ performs these two offices, it may be called a
_conjunctive adverb_. By changing _where_ to the equivalent phrase _in
which_, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of
the conjunctive adverb will be seen.
13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply _the place_
before _where_.)
14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown.
15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit
against Antonio.
16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of
the universe are conducted.
* * * * *
LESSON 61.
COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
+COMMA--RULE.--The _Adjective Clause_, when not restrictive, is set off by
the comma.+
+Explanation+.--I picked the apple _that was ripe_. I picked the apple,
_which was ripe_. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or
limits _apple_, telling which one was picked; in the second the adjective
clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, the sentence being
nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, _and it_ was ripe. This
difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.[Footnote: There are
other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to _and
he_ or _and it_; as, I gave the letter to my friend, _who will return it to
you_.
Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical
relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence
compound, making the relative clause independent, or co-ordinate with its
antecedent clause.
Such classification will often require very careful discrimination; as, for
instance, between the preceding sentence and the following: I gave the
letter to my friend, _who can be trusted_.
But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of
phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the
following sentences:--
John, _who did not know the law_, is innocent. John is innocent; _he
did not know the law_. John is innocent _because he did not know the
law_.
No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses
as an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force? The student
should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form
and the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.)]
+Caution+.--The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to
the word it modifies.
+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors of position, and insert the
comma when needed_:--
1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur
who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits.
2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple.
3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we
had for breakfast.
4. I have no right to decide who am interested.
+Direction+.--_Construct five complex sentences, each containing an
adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives_:--
Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable.
+Direction+.--_Change the following simple sentences to complex sentences
by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses_:--
1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish.
2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our
liberties.
3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night.
4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their
native land.
5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphanage, have knelt
at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber.
+Direction+.--_Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by
expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses_:--
1. I have many things to tell you.
2. There were none to deliver.
3. He had an ax to grind.
4. It was a sight to gladden the heart.
5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear.
+Direction+.--_Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and
conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses_:--
Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever.
When, where, and why.
+Direction+.--_Change "that which", in the following sentences to "what",
and "what" to "that which"; "whoever" to "he who", and "whatever" to
"anything" or "everything which"; "where" and "when" to "at", "on", or "in
which"; "wherein" to "in which"; and "whereby" to "by which"_:--
1. _That which_ is seen is temporal.
2. _What_ God hath joined together let not man put asunder.
3. _Whoever_ lives a pious life blesses his race.
4. _Whatever_ we do has an influence.
5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the
very spot _where_ brave men died.
6. The year _when_ Chaucer was born is uncertain.
7. The play's the thing _wherein_ I'll catch the conscience of the king.
8. You take my life in taking the means _whereby_ I live.
+Direction+.--_Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into
adjective clauses_:--
1. A man's heart deviseth _his_ way.
2. _Reason's_ whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three
words--_health, peace_, and _competence_.
* * * * *
LESSON 62.
+Direction+.--_Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson,
and write illustrative sentences as here directed_:--
Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying a
complement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifying
some word omitted; one whose connective is a subject; one whose connective
is a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase;
one whose connective is a possessive modifier; one whose connective is
omitted; one whose connective is an adverb.
* * * * *
LESSON 63.
COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADVERB CLAUSE.
+Introductory Hints+.--_He arrived late_. You have learned that you can
expand the adverb _late_ into a phrase, and say, He arrived _at midnight_.
You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of +Time+, and
say, He arrived _when the clock struck twelve_.
_He stood where I am_. The clause introduced by _where_ expresses +Place+,
and is equivalent to the adverb _here_ or to the phrase _in this place_.
_This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant_. The clause introduced
by _as ... as_ modifies _profitable_, telling the +Degree+ of the quality
expressed by it.
A clause that does the work of an adverb is an +Adverb Clause+.
Analysis.
The +adverb clause+ may express +time+.
1. When pleasure calls, we listen.
we | listen
===|=========
| \
`When
`
pleasure | \ calls
---------|---\-------
|
+Explanation+.--_When_ modifies both _listen_ and _calls_, denoting that
the two acts take place at the same time. It also connects _pleasure
calls_, as an adverb modifier, to _listen_. The offices of the conjunctive
adverb _when_ may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases
thus: We listen _at the time at which_ pleasure calls. _At the time_
modifies _listen_, _at which_ modifies _calls_, and _which_ connects.
The line representing _when_ is made up of three parts to picture these
three offices. The part representing _when_ as a modifier of _calls_ is,
for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it.
2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war.
3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then ths Lord will take me up.
Lord | will take | me
======|=====================
\The | \up \
..\ then
` \
`
`When
father \
------------'\ \
\my ' \ \
' \ \
' \ | \ forsake | me
'and \----|---------------------
' / |
' /
mother ' /
------------'/
\my
+Explanation+.--By changing _then_ into _at the time_, and _when_ into _at
which_, the offices of these two words will be clearly seen. For
explanation of the line representing _when_, see Lesson 14 and (1) above.
4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in
reading Plato's "Immortality." [Footnote: Some prefer, in constructions
like this, to treat _before_, _ere_, _after_, _till_, _until_, and
_since_ as prepositions followed by noun clauses.]
5. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave.
[Footnote: See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note.]
+Explanation+.--_Many_ here modifies _year_, or, rather, _year_ as modified
by _a_.
6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting
the last onslaught of Napoleon.
Blucher | arrived
===========|===========
| \
\------\
\ `as
\ just `
\ `
\
Wellington | \ was meeting | onslaught
--------------|-----\------------------------
|
+Explanation+.--_Just_ may be treated as a modifier of the dependent
clause. A closer analysis, however would make it a modifier of _as_. _Just
as_=_just at the time at which_. _Just_ here modifies _at the time_. _At
the time_ is represented in the diagram by the first element of the _as_
line.
The +adverb clause+ may express +place+.
7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom.
8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could
find it.
9. The wind bloweth where it listeth.
The +adverb clause+ may express +degree+.
10. Washington was as good as he was great.
+Explanation+.--The adverb clause _as he was great_ modifies the first
_as_, which is an adverb modifying _good_. The first _as_, modified by the
adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree? The
second _as_ modifies _great_ and performs the office of a conjunction, and
is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding _as ... as_
into two phrases, we have, Washington was good _in the degree in which_ he
was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20).
11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. [Footnote: _The_, here, is
not the ordinary adjective _the_. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative
pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first
_the_ = _by how much_, and modifies _wiser_; the second _the_ = _by so
much_, and modifies _humbler_.]
+Explanation+.--The words _the ... the_ are similar in office to _as ...
as_--He became humbler _in that degree in which_ he became wiser.
12. Gold is heavier than iron.
Gold | is \ heavier
=======|==============
| \
` than
`
iron | x \ \ x
-------|---------------
+Explanation+.--_Heavier_ = _heavy beyond the degree_, and _than_ = _in
which_. The sentence = _Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is
heavy_. _Is_ and _heavy_ are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after
_than_ and _as_. _Than_ modifies _heavy_ (understood) and connects the
clause expressing degree to _heavier_, and is therefore a conjunctive
adverb.
13. To be right is better than to be president.
+Explanation+.--To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be
president (would be good).
14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. [Footnote: In this sentence,
also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a
clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different
logical relations, and cannot always be classed under Degree.]
+Explanation+.--The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it
produced. The adverb _so_, modified by the adverb clause _that the mercury
froze_, answers the question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was
cold _to that degree in which_ the mercury froze. _That_, as you see,
modifies _froze_ and connects the clauses; it is therefore a conjunctive
adverb.
15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury.
+Explanation+.--It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or
require).
16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for
it.
17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded.
18. To preach is easier than to practice.
19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion.
[Footnote: For the use of _he_ instead of the indefinite pronoun _one_
repeated, see Lesson 124.]
20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it.
I | like | it
=====|===========
| \
\----\ better
\the \
...\
` \
`
I | ` see | it
----|--`--------------
` \
`The \
`.....\oftener
\
* * * * *
LESSON 64.
ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED.
+Introductory Hints+.--_He lived as the fool lives_. The adverb clause,
introduced by _as_, is a clause of +Manner+, and is equivalent to the
adverb _foolishly_ or to the phrase _in a foolish manner_.
_The ground is wet because it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by
_because_, assigns the +Real Cause+ of the ground's being wet.
_It has rained, for the ground is wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by
_for_, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of our
believing that it has rained; it gives the +Evidence+ of what is asserted.
[Footnote: Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause
produces an effect; Evidence produces knowledge of an effect.
Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated as independent.]
Analysis.
The +adverb clause+ may express +manner+.
1. He died as he lived.
+Explanation+.--He died _in the manner in which_ he lived. For diagram, see
(1), Lesson 63.
2. The upright man speaks as he thinks.
3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks.
(For diagram of _as_ ... _so_, see _when_ ... _then_ (3), Lesson 63.)
4. As is the boy so will be the man.
5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls
and shapes the pebbles on the shore.
The +adverb clause+ may express +real cause+.
6. The ground is wet because it has rained.
ground | is \ wet
==========|=============
\The | `
`
` because
`
it | ` has rained
----|---------------
+Explanation+.--_Because_, being a mere conjunction, stands on a line
wholly dotted.