instrument is made of wood, about the length and size of an octave
flute, and the mouth on the principle of a whistle. There are four
finger holes above and one underneath for the thumb. No tune or
anything approaching it can be produced from this instrument, yet they
can sound different calls in a shrill tone. It is played in several of
their dances as an accompaniment to singing, not, however, producing
any sound accordant with the voice. The principal purpose for which it
is made and used is love making. By the various notes the following
intelligence can be conveyed by the man outside to the woman inside
the lodge, without any of the inmates except her knowing for whom they
are intended, as the whistle can be distinctly heard at the distance
of 100 yards or more: “I am here waiting for you,” “I am watched,”
“Remain,” “I will come again,” “Meet me to-morrow,” and several other
communications of a like nature. The meanings of these different sounds
are agreed upon and understood by the parties beforehand. As the
instrument admits of considerable variation in its tone and note all
their calls are different, and no other person would understand them
rightly. They might suspect some assignation to be going forward, but
would not know with or between whom. Songs and this whistle are used in
their serenades and dances.
LONGEVITY
The changes, exposures, and deprivations attending on the life of the
roving tribes are without doubt great causes of the slow increase of
Indian population. We think from actual observation that not more than
two out of five children live until youth is passed. Even a few days
after their birth, and sometimes but a few hours after, they are packed
on the backs of their mothers in all weather, exposed to cold, snow,
and wet. They must be iron to stand this. Should they be so fortunate
as to reach the age of 4 to 6 years they follow the camp on foot
through spring thaws, exposed to rain and cold, for weeks together, and
a great many thus die from cold, pleurisy, and rheumatism. No question
but the uncertainty of their food also contributes to their mortality,
not that they often absolutely starve to death, but are rendered weak
and unable to stand the hardship the life requires. In maturity war
takes off another portion of the remainder, and diseases contracted by
the exposures of their youth, together with their continued exertions
as required by their precarious life, places it beyond probability of
many arriving at extreme age. It is evident that the hard labor the
women perform after marriage ruins their constitutions. A woman is old
on the plains at the age of 35 years, and seldom healthy. They have
from 2 to 5 children, more are occasionally seen, but 7 or 8 is a rare
occurrence. There are but few very old women. The usual diseases by
which they are carried off are pains in the head, heart, and side,
consumption, hemorrhages from the nose and other ducts, puerperal
fever, peritoneal inflammations, deliveries, and rheumatism.
Some of these complaints are certainly produced by their continued
stooping when in the act of scraping skins, others from exposure, and
all aggravated by their injudicious medical treatment.
A woman ceases to bear at 40 years, often earlier. Children have been
produced by women at the age of 15, though this is uncommon; from 18
to 35 is the usual period. Twins are often seen; that is as frequently
as this happens among the same number of white women. It is remarkable
that women who bear twins are liable to a repetition of twin bearing,
and two or three pairs follow. Two instances have happened under our
observation where women had three children at a delivery. Barrenness is
met with, but is by no means common.
HOSPITALITY
Entertaining visitors forms one of the Indian’s chief employments. Some
of these meetings partake of the nature of dinner and supper parties.
They are then called feasts. But as these will meet with consideration
elsewhere we will allude in this place only to the custom of private
entertainment, generally ascribed to hospitality. Independent of
feasts, visiting and invitations to visit, as stated, occupy a great
part of their time. Most of their private business, bargains, settling
disputes, hearing news, asking advice, required loans, and indeed all
their transactions with individuals are carried on when visiting, or
invitations are sent with that view. They also invite to preserve good
feeling and friendly relationship, but usually there is some point to
be gained, or advantage to result from these pains. After cooking and
preparing ready whatever is to be offered and having the lodge swept
and put in order, a boy is sent to the lodge or lodges of their guests,
or he hunts them up through the camp, saying to each “You are invited”
or “called,” directs him to the lodge of his parents, and proceeds to
pick up the others. Being acquainted with the situation of all the
lodges, they are at no loss to find the way, or if they are, inquire
of any one in the neighborhood. If strangers are invited, or whites,
the boy precedes as guide and they follow. When the guests arrive they
enter one after the other, saying on entering, “I have come.” They are
shown to a seat in the back part of the lodge, nearly opposite the
entrance, where clean skins have been spread on the ground for their
reception.
If several are expected, the first who come talk and smoke with the
master until all have arrived or been heard from. The pipe being laid
aside, the woman of the lodge dishes out the meal in wooden bowls,
handing one to each. When all are served the master says “Eat ye.”
They fall to, but neither he nor any of his family partake of it while
their visitors remain. The guests, however, are expected to do justice
to the repast, and the more heartily they partake the better pleased
the host appears. When the meal is over and the dishes laid aside the
pipe is again introduced, and during the conversation of an hour or so
that follows the object of the invitation is disclosed, and whatever
business it is most likely settled or whatever favor desired granted.
Such a thing as disinterested hospitality may possibly be met with, at
least we have been present on some of these occasions where the object
of the call was not visible, but it is entirely incompatible with a
correct view of the Indian character to infer thereby that he had no
object. On stated feasts, a feather, the lower end painted red, is sent
as an invitation card, but on all ordinary occasions the message is by
some one of the inmates of the lodge.
Casual visits without invitations are also common, sometimes only
with the view of getting a meal, but mostly to accomplish some end or
acquire some information. Guests, whether invited or not, are always
awarded precedence. Any insult or imposition on a guest, once in an
Indian lodge and under his protection, would be resented with greater
severity than the same toward themselves.
We can not perceive in all this seeming friendliness toward guests any
feeling of pure hospitality. An Indian never willingly, or without
a motive, makes an enemy. The uncertainty of their lives and of
everything they possess is such that mutual reliance on each other
is required. It is more than probable that these attentions have for
their object the forming of a name for liberality and securing the
good will of as many neighbors as possible with the view of obtaining
their assistance in times of need, or which is more evident, for
present favors in small matters which are nearly always made known at
the close of the visit. In the instances where the real object does
not appear we are obliged to conclude that it lies deeper, requires a
course of entertainments to accomplish, but nevertheless exists. When
whites are invited and are merely travelers through their country,
nothing at the time can perhaps be gained, but the rule holds good,
for the Indians will always claim the same attentions when they are in
turn the visitors, besides additional demands as a compensation for
their hospitality. A casual observer would believe them to be the most
hospitable people in the world, but a more minute acquaintance shows
an undercurrent of pure selfishness in all they do. The sharing of the
meat with each other in times of scarcity is no mark of liberality, or
done from any other principle than the foregoing remarks present. It is
a loan, or obligation, laid upon the person, to be repaid when their
situations become reversed, or whenever the claimant thinks proper to
remind him of it, which sooner or later he is sure to do in some way.
Indians of different nations are not only feasted by all the principal
men in camp but loaded with presents to carry home. A short time after
the donators pay a visit to the homes of their guests and receive as
much or more in return.
Protecting a guest from insult and injury is done partly through the
fear of the ridicule that would follow were he suffered to be badly
treated in his lodge; it is a contempt of their power to support,
and resented as such. Very often also it lays the stranger under
obligations which are expected to be paid for, and usually are. Were
we not limited in our remarks we could cite hundreds of instances that
would prove true hospitality to have no existence among the savages of
the plains. Everything they do and all their study is for the interest
of self, visible or invisible to others, according to the nature of
their views. We are not aware, however, that this course of hospitality
is pursued with the view of covering stratagems, evil intentions, or
to lull suspicion for the purpose of committing bad acts; it appears
only to operate as a furtherance to all their ordinary wishes and bring
about a favorable opportunity to make requests and transact other
business.
MIDWIFERY, CHILDBIRTH, NAMING
Nearly all the old women and most of those of middle age exercise
the office of midwives. When a woman perceives the pains of labor
approaching, the lodge is cleared of all the men and children except
the small ones, and the mother of the woman with some other experienced
female acquaintances are invited. The doctor is also notified to have
his medicine in readiness in case of it being wanted. The woman is
placed on her knees and sticks set up in this form [symbol] placed
before her. She presses the abdomen on the cross stick, rubbing gently
along it. The pains of labor are said to be very severe. If danger
is apprehended, the doctor is sent for and administers a draft of
pulverized rattles of the rattlesnake or decoction of roots. If the
doctor be a man, he then retires; but if a female she remains. Cases
of solitary confinement happen occasionally from lonely situations. No
nurse is provided; the mother takes care of her children from their
birth. The rite of circumcision is not performed, but they evince a
great desire that their children should be naturally thus formed and
attach an unaccountable importance to that incident.
On the birth of a child a horse is given with other property to those
in attendance. After three weeks or a month has elapsed the ceremony
of giving it a name takes place. There is no regular period of time
for this, and sometimes five or six months pass before it is done. The
probability is in this case that it is the want of means to pay for the
ceremonial, as in these instances they give for a reason, “the parents
are too poor.”
Usually, however, it is done about the time first mentioned and this
ceremony is the same whether the child be male or female. Some medicine
man generally makes the name, and sends word to the parents that on
a certain day he will bestow it on the child. When the time has come
a dog is killed and cooked or some other good dish is provided, and
invitations are sent to some 20 or 30 of their friends and relatives
to attend. When they are assembled the priest makes known to them
the object of the meeting in a suitable speech to the supernatural
powers, but principally to the tutelaries of departed grandfathers and
grandmothers, invoking them to take the child under their protection,
concluding with the name of the child distinctly spoken in a loud voice
so that all can hear it. The feast is then divided, small portions
thrown away for the dead and the rest eaten. A horse in the meantime
is tied outside as a present to the medicine man for his services. He
leads the horse around the camp, singing in a loud voice the child’s
name and those of its parents. If the child be a male this name is
borne until he kills or strikes his first enemy on their own (the
enemy’s) land. On his return after accomplishing this, he blackens
his face and that of his relatives as a token of his triumph. Some
one of the medicine men who are always on the lookout for advantage
blackens himself and gives a new name to the warrior by crying it out
loudly through the camp, stating the change of name has been given in
consequence of his great bravery in killing his enemies.
A horse is again given the priest and the second name is attached. This
name lasts until by repeated successes at war he becomes entitled to
the name of his father, if the parent be dead; if living, that of his
grandfather is bestowed, during a ceremony of the same kind as has been
related. But this name is never given without sufficient merit on the
part of the warrior. It is the highest honor that could be bestowed,
is never afterwards changed, and he ranks immediately as a councillor
and brave. The foregoing will account for both the plurality of names
among them and the manner in which the original family name and line of
descent is preserved.
The names of females are not often changed, though some have two, one
affixed at the first ceremony and the other originating in some marked
feature, or personal appearance unusual among them, such as fair hair,
gray eyes, etc., and sometimes from any deformity, as lameness, loss of
an eye, teeth, etc. Generally, however, they have but one. The names
given to children are not taken from the incidents of dreams or deemed
sacred, but are the manufacture of the priest according to his fancy.
He endeavors to make one to please the parents in order to secure
the gift of the horse. This name is told them secretly by him and if
acceptable is adopted; if not, they suggest another in its place to him.
The children and boys call each other familiarly by these names as in
civilized life, and when grown continue to do so, unless of kin, when
the degree of relationship is mentioned instead of the name.
Herewith is a list of names, male and female. Of the warriors several
have two, but only one, the leader of the party here at the time, had
three. Their names were taken down for insertion in this place. Those
of the women I had of a warrior present, and those of the chiefs and
soldiers I have known for years, some of whom having two or three
names.
ASSINIBOIN NAMES
Partisan, “The Back of Thunder,” Ya-pa-ta Wak-keum
NAMES OF 27 ASSINIBOIN WARRIORS AT FORT UNION, DECEMBER, 1853
Interpreted name. Indian name.
The Black Horn Hai-sap Sap-pah.
He Who Comes Laden Kee-hee-nah.
The War Club of Thunder Ya-chunk-pe Wah-ke-un.
Boiling Pe-gah.
The Backbone of Wolf Shunk-chan-ca-hoo.
The Four War Eagles Wah-min-de To-pah.
The Winner O-he-an-ah.
The Standing Bear Wah-bo-san-dah.
The Crow Conghai.
The Little Rocky Mountains Ean-hhai-nah.
The White Crow Conghai-ska.
He Who Sounds the Ground Muk-kah-na-boo-boo.
The Bear’s Child Wah-ghan-seecha Och-she.
The Iron Boy Muzza Och-she.
The Sound of Thunder Hhom-bo-oah Wah-ke-un.
The Grey Bull Ya-tunga-hho-tah.
He Who Deceives Calves Chin-chah-nah Ke-ni-ah.
The Dry Sinews Kun-sha-chah.
The Calf with Handsome Hair Chin-chah-nah He-wash-tai.
The Bull’s Face Etai-tah Tun-gah.
The Wolverine Me-nazh-zhah.
The Two-horned Antelope Yah-to-kah-hhai noom-pah.
The Large Owl He-hun Tungah.
The Large War Eagle Wam-min-de Tun-gah.
The Child of Two Bears Wah-ghan-see-cha noompa och-she.
Le Pene Rouge Chai-shah.
NAMES OF 12 CAMP SOLDIERS
He Who Wishes to Bring Them Ekando He chin-ah.
The Red Bull Tah-tungah Du-tah.
The Bad Bull Tah-tungah Shee-chah.
The Red Snow Wah Du-tah.
The Blue Thunder Wah-ke Un-to.
The Emptying Horn O-canah-hhai.
The Standing Water Minne Naz-zhe.
The Rose Bud Eater We-ze-zeet-ka Utah.
The Boy of Smoke Sho-to-zshu Och-she.
The Spotted Horn Hai-kan-dai Kan-dai-ghah.
Shot in the Face Etai-o-ke Nun-ei-a.
Bear’s Face Etai Wah-ghan.
NAMES OF SOME CHIEFS, OCCASIONAL LEADERS OF BANDS
The White Head Pah ska-nah.
The Grey Eyes Esh-tai-o Ghe-nah.
The Pouderie Hee-boom An-doo.
The Tourbillon Ah-wah minne o minne.
Interpreted name. Indian name.
The Little Thunder Wah-kee-e-nah.
The Knife Menah.
Hair Tied Up in Front Pai-pach Kich-tah.
He Who Wounds Dogs Shunga Ou-nah.
The Claws Shak-kai-nah.
The Great Traveler Ca-wai-ghai Man-ne.
He Who is Above the Others Wa-caun-too.
The Marksman Coo-tai-nah.
NAMES OF 20 YOUNG ASSINIBOIN WOMEN
The Spotted Woman Kan-dai-ghah We-yah.
The One Leg Hoo wash e nah.
The Big Horn Woman Hai-kees-kah We-yah.
The Glittering Lodge Te Owah Ho-wat-tah.
The Four Thunders Wah-ke-un Topa.
The Four Women Topa Weyah.
The Season Maker Man-ka-cha Ca-ghah.
The Lodge on Fire Woman Te-ien da weyah.
She Who Makes the Clouds Moh pe ah caghah.
The Door Scratcher Te opah ù-cai-ghah.
The Wing Bone Hoo pah hoo.
The Crow’s Cawing Coughai a-hho-ton.
The Head Made White Pah-kah shah-nah.
The Curled Hair Pah-hah e-u-me-ne.
The Hawk Woman Chai-tun We-yah.
The Red Chief Hoon yuh shah.
The Mane of the Flying Eagle Ap-pai Wam-min-de E-i-ah.
The Yellow Bear Wah-ghan She-chah-ze.
The Iron Body Chu-we Muz-zah.
The Fair-skinned Woman We-yah Skah.
CHILDREN
[Illustration: FIG 32.—Cradle Board]
Cradles are not much used by the tribes of whom we write. A few are
seen among them which they procure from the Cree and Chippewa. The back
is a flat board with a bow bent across the front where the head of the
child is placed. (Fig. 32.) A rim runs along the inside the size of the
child, cloths are attached inside this rim to the boards or back, and
the whole ornamented in various ways. The child is then bundled up,
inclosed in the rim, and the cloth covers strapped over it. This is
carried on their back, and at any time should the cradle fall the child
is protected by the bow across from touching the ground. These Indians
make a kind of sack with eyed holes in front of scarlet or blue cloth
ornamented with beads, and the child being well wrapped, all except the
head, it is placed in the sack and strapped up. There is no doubt but
this is the cause of their feet being straight, although they are not
intoed, as one would judge by their manner of walking. We can offer no
objection to this mode of caring for children. Their natural growth is
not affected thereby. At least it is the only method they could adopt
to answer in extremes of cold, heat, and rain, with infants on their
backs; besides their lodging affords little room for the conveniences
used by civilized persons for rearing children.
They are as careful of their offspring as their manner of life will
allow. Children are never weaned under 2 or 3 years old, giving for
their reason that it retards their growth, but most likely having
nothing but meat that a child can eat, they are obliged to do so. They
call their mother enaw (mother) and their father at-tai (father). They
address their children ma-chunk-she (my daughter) and ma-chink-she (my
son). No abbreviations are used. They call them also by their given or
proper names when there are several. There are no terms of endearment
further than humming songs and meaningless words, such as white nurses
use to very small children.
The domestic government is exercised by both father and mother. As long
as the child is small the mother has the sole charge of it, but when it
begins to speak the father aids in forming its manners. If a girl, he
makes toy tools for scraping skins and the mother directs her how to
use them. She also shows her how to make small moccasins, etc. Their
first attempts in this way are preserved as memorials of their infancy.
When a little larger, the scale of operations is increased and sewing,
cooking, dressing small skins, and garnishing with beads and quills are
taught, together with everything suitable for a woman’s employment. If
the child be a boy the father will make it a toy bow and arrow, wooden
gun, etc.
When a little larger he will give him still stronger bows and bring
unfledged birds into the lodge for his son to kill. Larger still and
he runs about with a suitable bow after birds and rabbits, killing and
skinning them. Another stage brings him to learn the use of the gun, to
ride, approach game, skin it, etc., all of which is taught him by his
parent. The rest he acquires from the time and facility their manner of
life affords for practicing these pursuits, and at the age of 17 or 18
makes his first excursion in quest of his enemies’ horses.
The father never strikes nor corrects his children from their birth
to their grave, though the mother will sometimes give them a slap,
yet it must be done in his absence or she would meet with immediate
punishment. Notwithstanding this they are not nearly as vicious as
white children, cry but little, quarrel less, and seldom if ever fight.
The boys are somewhat annoying when about 12 years old, but seldom do
any serious mischief. The behavior of the girls is shy and modest.
The traditions related to the young in their lodges are usually
extravagant fables and exploits of former warriors, exaggerated, of
course, to make them interesting. Many local data and memoirs of events
are thus preserved but so mingled with superstition by the different
narrators as not to present any reliable truth. Most of the old men
and many of middle age tell these stories in the lodges when they are
invited for the purpose.
The grandmothers are also well versed in this and night after night the
children learn a great deal, as soon as they are able to understand.
The lives and actions of former warriors and other events of real life
form a portion of the instruction thus conveyed.
These Indians living remote from civilization have no opportunity
to steal white children, and we have never heard of one among them
possessed by these means.
There are several half-breed children in all these nations, who, being
raised with the Indians, are the same in all respects.
Cases of infanticide are very common among the Sioux, Crows, and
Assiniboin, perhaps most so among the Crow women. It is not far from
the correct number if we state that one-eighth of the children are
destroyed in utero or after birth by the Crow women. The same also
often is done by the Assiniboin, particularly if the father of the
child has abandoned the woman before its birth. A quarrel with the
husband or even unwillingness to be at the trouble of raising them
are the causes for these actions. We think and have strong reason to
believe that in some instances, they are destroyed at the instigation
of their husbands, although they will not acknowledge this to be the
case.
At all events no punishment is inflicted on the woman for the crime
but frequently the means and time they use to produce abortions are
the cause of the death of the mother. To produce its death in the womb
they use violent pressure and blows upon the abdomen. Frequently they
retire to the woods, bring forth the child alone, strangle it and throw
it into the water, snow, or bushes. The whole of these measures are
publicly talked of among them, and no great degree of repugnance is
attached either to the act or to the woman, but the circumstance is
laughed at as something ludicrous.
Male children are always desired by the husband. When small we see
no difference made in their treatment or any preference shown, but
when grown or nearly so the young man always takes precedence and is
considered of far greater value than the girl. The feeling increases in
his favor as he becomes of use at war or in the chase. Daughters, when
matured, are married and sold, and here the greater interest in them
ends; but sons are a source of profit and support for a good portion of
their lives.
SUICIDE