for each degree of relationship and the collateral branches. These
affinities are traced as far back as the great-grandfather, and the
line of descent is distinguished by their referring to the names of
the grandfather, father, or parents through some of their descendants
living. The names for collateral relatives are the same by the father’s
as by the mother’s side. All stepchildren become the children of all
the wives the Indian has. The terms aunt and uncle are the same on
both sides. The elder brother is called Ma-chin´-ah and the rest of
the brothers Mis-soon-kah; the youngest is named the last. The eldest
sister is called Me-tun´k-ah and the rest of the sisters Me-choon-ah.
Their names are the same on either part. The name of a dead person is
seldom mentioned, or if so, in a very low voice. Usually they name
some living relative, and add his or her dead father. Where confusion
exists as to a distant collateral relative they are all classed under
the general head of cousins, though they are generally correct. They
always address one of their nation as kindred if there is reason to
believe the least possible degree of relationship is acknowledged,
and never use their proper names if they are of kin. The name of the
mother-in-law or father-in-law is never pronounced by the son-in-law.
She never speaks to him nor he to her, neither do they ever look at the
face nor go into the same lodge.
Should the father-in-law happen to go into a lodge where his son-in-law
is seated, the latter would cover his face with his robe and not
speak while the former remained. Usually they stop the one entering
by crying out, “He of whom you are ashamed is here,” when the other
goes away and postpones his visit. All communications on business to
these people by their son-in-law is transacted through his wife or
strangers. To speak to or name the father or mother of an Indian’s wife
would excite the ridicule and laughter of the whole camp. They refer
to them in speaking by mentioning my father- or mother-in-law, as the
case may be, or sometimes say “my wife’s father,” or “her mother.” A
woman does not mention the individual name of her husband nor he hers,
but always say “my husband” or “my wife.” Most of the bands being made
up of relatives, the terms denoting kindred are in constant use in
conversation.
The hunter state with all these prairie tribes is precarious and
uncertain. They are often weeks and months without enough meat and
not infrequently reduced to absolute famine. Whenever the buffalo are
plenty they have no difficulty in procuring more meat than they can use
and then do dry some, but they are very improvident and their small
supplies are soon exhausted.
Indians who have numbers of horses, like the Crows and Sioux, follow
the buffalo at all seasons, with their camp, but those who have but
few horses, like the Assiniboin, can not follow them through the deep
snow. When they are far from their lodges the men go over the snow on
snowshoes and pack the hides to camp on dogs. From observation and
experience they know that the buffalo approach the timber when the snow
is deep on the plains to eat twigs and wild rosebuds. They therefore
place their camps along some stream in the commencement of the winter
and await their approach. None of these nations except the Cree are
good elk and deer hunters, consequently their whole dependence is on
the buffalo, which, as we have stated, is precarious. Their raiment
made of skins is durable, one suit being sufficient for a year, and
game is always found in sufficient number to furnish them with garments
before they actually need them. There is no distress on this score.
Their habits and pursuits, as will be seen through these pages, do not
admit of their wearing any other material than that made of skins;
except in warm weather and for show on occasions, none other is worn.
Inasmuch as women are of great advantage to the Indians by their labor,
a plurality of wives is required by a good hunter. The domestic peace
of a family does not suffer much on that account. There are, to be
sure, quarrels among the women occasionally, but these generally end
in personal abuse and recrimination, or are quelled by the master, if
present.
Upon the whole the domestic arrangement is benefited by having the
labor divided, which would be too much for one woman. The Indians,
mostly, treat their wives well, but these women require a hard ruler
and sometimes they are obliged to strike severely. Jealousies among the
women of the same lodge are nothing and do not affect the actions of
the man further than to stop the disturbance. But jealousy on the part
of the man toward some one of his women supposed to be unfaithful are
accompanied by terrible punishments, not infrequently by death. Among
the Blackfeet the noses of the women are cut off for this offense;
others stab, strike, or kill as it happens. Women are not interfered
with by the men in their management of household affairs. Such
interference would excite too much ridicule for their pride.
Are the labors of husband and wife equally divided? The occupations of
the man are as follows: Setting aside that of war which he occasionally
follows after having a family, though not often, he is obliged to keep
the family in meat and skins, and this occupies about one-third of
his time. He makes his own bows and arrows, snowshoes, powder horns,
and all implements of war and the chase, not purchased. He furnishes
horses, either by war, bargains, or other means; collects, waters,
and guards his horses; makes traps for wolves and foxes and kills and
skins them; attends councils, feasts, and ceremonies; protects his
family from insult and injury, and risks his life for them in hunting
in different ways; all of which should be taken into consideration as
forming a portion of his time and labor.
Sometimes his women will accompany him to the hunt and aid in skinning
and butchering the animal, but this is only when the buffalo are near
the camp. She never participates in his labors on other occasions. The
usual occupations of the women are, to prepare the skins and dress
them, which is a tedious and laborious operation; to cut up the meat
in thin slices and dry it; to make all the clothing for the family,
make lodges, cook, take care of their children and dogs, bring wood
and water, pack and unpack animals, erect the tents, strike them,
arrange the interior, carry burdens in traveling, render grease, pound
meat, work at garnishing with beads and porcupine quills, make dogs
travailles, saddle and unsaddle the master’s horse, etc. In nations
where canoes are used, the men make the frame and the women sew and
stitch over it the bark or skin. Men make the paddles, pans, bowls,
cradles, and pipes. This is among the Cree and Chippewa. With those who
plant, the labor of hoeing, planting, gathering, drying, and shelling
the corn is all done by the women and children; but with these less
hunting is done.
Owing to the length of time required to scrape, stretch, dry, dress,
and smoke even one skin it will be seen that the labor of the woman is
much greater than that of the man, and she must have help or she could
not attend to the domestic affairs of a large family.
A surplus of dressed skins is also necessary to buy the supplies they
can not and do not make and to replace stolen or crippled horses. Thus
an Indian with but one wife can not amass property, as the whole of
her time would be employed in the absolute requisite domestic labors
without being able to collect any skins for trade.
The first woman an Indian marries and the last are generally his
favorites, the first because he has become accustomed to her ways,
has children by her, and who manages the lodge in all its domestic
arrangements, and the last because she is youngest and often
handsomest. The actual labor performed by either of these is not near
as great as by the other women. Indeed, all the others are looked upon
in the light of laborers. To support several women, of course, requires
greater exertions on the part of the man in hunting, but this is more
than compensated for by their labor in dressing skins, which enable
him to purchase horses, guns, and other means to hunt with greater
facility. When buffalo are plenty, anyone can kill. The raw hide of the
animal has no value. It is the labor of putting it in the form of a
robe or skin fit for sale or use that makes its worth. Women therefore
are the greatest wealth an Indian possesses next to his horses. Often
they are of primary consideration, as after war by their labor is the
only way he could acquire horses, the only standard of their wealth.
There is never any difficulty regarding raiment. Skins are durable
and during the summer (when they make it) every Indian will kill
enough animals for that purpose. He must do so or die, as but a small
portion of the skins of the animals requisite for food will furnish the
clothing. As it stands in the winter season, the women are never idle,
the men also have pretty constant employment, but from spring till fall
they both have a comparatively easy life. Domestic discords are not
very common in their lodges.
They do, however, happen, and jealousy on the part of the master is
the principal cause. All Indians have great forbearance with their
families. When not excited or disappointed in some other way they will
put up with almost everything their women say or do, and endeavor to
laugh it off. The women study their humor, choose their time for this,
and never press it so far as to enrage their husbands. If an Indian
has returned from an unsuccessful hunt, lost his horses, or any other
circumstance has taken place, to sour his temper, all his family
immediately perceive it, and the greatest attentions are paid to him or
his wants as long as this humor lasts. Some men will on these occasions
tease and find fault with everything in the lodges, but they are not
contradicted nor quarreled with. It is now their time to forbear, and
well they know that punishment of no trifling kind hangs on a slender
thread.
Discords of a nature to bring on contention and blows are uncommon
except those arising from the jealousy of the man toward some one of
his women. Even a look or a word in secret to a strange man is often
sufficient to produce a blow or a stab. Upon the whole, however, they
live in tolerable harmony, much more so than would be supposed to
exist among savages. The loss of youth and youthful attractions is
not a cause of neglect, particularly if the woman has children by her
husband. An Indian seldom exhibits any ill feeling toward his first
wife, but on the contrary depends upon her to employ and manage the
others. In this and all the domestic labors she is the principal and
is addressed as such and possesses more influence over the man at
middle age than ever or than any of the others. No doubt the youngest
is a more attractive but not so useful an inmate, and gain is the
principal object of the master. Wives are even more valuable in extreme
age than parents, though but few live a great length of time. Their
labors are too severe. Men of family are not very amorous; they study
their interest. Children give the wife great additional power over
the husband, so much so that even if afterwards they prove unfaithful
or very obstinate they are punished but retained, whereas without
offspring they would be cast off for the same offenses. The first wife,
though not necessarily, nor always, the eldest, retains the preference,
as has been stated; she is the domestic councillor.
The jealousies arising among the women are only occasional bickerings
in the absence of the master, who if he perceives anything of the
kind going on or anything else to mar his peace soon settles it by
the argument of the tomahawk. Men of family are dignified, use great
forbearance toward those under their charge, and consider it as
disgraceful to be engaged in quarrels and squabbles with women, seldom
interfere or abuse them, never strike their children, but evince a
determination to see their home rendered pleasant and agreeable. Young
women are vain, fond of dress, yet this is no source of discord. Fine
dress is not sought eagerly by women of middle age. More frequently
they take a pride in dressing the youngest wife, or their children, if
any, even at their own expense, which greatly pleases the master and
induces him to flatter them otherwise for this mark of respect.
There is order enough preserved in every Indian lodge to suit their
mode of life and with a delicacy toward guests that would merit
imitation elsewhere. If a child cries during conversation it is taken
out. Boys and young men keep their mouths shut when the masters speak.
They do not contradict, abuse, or interrupt. All have their places for
sitting and sleeping, at the head of which, if men, are placed their
arms and accouterments; if women, their sewing, garnishing, etc. These
places are arranged by the eldest wife or by the grandmother as soon
as the lodge is erected by spreading skins on the ground, and are
uniformly the same in the same family. They can be and are changed
whenever the necessities of the men require it, though the individual’s
local privileges are not thereby disturbed.
Places are reserved for strangers or visitors, and baggage, water,
cooking utensils, and provisions have each their space allotted. This
is not perceived immediately by casual observers, but would be realized
by a short residence. To present a more lucid idea of these locations
in the interior, we submit the drawings (pls. 74 and 75), with the
additional remark that the skin door is locked on the inside on going
to bed by the mistress of the lodge to prevent the entrance of dogs
and other intruders. The fastening is made by a paddle of wood twisted
in a cord attached to each end of the transverse stick that forms
the support of the skin door; the ends of the paddle are then thrust
through the poles of the lodge and secured by loops of cord for the
purpose. The whole is so constructed that any person acquainted with it
would have some trouble to shut or open the door, even in the daytime.
The form as represented in general, though, of course, differs when the
family circle is great or small, but the same correct appointments of
places are visible in all, be the inhabitants few or many. Sometimes
different families, yet some way related, in default of lodging are
compelled to occupy the same lodge; in this case, although they may be
somewhat crowded, yet there is always a delicacy of arrangement made to
prevent the promiscuous location of the different sexes.
CAMP LIFE
In an Indian camp after one has become acquainted the very opposite
of taciturnity presents itself. The evenings are devoted to jests
and amusing stories, and the days to gambling. When not able to
raise amusement among themselves they will invite some old man to
relate fables and stories of the olden time. The soldiers’ lodge
when not in session is the very theater of amusement and gaming by
the chiefs and soldiers, all sorts of jokes are passed, and obscene
stories told. Scarcely a woman in camp escapes their ribaldry, and
they, consequently, never go near there. Yet, when business is to be
attended to the reverse is the case, and one would not think it was
then occupied by the same set of people. Ordinarily during the day in
private families there is an evenness of temper, and great cordiality
exhibited, with much affection shown to their children. These traits
and amusements are not more observable when situated in remote parts
of the plains alone, than in a large camp, perhaps not so much so for
want of sufficient sources of amusement. The Indian of the plains or
real savage is not the stoic ordinarily represented. Dancing, feasting,
gaming, singing, stories, jests, and merriment occupy their leisure
hours, and then all is fun and humor; but when in pursuit of game,
sitting in council, traveling, trading, or war they are cautious,
serious, quiet, and suspicious.
The number of meals they have in each 24 hours depends altogether on
the supply of meat on hand. If plenty, each lodge cooks regularly three
times per day—at daybreak, midday, and dark. But in addition to this
pieces are kept roasting by the fire by the women and children nearly
all the time.
Feasting is also common. In all those ways in times of plenty most of
the men eat six, eight, ten, and as high as twenty times during a day
and night. In times of comparative scarcity but two meals are had,
morning and night. When meat is very nearly exhausted one meal must
suffice, and for the rest the women and children are sent to dig roots
or gather berries as the season and place afford. Feasts would then be
desirable, but there is no one to make them, all being in want. Some
who have nothing at all to eat in their lodge will send their children
to watch when cooking is going on in another lodge, who report to their
parents, and the man happens to drop in at the right time. No Indian
eats before guests without offering them a share, even if it is the
last portion, they possess.
When no meat can be found they eat up their reserve of dried berries,
pomme blanche and other roots, then boil the scrapings of rawhide with
the buds of the wild rose, collect old bones on the prairie, pound
them and extract the grease by boiling. A still greater want produces
the necessity of killing their dogs and horses for food, but this
is the last resort and approach of actual famine, for by this they
are destroying their means of traveling and hunting. One thing is
remarkable, be they ever so much in want of food, the grown persons
never murmur nor complain, though the children sometimes cry.
Their appetites are capricious. It would seem that they are always
hungry. The quantity of meat an Indian can eat is incredible, and after
eating at six or eight feasts in succession his appetite appears fully
as good for the tenth or even the twentieth as at the first. Their
power in this respect as actually witnessed by us on many occasions
would not be credited if related. It is useless to endeavor to impress
upon the minds of persons not accustomed to this even an approach to
the truth. It can not be realized. A lean, lank Indian will eat from
3 to 10 hours nearly all the time and grow gradually larger from his
breast downward until in the end he presents somewhat the appearance
of the letter “S,” and all this without any apparent inconvenience.
At other times they are from eight to fifteen days without eating
anything, and often one or two months with barely enough to support
life. After being deprived of food for a great length of time, and
arriving suddenly on an abundance of game, they will feast again as
observed and no evil effects follow.
They make no address nor grace to Wakoñda or any other supernatural
power at ordinary meals, or common feasts. This is done on stated
occasions which will be mentioned hereafter.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
The way courtships are conducted is that the suitor in the first place
always endeavors to induce the girl to run away with him. He has two
objects in this. First, it shows her great regard for him and flatters
his vanity that she leaves her parents and departs to another band,
with and under his protection. Next, having the girl in his possession
obviates the possibility of a refusal, and also he can afterwards pay
his own price for her instead of that demanded by her relatives. To
accomplish this they paint, dress, and adorn themselves extravagantly,
and are always on the watch to catch the woman outside or away from the
view of her parents. He dogs her steps so closely that opportunities
must present themselves when he can recite to her his tale of love.
Of course this consists of the usual promises and flatteries used by
all men for like purposes which often prove successful. Should he
obtain her consent to depart with him they will agree upon a place of
rendezvous and signal, which he repeats to her in the night with his
flute from outside the lodge at the appointed time to meet him, and
they leave, traveling night and day until they arrive at another camp.
Here they stay with some distant relative or friend three or four weeks
and return as man and wife, when he looks around for some means to
satisfy the parents. Or it sometimes happens that having become tired
of her in the meantime he throws her on their hands and proceeds to
seduce another. The young Indians are great profligates and boast of
their success in this way.
If, however, by all their efforts they can not succeed in this they
then marry. When this is decided upon no courtship is necessary. The
suitor sends a horse by the hands of some respectable old man who ties
the animal to the door of the lodge where her parents reside and,
entering, presents a pan of cooked meat to the girl who is desired as
a wife. Consent is asked and obtained or refused through the medium of
this man. The nearest of kin are always asked (the girl’s father and
mother); if she have neither then the eldest brother, or uncle, etc.
If the parents refuse, both the victuals and horse are sent back and
negotiation ends. But if the suitor be determined to have her he will
try again, sending two or three horses, guns, kettles, and all he can
raise, until objection on that score is overruled and she becomes his
property by going to his lodge at dark and remaining there. When the
right price is paid the offer is seldom rejected, though refusals are
given on other grounds, such as old family feuds, or inability on the
part of the applicant as a hunter or warrior. There is no tradition of
the institution of marriage. It is a bargain and looked upon in this
light by both parties, not merely a contract of sale, but one of amity,
friendship, and mutual support of all related and concerned. Courtships
and presents are only resorted to when the possession of the girl is
aimed at without the consent of the parents. Otherwise the consent of
the girl is not necessary, she being obliged to obey the wishes of her
parents.
Neither the priests nor doctors nor any one else is consulted on these
occasions, except the nearest relatives, and the negotiator is some
man of standing or relation of the applicant. There is no parade or
ceremony on the occasion nor are any gifts made by the mother-in-law
to her daughter. On the contrary the son-in-law is regarded as their
property. All he has and does is for years to the advantage of his
wife’s parents. The most of the meat and skins killed by him are
carried to her parents by her until she has a child and her husband
commences working for himself. The foregoing is the marriage of a young
man with a young woman. The son-in-law, as has been stated, never
enters the lodge of his wife’s parents. Even in a casual passing when
they meet elsewhere he is obliged to hide his face by drawing his robe
over it, being as they say “abashed by them” or abashed to name or
speak to them.
The men usually marry between the ages of 20 and 25 years and the women
are given away from the age of 12 years upward. We are acquainted with
but two instances of men of middle age among them who have never been
married. The young of both sexes are extravagantly addicted to dress,
particularly the beaus, who dress, paint, feather, and adorn themselves
in every way imaginable, especially about the head, and are the most
consummately vain fops in existence.
Widowers and widows remarry, the former in about one year after the
loss of their wife and the latter from one to two and three years
after the death of their husbands, in proportion as they are grieved
for their loss. After a woman has had children her chances for a young
husband are few, but middle-aged men do not consider this any objection
if she in other respects is able to work and has a reputation for
industry. The most advantageous time for a man to purchase a wife is
on his return from a successful war excursion with the horses of his
enemies in his possession. The manner in which his means to purchase
have been procured gives him additional favor both with the girl as
a brave man and with the girl’s parents as one who can at any time
repair their losses in horses if it be necessary. After marriage the
brothers-in-law on both sides become friendly, associate, make feasts,
and exchange gifts, aiding each other on all occasions. No quarrels
take place among them, nor indeed among any near relations. The whole
forms a posse, a body, a support in times of trial, need and danger.
The right of divorce lies altogether with the husband. If a man has
children by his wife he seldom puts her away even for adultery, the
greatest offense. He will punish, but retain her on that account.
Should they separate, all the larger children—that is, those who
required no nurse and were able to take care of themselves—would
remain with the man and the smaller ones depart with the woman. When
the women have no children they are turned off without any scruple for
much less offenses, or from jealousy by young husbands. Elder Indians
require the labor of their women; therefore seldom willingly discharge
them. Should he choose to do so, however, no one has a right to object,
nor is any other consent asked; they are his property and he can do as
he pleases with them. Occasionally they part from them a year or so and
take them back afterwards. No property is given to the woman in the
event of a separation.
MUSIC