their husbands, but frequently hang themselves for that loss, revenge,
or for the loss of their children. Three suicides of this kind have
been committed within the last few months in this neighborhood among
the Assiniboin, one for revenge, the other two for the loss of their
children. The first was the favorite wife of a camp soldier, who
being scolded and accused of crime by the eldest wife, after telling
her purpose, left the lodge, in the absence of her husband, and
disappeared. Although search was made, yet a week elapsed before she
was discovered hanging to the limb of a tree. She had climbed the tree,
tied the cord to the limb, and descending, hooked on the noose standing
on the ground, suspending her body by drawing up her legs. She hung so
low that her knees nearly touched the ground and she could have risen
to her feet at any time during the operation.
Another woman had her son (a young man) killed by the Blackfeet, and
immediately afterwards another of her children died from disease.
Several persons were appointed to watch the mother, suspecting her
intentions; but they all fell asleep and she hung herself at the door
of the lodge, between two dog travailles set on end. She was a tall
woman and could only produce strangulation by swinging herself off the
ground from her feet. She did it, however, and the body was brought to
the fort for interment.
The third was a still more unfortunate case. The child of this woman
had been sick some time and was expected to die. On the night in
question it fell into a swoon and was to all appearance dead. No person
being present the mother in the derangement of the moment went out and
hung herself. The child recovered, but the mother was dead.
Every year in this way the women hang themselves, sometimes for the
loss of their husbands, but more frequently on account of the death of
their children, or for revenge. Suicides are also common among the men.
They generally use the gun to produce death.
The Mandan and Gros Ventres, as has been stated, suspend themselves on
sticks or skewers passed through incisions made in the back, and the
motive for so doing has already been adverted to.
Spots are worn on the forehead and the under lip by some of either sex.
Those on the women are for ornament. The bodies of some of the men
are covered with tattooing to denote the warrior and brave. It is an
operation requiring high payment, and is a mark also of the liberality
and riches of the person who undergoes it, but no religious sects or
opinions are thereby intimated. No rivers are deemed sacred or coveted
in death by any of them.
PERSONAL BEHAVIOR
These tribes are not degraded in the scale of being in their ordinary
intercourse, connection or apparent actions. They frequently exhibit
a delicacy in all these, but some of them, particularly the Crows,
are addicted to customs, revolting to humanity, too much so for
a lengthened description, among which may be mentioned sodomy,
bestiality, etc. They all on occasions eat small portions of human
flesh, not as a relish but to evince a savage fierceness toward the
dead enemy. The Arikara are said to have devoured several entire bodies
of their enemies in late years. We have witnessed a few cases of
cannibalism among the Assiniboin, but they happened in time of actual
famine, one of which, we will describe. About eight or ten years since
a great famine prevailed among the Cree and Assiniboin. They separated
and scattered everywhere over the plains in quest of game. It happened
early in the spring when the ground was yet covered with snow and no
roots could be found. A Cree Indian with his wife and three children
were stationed near the head of Milk River alone and had been without
food for a great length of time. The father took the occasion of his
wife being out to kill and cook one of his children, a portion of
which he forced her to eat on her return. When this was eaten, after
an interval of some days he killed a second and this was likewise
devoured. Still no indication of game presented itself. He desired her
to go out that he might kill the remaining child, which she absolutely
refused to do, offering herself in its stead.
It happened that some Assiniboin in traveling came upon his lodge,
and seeing them coming he had barely time to smear himself and his
wife over with white clay, the symbol of mourning, before they
entered. To account for the disappearance of his children he appeared
very much grieved and said they had died from want. The strangers,
however, suspected all was not right, and when he had stepped out they
inquired of the woman, who told them the truth. The visitors left
after directing him to their camp, where some game had lately been
found, and he proceeded thither with his lodge. When in the vicinity
of the camp, he killed and scalped his wife, throwing her body in the
bushes, proceeded to camp, displayed the scalp, stating he had killed
a Blackfoot; that they had attacked him and killed his wife. The camp
turned out to search for enemies and discovered the body of the woman
and no trace of Blackfeet. The Indian in the meantime suspecting he
would be discovered absconded, leaving the small child and baggage in
camp. Being of another nation with whom they were at peace, he was not
pursued and yet lives, but is despised by all.
At the period of the catamenia they sleep alone and are deemed taboo
for ten days. The word in their language expressing that flux literally
interpreted would mean “she who lives in a lodge alone,” and their
traditions state that it was formerly the custom to pitch a tent
outside for the woman to remain in during this period. After childbirth
a woman is deemed taboo for 45 days.
SCALPING
During a battle or whenever an enemy is slain they use no ceremony in
taking the scalp except despatch. They are in great haste to get off
or out of danger, and have no time for useless delay. A knife is run
round the cranium, the foot placed on the dead man’s neck and a sudden
jerk takes it off. The cultivation of the scalplock among the Sioux is
a very ancient custom but we know of no mode of tracing its antiquity.
The rest of these tribes wear their hair in any form that suits their
fancy.
OATHS
The Indians have several kinds of oaths. They will say “Wakoñda hears
me,” or they will swear by the skin of a rattlesnake, or the claws of
a bear, wishing the snake to bite or the bear to tear them if they
fail to fulfill their oath. They generally keep their oaths. The name
Wakoñda in this is uttered in an audible voice with great solemnity and
presenting the pipe to the Sun.
When Indians meet on the plains they halt within a few paces of each
other, and if recognized as kin will name the relationship existing in
a smiling tone. If strangers, one will inquire, “Where did you come
from?” “Where going?” etc., during which they sit down and proceed
to light the pipe. While smoking they will exchange news of their
different places, make inquiries respecting their friends, about game,
and anything of general interest, and when the pipe is finished they
separate. No shaking of hands or touching of persons takes place, but
if meeting with whites they will extend the hand to be shaken.
SMOKING
This is so ancient a custom that even their traditions do not mention a
time when their forefathers or ancestors did not smoke. There are tales
among them whence came the tobacco seed and plant, particularly among
the Mandan, Crows and Arikara, and perhaps among the Assiniboin, though
we are not prepared at this time to relate them.
FAME
The principal avenue of fame is the pursuit of war. Other things tend
to aid the individual and to render him respectable, as expertness in
hunting, powers of prophecy, necromancy, and a name for wisdom, that
is, the knowledge of governing, advising, making wise speeches, etc.,
but all these rather follow than precede the elevation of the man.
Success in war is the first step; the others increase the importance of
this. Acquiring a good many horses and women, by any means whatever,
brings an individual into notice and makes him of importance, as
thereby he can distribute many favors that a poorer yet braver man can
not. Wealth in this finds him friends as it does on other occasions
everywhere. But when rank is boasted, or chieftainship aimed at,
bravery and success in war with capacity to lead are the principal
requisites, without which all the other qualifications would be of no
avail. We are acquainted with no Indian who has arisen to distinction
without success in war being the principal cause of his advancement.
STOICISM
The stoicism exhibited by all these nations appears to be partly a
natural disposition and partly a bias of their minds produced by
peculiar mode of life. This display of feeling is only seen when the
circumstance requires it. It is considered a mark of manliness to treat
important subjects, transactions, and conversations with deliberation
and decorum. Lighter matters are discoursed upon with appropriate
levity. Their constant wants, shifts, and precarious positions induce a
thoughtful manner. The knowledge of each other’s duplicity and the many
ways used to circumvent and deceive to gain each his own ends produces
caution. The uncertainty of their lives, liability to be revenged upon,
and treacherous conduct generates suspicion. Being subject to severe
reverses, extremes of want and danger, etc., a recklessness of life
follows. Besides being the victims of superstitious dread, a morbidness
of mind is acquired. But even all these would not without some natural
peculiar disposition of mind account for their want of excitement and
taciturnity and cover a hidden deep and dark design. Even when most
expected, no trace of passion would be perceived by a stranger, but
among themselves, or those who are well acquainted with their ways,
their eye, countenance, smile, and every movement are as true an index
to the workings of their mind as are observable among civilized persons
in the most violent bursts of passion.
TACITURNITY
Silence is not considered a mark of wisdom. A very silent man is not
generally liked and somewhat feared, more so than a talkative one.
Their wisdom consists in making apparent their good sense in speeches,
advice, and in all their actions. Taciturnity may in some degree
arise from their want of sufficient topics of conversation, as when
obscene subjects are introduced this faculty is laid aside. All their
ceremonies partake of the nature of solemnities, but when these are
over and subjects or actions of a lighter nature employ their time
they are as jovial and noisy as can be. In general, however, in common
conversation Indians are not loquacious. Each sentence appears to
be studied and no useless or superfluous words are introduced. They
seldom speak twice or argue the point, even in debate in council. Each
one states his opinion freely without interruption, and obstinately
adheres to it. They never speak earnestly on a subject they do not
thoroughly understand. They have a singular faculty of determination in
everything they say or do. Even when surprised in extremes of danger
their decision to act is made on the instant as if by instinct. No
nervousness nor hesitation is evinced. When escape from death becomes
impossible they are stolid, stubborn, and die like men.
PUBLIC SPEAKING
Their public speaking is only remarkable for applying their whole mind
and soul to the business in hand. They state their opinions in a few
words to the purpose, using only such metaphor as has a visible bearing
on its elucidation. A great deal of the effects of their oratory is
due to posture, gesture, and accent. The importance of the subject to
them and their undivided attention bestowed upon it at the time is the
cause of their forcible remarks. Some of these speeches are excellent
in their way, but only so as they illustrate in a condensed form the
opinions they wish to express. They are in fact the real children of
nature. The prevailing circumstance governs the mind for the time and
produces corresponding words and actions. The young and rising no doubt
imitate the elders in some of the forms of set speeches but no pains
are taken to learn them.
TRAVEL
When they travel at night and have no moon to afford light they take
their direction by the north star with which they are all acquainted,
but when stars also are invisible they observe at dark the point from
which the wind blows, and shape their course accordingly. By these
means they will be able to pursue a right direction until they come to
some hill or river with which they are acquainted, and regulate their
travel from that point until the sun makes its appearance, and then
they are at no loss. Traveling on the plains is much more difficult
than in forests. In the terrible snowstorms that sweep over these
prairies, darkening the atmosphere and rendering the sun, moon, and
stars invisible, or indeed any object a short distance ahead, they are
as much at fault to proceed as any other person, and at these times lie
down, let the snow drift over and cover them, and remain thus until the
storm passes, which is frequently two or three days and nights.
There are many ways of determining within a few hours of the time when
an encampment has been deserted and the number of persons composing the
party. The camp fires will show how many persons have slept there, the
dung of the horses or dogs denotes the time, if the fires have become
cool. The tracks of the men and animals and the remains of the meal
are also means of judging. If scraps of meat or bone seen around are
untouched by wolves or ravens they must conclude that the party has
recently left.
In the summer the bending of the grass under their feet, tracks in
crossing a stream or any marshy place, and in winter, tracks in the
snow, will show to a tolerable certainty how many persons and what time
they have passed. A slight rain would determine whether the tracks were
before or since it fell. Snow would prove the same; the dew of the
morning in summer or fall would reveal the time to within 24 hours.
The grass nibbled by the horses by its appearance would denote whether
the party had passed within a few days and the hardness of the dung of
the animals brings the time to a still greater degree of certainty.
A correct judgment is not, however, formed by any one of the above
criterions, but by a comparison of the whole, and by following the
trail, and observing also the carcasses of the animals killed by the
party, their number, state of decay, etc. These with other smaller
indications, particularly if an arrow or moccasin be lost or thrown
away, will determine the number and nation that have passed and the
time. The passage of war parties is distinguished from hunting parties
of their own people by the absence of boys’ tracks or traces of dog
travailles in the former, and by the precautions they take in their
encampment.
SENSES
There is an extreme acuteness in their sense of sight—that is, to
see at a glance, over a wide extent of country, sometimes dotted by
bushes, ravines, or hills, and distinguish the living objects when at
rest from others. There is a great difference in the faculty of seeing
far and what is called “picking up an object”—that is, distinguishing
it from the inanimate bodies intervening. The Indians possess this
power in so remarkable a degree as to appear a kind of instinct. At a
distance of 12 or 15 miles they will distinguish animals from timber,
even supposing they are not in motion. If moving they will discern
between horses and buffalo, elk and horses, antelope and men, a bear
and a bull, or a wolf and a deer, etc. But the greatest mystery is how
they make out anything living to be there at such a distance, on the
instant, when they themselves are in motion and the animal at rest.
This they do when it is surrounded by a hundred other objects as like
to living creatures as it is. Once pointed out, the movements are
watched and its character thus determined. Their powers in this respect
are truly astonishing and must be acquired. They also judge very
correctly of the relative distances of objects, either by the eye or to
each other. Smoke can be seen rising on the plains at a distance of 60
miles, and they will tell from that or any lesser distance within a few
miles of the place where it rises. Their ideas of location are fully as
remarkable.
An Indian will shoot 20 or 30 arrows in different directions, and to
a distance of 100 yards or more among the tall grass, or in the snow,
where no trace of them remains, yet he will pick up the whole without
any difficulty; whereas a white man would have some trouble to find any
one of the arrows. If they lose a whip, knife, or anything in traveling
they can by returning generally find it, though no road marks their
steps. Even the boys do all these things admirably. Finding lost horses
or a camp from a given direction are also everyday occurrences, even if
they have never been in the neighborhood of the place, yet they will
find their way.
JUGGLERY AND SORCERY
These people are prone to be deceived in every way. Tricks by jugglers,
stories, natural phenomena, or anything, to them unaccountable or
uncommon is looked upon with fear. All are so, the priests as well
as the others. The former have the address to turn to account their
supposed knowledge of these causes—not that they are really any wiser
than the others, but impress them with the belief that they are, which
is enough for their purposes. The minds of most Indians are disturbed
by many useless alarms, such as dreams, omens, and predictions of the
priests. Writing or calculations in figures made by whites are among
the wonders to which great superstition is attached, and they can be
made to believe almost any story, however absurd, if read in appearance
from a book. Paintings also, even the nondescript monsters drawn by
themselves, inspire them with fear when looked upon. All this has met
with sufficient explanation elsewhere.
STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE
Their powers in lifting weights, handling an ox or rowing a boat can
not compare to Europeans, yet they equal them in carrying burdens
and surpass them in running. It would seem that they have but little
strength in their arms, but considerable in the back and limbs. This
may be owing to the manner in which they have exercised in their youth.
An ordinary Indian can not lift more than 125 to 150 pounds at most,
though there are a few very strong men who might be able to raise
double that weight, yet most of them will carry a large deer on their
backs, traveling at a swift pace for miles without stopping, and this
is equal to 170 to 185 pounds weight. The manner in which they put it
on their back is by tying the legs together, lying down with their back
on the deer, slipping the legs across the forehead, and rising up with
the load. The Assiniboin have frequently in this neighborhood and once
in our company tired down in a day or two running on foot the best
horses we could produce.[25] In running they never “lose their breath”
as it is called, do not pant or respire very quickly.
[25] W J McGee noted similar racing ability among the Seri Indians. See
Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.
They can not understand why “whites lose their wind in running” and
have no name for the idea in their language. They say their legs
sometimes fail them in several days running, but their wind never. They
are not fast, but constant runners, keeping always at the same pace
over hills or on a level, in a kind of short trot about 12 or 15 miles
without stopping. They will then rest a few minutes, smoke a pipe, and
make as much more at the same rate, and so on, for three or four days
and nights in succession if necessary, their speed on these occasions
being about 5½ miles an hour. In an emergency, sending an Indian
express to the fort to carry a letter for myself, he went 95 miles and
returned, being 190 miles, in two nights and one day.
They can not walk as well as strong white men, and never do walk when
in haste to get forward. The muscles of their arms do not appear to
be formed for very hard work, but it may be that the nature of their
labors does not develop them. Upon the whole the European would stand
much more hard work in every way, but the Indian would be his superior
in active exercise, abstemiousness, and loss of sleep. The greatest
burden we have known an Indian to carry any distance, say 3 or 4 miles,
was two entire antelope, about 225 pounds.
SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS
No spirituous liquors have been distributed among these nations for
many years past, but should it be given them in quantity it would be
productive of great poverty and distress. They all drink whenever they
can get it—men, women, and children—except the Crow Indians, who will
not taste it. The usual consequence of drinking spirits is poverty,
as they will sell or give away everything they possess and prostitute
their women and children to obtain liquor when once intoxicated. These
Indians have never had a constant supply of spirits—that is, enough
to produce diseases or nervous debility. Their frolics were made at
intervals of months apart and never lasted more than 24 hours at a
time. They are not quarrelsome in their families when inebriated,
generally sing or cry for their dead relations; but among those who are
not of kin quarrels often occur which occasionally result in the death
of one of them. It is morally wrong and productive of great evil, in
our opinion, to sell or give ardent spirits to any Indian.
HUNTING
Buffalo are the principal dependence of all the prairie tribes, both
for food and clothing, and are hunted at all seasons; in the summer
when the hair is light and short for clothing, lodges, etc., and in
the winter, when it is long and heavy, for robes. There are three ways
of hunting this animal: by surrounding, by approaching, and by the
parks, each of which we will describe. It may as well be stated that
the buffalo migrate, or take different ranges, and travel all in the
same direction in a given season. Thus in the spring they mostly move
north and northwest, in the fall east and south, in the winter east,
returning west and north toward spring. They keep together in herds
of from 100 or 200 to 5,000 or 6,000, and sometimes the whole country
for five or six days travel is covered with one moving mass of these
animals. News of the buffalo approaching an Indian camp is received
several days before the animals appear, as they only move forward when
the grazing is not sufficient. Where a large camp is stationed they
usually hunt by “surround,” which is as follows:
The soldiers hold a council with the chief in the soldiers’ lodge
and prohibit any individual hunting ahead of the buffalo, also send
runners daily on discovery, to observe what progress they are making
toward the camp, their numbers, etc., and when they report them to be
near enough a meeting is held in the soldiers’ lodge, the time for the
hunt appointed, and notice given to the camp by the haranguing of the
public crier. At daybreak all the horses are caught and saddled, and
each of the horsemen is provided with a bow and a quiver of arrows. A
number who have no horses arm themselves with guns, and at a signal
from one of the soldiers the party moves off in single file or line.
Those who have the fastest horses go in front, after them the other
horsemen. Then the foot hunters, and lastly the women with their dogs
and travailles. The soldiers ride along each side the line (which is
sometimes a mile and more in length) and observe whether the line of
march is preserved, and that no one leaves singly. Were a dog to run
out of the line it would be shot with an arrow immediately.
Their march is conducted in silence, with the wind in their faces,
consequently blowing the scent away from the buffalo while they are
coming near them. The animal is not quick sighted but very keen
scented, and a man can, in passing across the wind blowing toward them,
raise a herd at the distance of 2 or 3 miles, without their seeing him.