purposes the chief thing is to remove the free fatty acids, which is
done by the aid of solutions of alkalies and alkaline earths. The
subsequent precipitation of the resulting soapy emulsions, especially
when lime is used, entails prolonged heating to temperatures sometimes
as high as the boiling point of water. Furthermore, the amount of
alkalies taken is always greater than is chemically necessary, the
consequence being that some of the organic substances present are
attacked, and malodorous products are formed, a condition necessitating
the employment of animal charcoal, etc., as deodorizer.
To prevent the formation of these untoward products, which must
injuriously affect the quality of edible oils, C. Fresenius proposes
to accelerate the dispersion of the said emulsions by subjecting
the mixtures to an excess pressure of 1 to 1 1/2 atmospheres and
a corresponding temperature of about 220° F., for a short time, the
formation of decomposition products, and any injurious influence on
the taste and smell of the substance being prevented by the addition
of fresh charcoal, etc., beforehand. Charcoal may, and must in certain
cases, be replaced for this purpose by infusorial earth or fuller’s
earth. When this process is applied to cottonseed oil, 100 parts of
the oil are mixed with 1/10 part of fresh, pure charcoal, and 1/2
part of pure fuller’s earth. The mixture is next neutralized with
lime-water, and placed in an autoclave, where it is kept for an hour
under pressure, and at a temperature of 220° F. Under these conditions
the emulsion soon separates, and when this is accomplished the whole is
left to cool down in a closed vessel.
FATS, DECOMPOSITION OF: See Oil.
«FEATHER BLEACHING AND COLORING:»
See also Dyes.
«Bleaching and Coloring Feathers.»—Feathers, in their natural state,
are not adapted to undergo the processes of dyeing and bleaching; they
must be prepared by removing their oil and dirt. This is usually done
by washing them in moderately warm soap and water, and rinsing in
warm and cold water; or the oil may be chemically removed by the use
of benzine. To remove it entirely, the feathers must be left in the
cleansing fluid from a half hour to an hour, when they may be subjected
to the process of bleaching.
«Bleaching Plumes.»—Plumes may be almost entirely bleached by the use
of hydrogen peroxide, without injuring their texture.
In specially constructed glass troughs, made the length of an average
ostrich feather, 15 or 20 of these feathers can be treated at a time.
The bleaching fluid is made from a 30 per cent solution of hydrogen
peroxide, with enough ammonia added to make it neutral; in other words
when neutral, blue litmus paper will not turn red, and red will take
a pale violet tinge. The previously cleansed feathers are entirely
immersed in this bleaching bath, which may be diluted if desired. The
trough is covered with a glass plate and put in a dark place. From
time to time the feathers are stirred and turned, adding more hydrogen
peroxide. This process requires 10 to 12 hours and if necessary should
be repeated. After bleaching they are rinsed in distilled water or rain
water, dried in the air, and kept in motion while drying.
To insure success in coloring feathers in delicate tints, they must
be free from all impurities, and evenly white. It has been found of
advantage to rub the quill of heavy ostrich plumes while still moist
with carbonate of ammonia before the dyeing is begun.
«Methods of Dyeing Feathers.»—I.—A boiling hot neutral solution, the
feathers to be dried in a rotating apparatus. Suitable dyes for this
method are chrysoidin, {336} A, C; crystal vesuvin, 4 B C; phosphin
extra, leather yellow, O H; leather red, O, G B; leather brown, O;
morocco red, O; azophocphine, G O, B R O; fuchsine, cerise, G R;
grenadine, O; safranine, O; methylene violet, malachite green, crystal
brilliant green, methylene green, methylene gray, coal black II.
II.—A boiling hot sulphuric solution. Dyes, acid fuchsine, orseilline,
R B; acid cerise, O; acid maroon, O; opal blue, blue de lyon, R B;
cotton blue, No. 2, China blue No. 2, naphthalene green, O; patent
blue, V A; fast blue, O R; fast blue black, O; deep black, G; azo
yellow, victorine yellow, orange No. 2, fast brown O, ponceau G R R R,
fast red O, Bordeaux, G B R.
III.—An acetic solution. Dyes, Bengal pink G B, phloxine G O, rosolan O
B O F, rhodamine O 4 G, eosine A G, erythrosine.
By appropriate mixtures of the dyes of any one class, plumes can be
dyed every possible color. After dyeing they are rinsed, and dried in a
rotating apparatus. The final process is that of curling, which is done
by turning them round and round over a gentle heat. For white feathers
a little sulphur may be burned in the fire; for black or colored ones
a little sugar.
IV.—The spray method. The solution of the dye to be used is put into
an atomizer, and the spray directed to that part of the feather which
it is desired to color. By using different colors the most marvelous
effects and most delicate transitions from one color to another are
obtained. Any kind of an atomizer can be used, the rubber bulb, pump,
or bellows; the result is the same.
FELT WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.
FERMENTATION PROCESS, FATTY ACID: See Fats.
FERMENTATION, PREVENTION OF: See Anti-Ferments and Wines and Liquors.
FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography.
«Fertilizers»
(See also Phosphate, Artificial.)
«Plant Fertilizers.»—Plants are as sensitive to excessively minute
quantities of nutrient substances, such as salts of potassium, in the
soil, as they are to minute quantities of poisonous substances. Poisons
are said to be infinitely more sensitive reagents for the presence of
certain metallic salts than the most delicate chemical, the statement
having been made that a trace of copper which might be obtained by
distilling in a copper retort is fatal to the white and yellow lupin,
the castor-oil plant, and spirogyra. Coupin has found salts of silver,
mercury, copper, and cadmium especially fatal to plants. With copper
sulphate the limit of sensitiveness is placed at 1 in 700,000,000.
Devaux asserts that both phanerogams and cryptogams are poisoned by
solutions of salts of lead or copper diluted to the extent of 1 in
10,000,000, or less.
As a result of a series of experiments, Schloesing stated that the
nitrification of ammonium salts is not for all plants a necessary
preliminary to the absorption of nitrogen by the plant. While for some
plants, as for example buckwheat, the preferable form of the food
material is that of a nitrate, others, for instance, tropeolum, thrive
even better when the nitrogen is presented to them in an ammoniacal
form.
«Artificial Fertilizers for Pot Plants.»—Experiments on vegetation
have shown that a plant will thrive when the lacking substances are
supplied in a suitable form, e. g., in the following combinations:
I.—Calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, potassium phosphate, magnesium
phosphate, ferric phosphate (sodium chloride).
II.—Calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium sulphate, magnesium
phosphate, iron chloride (or sulphate) (sodium silicate).
It is well known that in nature nitrates are formed wherever
decomposition of organic nitrogenous substances takes place in the
air, the ammonia formed by the decomposition being oxidized to nitric
acid. These conditions for the formation of nitrates are present in
nearly every cornfield, and they are also the cause of the presence of
nitrates in water that has its source near stables, etc. In Peruvian
guano nitrogen is present partly in the form of potassium nitrate,
partly as ammonium phosphate and sulphate. As a nitrate it acts more
rapidly than in the form of ammonia, but in the latter case the effect
is more lasting. Phosphoric acid occurs in guano combined with ammonia,
potash, and chiefly with lime, the last being slower and more lasting
in action than the others. {337}
Nearly all artificial fertilizers conform, more or less, to one of the
following general formulas:
I.—Artificial Flower Fertilizer.—
1 2 3
Ammonium nitrate 0.40 1.60 40.0 parts
Ammonium phosphate 0.20 0.80 20.0 parts
Potassium nitrate 0.25 1.00 25.0 parts
Ammonium chloride 0.05 0.20 5.0 parts
Calcium sulphate 0.06 0.24 6.0 parts
Ferrous sulphate 0.04 0.16 4.0 parts
──── ──── ─────
1.00 4.00 100.0 parts
Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and water the flowers with it 2
or 3 times weekly. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water
with this quantity 10 or 12 pots of medium size.
II.—Compost for Indoor Plants.—
1 2 3
Ammonium sulphate 0.30 1.20 30.0 parts
Sodium chloride 0.30 1.20 30.0 parts
Potassium nitrate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parts
Magnesium sulphate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parts
Magnesium phosphate 0.04 0.20 4.0 parts
Sodium phosphate 0.06 0.24 6.0 parts
──── ──── ─────
1.00 4.00 100.0 parts
One part to be dissolved in 1,000 parts water and the flowers watered
up to 3 times daily. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water
with this solution daily:
III.—Plant Food Solution.—
1 2
Potassium chloride 0.16 or 12.5 parts
Calcium nitrate 0.71 or 58.0 parts
Magnesium sulphate 0.125 or 12.0 parts
Potassium phosphate 0.133 or 15.0 parts
Iron phosphate, recently precipitated 0.032 or 2.5 parts
───── ─────
1.160 or 100.0 parts
This turbid mixture (1 part in 1,000 parts) is used alternately with
water for watering a pot of about 1 quart capacity; for smaller or
larger pots in proportion. After using the amount indicated, the
watering is continued with water alone.
IV.—Fertilizer with Organic Matter, for Pot Flowers.—
Potassium nitrate 100.0 parts
Ammonium phosphate 100.0 parts
Phosphoric acid 2.5 parts
Simple syrup 1,000 parts
Add not more than 10 parts to 1,000 parts water, and water alternately
with this and with water alone. For cactaceæ, crassulaceæ, and similar
plants, which do not assimilate organic matter directly, use distilled
water instead of syrup.
Chlorotic plants are painted with a dilute iron solution or iron is
added to the soil, which causes them to assume their natural green
color. The iron is used in form of ferric chloride or ferrous sulphate.
V.—Sodium phosphate 4 ounces
Sodium nitrate 4 ounces
Ammonium sulphate 2 ounces
Sugar 1 ounce
Use 2 teaspoonfuls to a gallon of water.
VI.—Ammonium phosphate 30 parts
Sodium nitrate 25 parts
Potassium nitrate 25 parts
Ammonium sulphate 20 parts
Water 100,000 parts
One application of this a week is enough for the slower growing plants,
and 2 for the more rapid growing herbaceous ones.
VII.—Calcium phosphate 4 ounces
Potassium nitrate 1 ounce
Potassium phosphate 1 ounce
Magnesium sulphate 1 ounce
Iron (ferric) phosphate 100 grains
VIII.—Pot plants, especially flowering plants kept around the house,
should be treated to an occasional dose of the following:
Ammonium chloride 2 parts
Sodium phosphate 4 parts
Sodium nitrate 3 parts
Water 80 parts
Mix and dissolve. To use, add 25 drops to the quart of water, and use
as in ordinary watering.
IX.—Sugar 1 part
Potassium nitrate 2 parts
Ammonium sulphate 4 parts
X.—Ferric phosphate 1 part
Magnesium sulphate 2 parts
Potassium phosphate 2 parts
Potassium nitrate 2 parts
Calcium acid phosphate 8 parts
About a teaspoonful of either of these mixtures is added to a gallon of
water, and the plants sprinkled with the liquid.
For hastening the growth of flowers, the following fertilizer is
recommended: {338}
XI.—Potassium nitrate 30 parts
Potassium phosphate 25 parts
Ammonium sulphate 10 parts
Ammonium nitrate 35 parts
The following five are especially recommended for indoor use:
XII.—Sodium chloride 10 parts
Potassium nitrate 5 parts
Magnesium sulphate 5 parts
Magnesia 1 part
Sodium phosphate 2 parts
Mixed and bottled. Dissolve a teaspoonful daily in a quart of water and
water the plants with the solution.
XIII.—Ammonium nitrate 40 parts
Potassium nitrate 90 parts
Ammonium phosphate 50 parts
Two grams is sufficient for a medium-sized flower pot.
XIV.—Ammonium sulphate 10 parts
Sodium chloride 10 parts
Potassium nitrate 5 parts
Magnesium sulphate 5 parts
Magnesium carbonate 1 part
Sodium phosphate 20 parts
One teaspoonful to 1 quart of water.
XV.—Ammonium nitrate 40 parts
Ammonium phosphate 20 parts
Potassium nitrate 0.25 parts
Ammonium chloride 5 parts
Calcium sulphate 6 parts
Ferrous sulphate 4 parts
Dissolve 2 parts in 1,000 of water, and water the plants with the
solution.
XVI.—Potassium nitrate 20 parts
Potassium phosphate 25 parts
Ammonium sulphate 10 parts
Ammonium nitrate 35 parts
This mixture produces a luxuriant foliage. If blooms are desired,
dispense with the ammonium nitrate.
XVII.—Saltpeter, 5 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; bitter salt, 5 parts;
magnesia, 1 part; sodium phosphate, 2 parts. Mix and fill in bottles.
Dissolve a teaspoonful in 1 3/4 pints of hot water, and water the
flower pots with it each day.
XVIII.—Ammonium sulphate, 30 parts; sodium chloride, 30 parts; potash
niter, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 15 parts; magnesium phosphate, 4
parts; sodium phosphate, 6 parts. Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water,
and apply 3 times per day.
XIX.—Calcium nitrate, 71 parts; potassium chlorate, 15 parts; magnesium
sulphate, 12.5 parts; potassium phosphate, 13.3 parts; freshly
precipitated ferric phosphate, 3.2 parts. A solution of 1 in 1,000 of
this mixture is applied, alternating with water, to the plants. After
using a certain quantity, pour on only water.
XX.—Ammonium phosphate, 300 parts; sodium nitrate, 250 parts;
potassium nitrate, 250 parts; and ammonium sulphate, 200 parts, are
mixed together. To every 1,000 parts of water dissolve 2 parts of the
mixture, and water the potted plants once a week with this solution.
XXI.—Potash niter, 20 parts; calcium carbonate, 20 parts; sodium
chlorate, 20 parts; calcium phosphate, 20 parts; sodium silicate, 14
parts; ferrous sulphate, 1.5 parts. Dissolve 1 part of the mixture in
1,000 parts water.
«Preparing Bone for Fertilizer.»—Bone, in its various forms, is the only
one of the insoluble phosphates that is now used directly upon the
soil, or without other change than is accomplished by mechanical action
or grinding. The terms used to indicate the character of the bone
have reference rather to their mechanical form than to the relative
availability of the phosphoric acid contained in them. The terms raw
bone, fine bone, boiled and steamed bone, etc., are used to indicate
methods of preparation, and inasmuch as bone is a material which is
useful largely in proportion to its rate of decay, its fineness has an
important bearing upon availability, since the finer the bone the more
surface is exposed to the action of those forces which cause decay or
solution, and the quicker will the constituents become available. In
the process of boiling or steaming, not only is the bone made finer
but its physical character in other respects is also changed, the
particles, whether fine or coarse, being made soft and crumbly rather
than dense or hard; hence it is more likely to act quickly than if the
same degree of fineness be obtained by simple grinding. The phosphoric
acid in fine steamed bone may all become available in 1 or 2 years,
while the coarser fatty raw bone sometimes resists final decay for 3
or 4 years or even longer. {339} Bone contains considerable nitrogen,
a fact which should be remembered in its use, particularly if used in
comparison with other phosphatic materials which do not contain this
element. Pure raw bone contains on an average 22 per cent of phosphoric
acid and 4 per cent of nitrogen. By steaming or boiling, a portion
of the organic substance containing nitrogen is extracted, which has
the effect of proportionately increasing the phosphoric acid in the
product; hence a steamed bone may contain as high as 28 per cent of
phosphoric acid and as low as 1 per cent of nitrogen. Steamed bone
is usually, therefore, much richer in phosphoric acid and has less
nitrogen than the raw bone.
«Brewers’ Yeast and Fertilizers.»—A mixture is made of about 2 parts of
yeast with 1 part of sodium chloride and 5 parts of calcium sulphate,
by weight, for use as a manure. Pure or impure yeast, or yeast
previously treated for the extraction of a portion of its constituents,
may be used, and the gypsum may be replaced by other earthy substances
of a similar non-corrosive nature.
Authorities seem to agree that lime is necessary to the plant, and if
it be wholly lacking in the soil, even though an abundance of all the
other essential elements is present, it cannot develop normally. Many
soils are well provided with lime by nature and it is seldom or never
necessary for those who cultivate them to resort to liming. It would be
just as irrational to apply lime where it is not needed as to omit it
where it is required, and hence arises the necessity of ascertaining
the needs of particular soils in this respect.
The method usually resorted to for ascertaining the amount of lime
in soils is to treat them with some strong mineral acid, such as
hydrochloric acid, and determine the amount of lime which is thus
dissolved. The fact that beets of all kinds make a ready response to
liming on soils which are deficient in lime may be utilized as the
basis of testing.
FEVER IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.
FIG SQUARES: See Confectionery.
«Files»
«Composition Files.»—These files, which are frequently used by
watchmakers and other metal workers for grinding and polishing, and
the color of which resembles silver, are composed of 8 parts copper, 2
parts tin, 1 part zinc, 1 part lead. They are cast in forms and treated
upon the grindstone; the metal is very hard, and therefore worked with
difficulty with the file.
«To Keep Files Clean» (see also Cleaning Preparations and Methods).—The
uneven working of a file is usually due to the fact that filings clog
the teeth of the file. To obviate this evil, scratch brush the files
before use, and then grease them with olive oil. A file prepared in
this manner lasts for a longer time, does not become so quickly filled
with filings and can be conveniently cleaned with an ordinary rough
brush.
«Recutting Old Files.»—Old files may be rendered useful again by the
following process: Boil them in a potash bath, brush them with a hard
brush and wipe off. Plunge for half a minute into nitric acid, and pass
over a cloth stretched tightly on a flat piece of wood. The effect will
be that the acid remains in the grooves, and will take away the steel
without attacking the top, which has been wiped dry. The operation may
be repeated according to the depth to be obtained. Before using the
files thus treated they should be rinsed in water and dried.
FILE METAL: See Alloys.
FILLERS FOR LETTERS: See Lettering.
FILLERS FOR WOOD: See Wood.
«FILTERS FOR WATER.»
A filter which possesses the advantages of being easily and cheaply
cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical impurities
with rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum of sponge between two
perforated metallic plates, united by a central screw, and arranged in
such a manner as to permit of the sponge being compressed as required.
Water, under gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity through the
pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that a few square feet of
this substance will perfectly filter several millions of gallons of
water daily.
The sponges are cleaned thoroughly, rolled together as much as
possible, and placed in the escape pipe of a percolator in such a
manner that the larger portion of the sponge is in the pipe while the
smaller portion, spreading by itself, protrudes over the pipe toward
the interior {340} of the percolator, thus forming a flat filter
covering it. After a thorough moistening of the sponge it is said to
admit of a very quick and clear filtration of large quantities of
tinctures, juices, etc.
For filtering water on a small scale, and for domestic use,
“alcarrazas,” diaphragms of porous earthenware and filtering-stone and
layers of sand and charcoal, etc., are commonly employed as filtering.
A cheap, useful form of portable filter is the following, given in
the proceedings of the British Association: “Take any common vessel,
perforated below, such as a flower pot, fill the lower portion with
coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and on these
a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt
clay perforated with small holes should be put, and on this again a
stratum of 3 or 4 inches thick of well-burnt, pounded animal charcoal.
A filter thus formed will last a considerable time, and will be found
particularly useful in removing noxious and putrescent substances held
in solution by water.”
The “portable filters,” in stoneware, that are commonly sold in the
shops, contain a stratum of sand, or coarsely powdered charcoal;
before, however, having access to this, the water has to pass through
a sponge, to remove the coarser portion of the impurities.
«Alum Process of Water Purification.»—Water may be filtered and
purified by precipitation, by means of alum, by adding a 4 per cent
solution to the water to be clarified until a precipitate is no longer
produced. After allowing the turbid mixture to stand for 8 hours,
the clear portion may be decanted or be siphoned off. About 2 grains
of alum is ordinarily required to purify a gallon of water. Potassa
alum only should be used, as ammonia alum cannot be used for this
purpose. The amount of alum required varies with the water, so that
an initial experiment is required whenever water from a new source is
being purified. If the purification is properly done, the water will
not contain any alum, but only a trace of potassium sulphate, for the
aluminum of the double sulphate unites with the various impurities to
form an insoluble compound which gradually settles out, mechanically
carrying with it suspended matter, while the sulphuric acid radical
unites with the calcium in the water to form insoluble calcium sulphate.
FILTER PAPER: See Paper.
FILM-STRIPPING: See Photography.
FINGER-TIPS, SPARKS FROM: See Pyrotechnics.
FIRES, COLORED: See Pyrotechnics.
FIREARM LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.
«FIRE EXTINGUISHERS:»
I.—Calcium chloride 184 parts
Magnesium chloride 57 parts
Sodium chloride 13 parts
Potassium bromide 22 parts
Barium chloride 3 parts
Water to make 1,000 parts
Dissolve and fill into hand grenades.
II.—Iron sulphate 4 parts
Ammonium sulphate 16 parts
Water 100 parts
Mix, dissolve, and fill into flasks.
III.—Sodium chloride 430 parts
Alum 195 parts
Glauber salts 50 parts
Sodium carbonate, impure 35 parts
Water glass 266 parts
Water 233 parts
Mix, etc.
IV.—Sodium chloride 90 parts
Ammonium chloride 45 parts
Water 300 parts
Mix, dissolve, and put into quart flasks of very thin glass, which are
to be kept conveniently disposed in the dwelling rooms, etc., of all
public institutions.
V.—Make 6 solutions as follows:
_a._—Ammonium chloride 20 parts
Water 2,000 parts
_b._—Alum, calcined and powdered 35 parts
Water 1,000 parts
_c._—Ammonium sulphate, powdered 30 parts
Water 500 parts
_d._—Sodium chloride 20 parts
Water 4,000 parts
_e._—Sodium carbonate 35 parts
Water 500 parts
f.—Liquid water glass 450 parts
{341}
Mix the solutions in the order named and to the mixture, while still
yellow and turbid, add 2,000 parts of water, and let stand. When the
precipitate has subsided fill off the clear liquid into thin glass
(preferably blue, to deter decomposition) containers each of 3 pints to
a half gallon capacity.
VI.—Calcium chloride 30 parts
Magnesium chloride 10 parts
Water 60 parts
VII.—Sodium chloride 20 parts
Ammonium chloride 9 parts
Water 71 parts
VIII.—Sodium carbonate 16 parts
Sodium chloride 64 parts
Water 920 parts
The most effective of all extinguishers is ammonia water. It is almost
instantaneous in its effect, and a small quantity only is required
to extinguish any fire. Next in value is carbonic acid gas. This may
be thrown from siphons or soda-water tanks. The vessel containing it
should be thrown into the fire in such a way as to insure its breaking.
«Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers.»—The efficacy of these is doubted by
good authorities. They should be tested before adoption.