cellulose, {330} which has been treated in one of various ways to make
it burn slower than gun cotton, and also to render it less sensitive to
heat and shocks. As a rule, these powders are not only less inflammable
than gun cotton, but require stronger detonators. As metallic salts
cause smoke, they are not used in these powders. The smokeless powders
now in use may be divided into three groups: (1) Those consisting of
mixtures of nitro-glycerine and nitrated cellulose, which have been
converted into a hard, hornlike mass, either with or without the aid
of a solvent. To this group belongs ballistite, containing 50 per
cent of nitro-glycerine, 49 per cent of nitrated cellulose, and 1 per
cent of diphenylamin; also cordite (see further on), Lenord’s powder,
and amberite. This last contains 40 parts of nitro-glycerine and 56
parts of nitrated cellulose. (2) Those consisting mainly of nitrated
cellulose of any kind, which has been rendered hard and horny by
treatment with some solvent which is afterwards evaporated. These are
prepared by treating nitrated cellulose with ether or benzine, which
dissolves the collodion, and when evaporated leaves a hard film of
collodion on the surface of each grain. Sometimes a little camphor is
added to the solvent, and, remaining in the powder, greatly retards
its combustion. (3) Those consisting of nitro-derivatives of the
aromatic hydrocarbons, either with or without the admixture of nitrated
cellulose; to this group belong Dupont’s powder, consisting of nitrated
cellulose dissolved in nitro-benzine; indurite, consisting of cellulose
hexanitrate (freed from collodion by extraction with methyl alcohol),
made into a paste with nitro-benzine, and hardened by treatment with
steam until the excess of nitro-benzine is removed; and plastomeite,
consisting of dinitrotoluene and nitrated wood pulp.
Cordite is the specific name of a smokeless powder which has been
adopted by the English government as a military explosive. It contains
nitro-glycerine, 58 parts; gun cotton, 37 parts; and petrolatum, 5
parts. The nitro-glycerine and gun cotton are first mixed, 19.2 parts
of acetone added, and the pasty mass kneaded for several hours. The
petrolatum is then added and the mixture again kneaded. The paste is
then forced through fine openings to form threads, which are dried at
about 105° F. until the acetone evaporates. The threads, which resemble
brown twine, are then cut into short lengths for use.
Another process for the manufacture of smokeless powder is as follows:
Straw, preferably oat-straw, is treated in the usual way with a mixture
of nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, and then washed in
water to free it from these, then boiled with water, and again with
a solution of potassium carbonate. It is next subjected, for 2 to 6
hours, to the action of a solution composed of 1,000 parts of water,
12.5 parts of potassium nitrate, 3.5 parts of potassium chlorate, 12.5
parts of zinc sulphate, and 12.5 parts of potassium permanganate. The
excess of solution is pressed out, and the mass is then pulverized,
granulated, and finally dried.
The warning as to the danger of experimenting with the manufacture of
ordinary gunpowder applies with renewed force when nitro-glycerine is
the subject of the experiment.
«Berge’s Blasting Powder.»—This is composed of chlorate of potash, 1
part; chromate of potash, 0.1 part; sugar, 0.45 parts; yellow wax,
0.09 parts. The proportions indicated may vary within certain limits,
according to the force desired. For the preparation, the chlorate and
the chromate of potash, as well as the sugar, are ground separately and
very finely, and sifted so that the grains of the different substances
may have the same size. At first any two of the substances are mixed as
thoroughly as possible, then the third is added. The yellow wax, cut
in small pieces, is finally added, and all the substances are worked
together to produce a homogeneous product. The sugar may be replaced
with charcoal or any other combustible body. For commercial needs, the
compound may be colored with any inert matter, also pulverized.
«Safety in Explosives».—Ammoniacal salts have been used in the
manufacture of explosives to render them proof against firedamp, but
not with the full success desired. Ammonium chloride has been utilized,
but inconveniences are met with, and the vapor is quite disagreeable.
In coöperation with equivalent quantities of soda and potash, its
action is regarded as favorable. Tests employing benzine vapor and coal
dust were made, and the comparative security calculated to be as given
below.
I.—Donarite, composed as follows: 80 per cent of nitrate of ammonia, 12
of trinitrotoluol, 4 of flour, 3.8 of nitro-glycerine, and 0.2 per cent
of cotton collodion. Security: Donarite alone, 87 parts; 95 per cent of
donarite and 5 per {331} cent of ammonium chloride, 125 parts; 90 per
cent of donarite and 10 per cent of ammonium chloride, 250 parts; 86
per cent of donarite and 5.5 per cent of ammonium chloride, with 8.5
per cent of nitrate of soda, 425 parts. The force of the explosion is
decreased about 8 per cent, while the security is quintupled.
II.—Roburite, with the following composition: 72.5 per cent nitrate
of ammonia; 12 binitro-benzol; 10 nitrate of potash; 5 sulphate of
ammonia; 0.5 per cent permanganate of potash. Security: Roburite
only, 325 parts; ammonium chloride, taking the place of sulphate of
ammonia, 400 parts. Here an intensification of the explosive force is
simultaneously produced.
III.—Ammon carbonite I, composed thus: 4 per cent nitro-glycerine; 75.5
nitrate of ammonia; 9.5 nitrate of potash; 9.5 coal dust; 10.5 flour.
Security: Ammon carbonite I only, 250 parts; 95 per cent A. C. I. and 5
per cent ammonium chloride, 400 parts; 92 per cent A. C. I. and 8 per
cent ammonium chloride, 500 parts. The addition of 5 per cent ammonium
chloride diminishes the explosive force only 3 per cent.
IV.—An explosive of nitro-glycerine base composed thus: 30 per cent
nitro-glycerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion; 52.6 nitrate of ammonia;
13 nitrate of potash; 3 to 4 per cent starch. Security of this mixture,
150 parts.
V.—Thirty per cent nitro-glycerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion; 47.3
nitrate of ammonia; 11.6 nitrate of potash; 3.1 starch; 7 per cent
ammonium chloride. This mixture has a security of 350 parts.
«Inflammable Explosive with Chlorate of Potash.»—Take as an agent
promoting combustion, potassium chlorate; as a combustible agent, an
oxidized, nitrated, or natural rosin. If, to such a mixture, another
body is added in order to render it soft and plastic, such as oil,
nitro-benzine, glucose, glycerine, the benefit of the discovery is
lost, for the mixture is rendered combustible with nitro-benzine,
fecula, sulphur, etc., and inexplosive with glycerine, glucose, and the
oil.
Of all the chlorates and perchlorates, potassium chlorate (KClO_〈3〉)
responds the best to what is desired. As to the rosins, they may be
varied, or even mixed. To obtain the oxidation or nitration of the
rosins, they are heated with nitric acid, more or less concentrated,
and with or without the addition of sulphuric acid. An oxidation,
sufficient and without danger, can be secured by a simple and practical
means. This is boiling them for several hours in water containing
nitric acid, which is renewed from time to time in correspondence
with its decomposition. The rosins recommended by M. Turpin are of
the terebinthine group, having for average formula C_〈20〉H_〈30〉O_〈2〉.
Colophony is the type.
The products, thus nitrated, are washed with boiling water, and, on
occasion, by a solution slightly alkaline, with a final washing with
pure water, and dried at a temperature of 230° F. or in the open air.
The mixing of the constituents of this explosive is preferably cold.
For this purpose they are used in the state of fine powder, and when
mixed in the tub, 2 1/2 to 5 per cent of a volatile dissolvent is
added, as alcohol, carbon sulphide, ether, or benzine. As soon as
thoroughly mingled, the mass is put either in an ordinary grainer, or
in a cylinder of wire cloth revolving horizontally on its axis, with
glass gobilles forming a screen, by the aid of which the graining is
rapidly accomplished. Thus a powder more or less finely granulated is
produced free from dust.
The proportions preferably employed are:
1. Potassium chlorate 85 parts
Natural rosin 15 parts
2. Potassium chlorate 80 parts
Nitrated rosin 20 parts
For employment in firedamp mines, there is added to these compounds
from 20 to 40 per cent of one of the following substances: Ammonium
oxalate, ammonium carbonate, oxalic acid, sodium bicarbonate, calcium
fluoride, or other substance of the nature to lower sufficiently the
temperature of the explosive flame.
«Gun Cotton.»—For the production of a high-grade gun cotton, it is
important that the cotton used should approach as near as possible pure
cellulose. The waste from cotton mills, thoroughly purified, is usually
employed. After careful chemical examination has been made to ascertain
its freedom from grease and other impurities, the cotton waste is
picked over by hand to remove such impurities as wood, cardboard,
string, etc. The cotton is then passed through the “teasing machine,”
which opens out all knots and lumps, thereby reducing it to a state
more suitable for the acid treatment and exposing to view any foreign
substances which may have escaped notice in the previous picking.
The cotton is then dried. When {332} perfectly dry, it is removed to
air-tight iron cases, in which it is allowed to cool. The iron cases
are taken to the dipping houses, and the cotton waste weighed into
small portions, which are then transferred as rapidly as possible to
the mixed acids, allowed to remain a few minutes, then removed to the
grating and the excess of acid squeezed out. The cotton now containing
about ten times its weight of acid is placed in an earthenware pot and
transferred to the steeping pits, where it is allowed to remain for 24
hours, a low temperature being maintained by a stream of cold water.
The cotton is now wholly converted into nitro-cellulose. The
superfluous acid is next removed by a centrifugal extractor, after
which the gun cotton is taken out of the machine and immediately
immersed in a large volume of water, and thoroughly washed until it
shows no acid reaction. The moisture is then run out and the gun
cotton is conveyed by tramway to the boiling vats, where it undergoes
several boilings by means of steam. When the “heat test” shows that
a sufficient degree of stability has been obtained, the gun cotton
is removed to a beating engine, and reduced to a very fine state of
division. When this process is completed the pulp is run by gravity
along wooden shoots, provided with “grit traps” and electromagnets,
which catch any traces of sand, iron, etc., into large “poachers,” in
which the gun cotton is continuously agitated, together with a large
quantity of water. In this way it is thoroughly washed and a blend made
of a large quantity of gun cotton.
«Soluble Gun Cotton.»—Soluble gun cotton is made on the same lines,
except that greater attention has to be paid to the physical condition
of the cotton used, and to the temperature and strength of acid
mixture, etc.
The term “soluble” usually implies that the gun cotton is dissolved
by a mixture of ethyl-ether and ethyl-alcohol, 2 parts of the former
to 1 of the latter being the proportions which yield the best solvent
action. The classification of nitro-celluloses according to their
solubility in ether-alcohol is misleading, except when the nitrogen
contents are also quoted.
The number of solvents for gun cotton which have at various times been
proposed is very large. Among the more important may be mentioned the
following: Alcohols (used chiefly in conjunction with other solvents),
methyl, ethyl, propyl, and amyl, methyl-amyl ether, acetic ether,
di-ethyl-ketone, methyl-ethyl ketone, amyl nitrate and acetate,
nitro-benzole, nitro-toluol, nitrated oils, glacial acetic acid,
camphor dissolved in alcohol, etc.
Some of the above may be called selective solvents, i. e., they
dissolve one particular variety of gun cotton better than others, so
that solubility in any given solvent must not be used to indicate
solubility in another. No nitro-cotton is entirely soluble in any
solvent. The solution, after standing some time, always deposits a
small amount of insoluble matter. Therefore, in making collodion
solutions, care should be taken to place the containing bottles in
a place free from vibration and shock. After standing a few weeks
the clear supernatant liquid may be decanted off. On a larger scale
collodion solutions are filtered under pressure through layers of
tightly packed cotton wool. The state of division is important. When
the end in view is the production of a strong film or thread, it is
advisable to use unpulped or only slightly pulped nitro-cellulose. In
this condition it also dissolves more easily than the finely pulped
material.
«FULMINATES:»
«Fulminating Antimony.»—Tartar emetic (dried), 100 parts; lampblack
or charcoal powder, 3 parts. Triturate together, put into a crucible
that it will three-fourths fill (previously rubbed inside with charcoal
powder). Cover it with a layer of dry charcoal powder, and lute on the
cover. After 3 hours’ exposure to a strong heat in a reverberatory
furnace, and 6 or 7 hours’ cooling, cautiously transfer the solid
contents of the crucible, as quickly as possible, without breaking,
to a wide-mouthed stoppered phial, where, after some time, it will
spontaneously crumble to a powder. When the above process is properly
conducted, the resulting powder contains potassium, and fulminates
violently on contact with water. A piece the size of a pea introduced
into a mass of gunpowder explodes it on being thrown into water, or on
its being moistened in any other manner.
«Fulminating Bismuth.»—Take bismuth, 120 parts; carbureted cream of
tartar, 60 parts; niter, 1 part.
«Fulminating Copper.»—Digest copper (in powder of filings) with
fulminate of mercury or of silver, and a little water. {333} It forms
soluble green crystals that explode with a green flame.
«Fulminating Mercury.»—Take mercury, 100 parts; nitric acid (specific
gravity, 1.4), 1,000 parts (or 740 parts, by measure). Dissolve by
a gentle heat, and when the solution has acquired the temperature
of 130° F., slowly pour it through a glass funnel tube into alcohol
(specific gravity, .830), 830 parts (or 1,000 parts, by measure). As
soon as the effervescence is over, and white fumes cease to be evolved,
filter through double paper, wash with cold water, and dry by steam
(not hotter than 212° F.) or hot water. The fulminate is then to be
packed in 100-grain paper parcels, and these stored in a tight box or
corked bottle. Product 130 per cent of the weight of mercury employed.
«Fulminating Powder.»—I.—Niter, 3 parts; carbonate of potash (dry),
2 parts; flowers of sulphur, 1 part; reduce them separately to fine
powder, before mixing them. A little of this compound (20 to 30
grains), slowly heated on a shovel over the fire, first fuses and
becomes brown, and then explodes with a deafening report.
II.—Sulphur, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 3 parts. When triturated,
with strong pressure, in a marble or wedgwood-ware mortar, it produces
a series of loud reports. It also fulminates by percussion.
III.—Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts; sulphur,
1 part. A little placed on an anvil detonates with a loud report when
struck with a hammer.
EXPOSURES IN PHOTOGRAPHING: See Photography.
EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.
EXTRACTS, TESTS FOR: See Foods.
«EYE LOTIONS:»
«“Black Eye” Lotion.»—“Black eyes” or other temporary discolorations
of the skin may be disguised by the application of pink grease paint,
or collodion colored by means of a little carmine. As lotions the
following have been recommended:
I.—Ammonium chloride 1 part
Alcohol 1 part
Water 10 parts
Diluted acetic acid may be substituted for half of the water, and the
alcohol may be replaced by tincture of arnica, with advantage.
II.—Potassium nitrate 15 grains
Ammonium chloride 30 grains
Aromatic vinegar 4 drachms
Water to make 8 ounces.
III.—The following is to be applied with camel’s-hair pencil every 1,
2, or 3 hours. Be careful not to get it in the eyes, as it smarts. It
will remove the black discoloration overnight:
Oxalic acid 15 grains
Distilled water 1 ounce
«Foreign Matter in the Eye.»—If a piece of iron or other foreign matter
in the eye irritates it, and there is no way of removing it until
morning, take a raw Irish potato, grate it, and use as a poultice on
the eye. It will ease the eye so one can sleep, and sometimes draws the
piece out.
«Drops of Lime in the Eye.»—If lime has dropped in the eye, the
pouring-in of or the wiping-out with a few drops of oil is the best
remedy, as the causticity of the lime is Arrested thereby. Poppy-seed
oil or olive oil is prescribed, but pure linseed oil ought to render
the same service, as it is also used in the household. Subsequently,
the eye may be rinsed out with syrup, as the saccharine substance will
harden any remaining particles of lime and destroy all causticity
entirely.
FABRIC CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and also
Household Formulas.
FABRICS, WATERPROOFING OF: See Waterproofing.
FACE BLACK AND FACE POWDER: See Cosmetics.
«Fats»
«Bear Fat.»—Fresh bears’ fat is white and very similar to lard in
appearance. The flank fat is softer and more transparent than the
kidney fat, and its odor recalls that of fresh bacon. Bears’ fat
differs from the fats of the dog, fox, and cat in having a lower
specific gravity, a very low melting point, and a fairly high iodine
value.
«Bleaching Bone Fat.»—Bone fat, which is principally obtained from
horse bones, is very dark colored in the crude state, and of an
extremely disagreeable smell. To remedy these defects it may be
bleached by the air or chemicals, the former method only giving good
results {334} when the fat has been recovered by means of steam. It
consists in cutting up the fat into small fragments and exposing it to
the air for several days, the mass being turned over at intervals with
a shovel. When sufficiently bleached in this manner, the fat is boiled
with half its own weight of water, which done, about 3 or 4 per cent
of salt is added, and the whole is boiled over again. This treatment,
which takes 2 or 3 weeks, sweetens the fat, makes it of the consistency
of butter, and reduces the color to a pale yellow. Light seems to play
no part in the operation, the change being effected solely by the
oxygen of the air. The chemical treatment has the advantage of being
more rapid, sufficient decoloration being produced in a few hours.
The fat, which should be free from gelatin, phosphate of lime, and
water, is placed in an iron pan along with an equal weight of brine
of 14° to 15° Bé. strength, with which it is boiled for 3 hours and
left to rest overnight. Next day the fat is drawn off into a wooden
vessel, where it is treated by degrees with a mixture of 2 parts of
potassium bichromate, dissolved in 6 of boiling water, and 8 parts of
hydrochloric acid (density 22° Bé.), this quantity being sufficient for
400 parts of fat. Decoloration proceeds gradually, and when complete
the fat is washed with hot water.
«Bleaching Tallows and Fats.»—Instead of exposing to the sun, which
is always attended with danger of rendering fats rancid, it is better
to liquefy these at a gentle heat, and then add 1/5 in weight of a
mixture of equal parts of kaolin and water. The fatty matter should
be worked up for a time and then left to separate. Kaolin has the
advantage of cheapness in price and of being readily procured.
Freshly burned animal charcoal would perhaps be a more satisfactory
decolorizer than kaolin, but it is more expensive to start with, and
not so easy to regenerate.
Exposure of tallow to the action of steam under high pressure (a
temperature of 250° or 260° F.) is also said to render it whiter and
harder.
«Coloring Matter in Fats.»—A simple method for the detection of the
addition of coloring matter to fats is here described. Ten parts, by
measure, of the melted fat are put into a small separating funnel and
dissolved in 10 parts, by measure, of petroleum ether. The solution is
then treated with 15 parts, by measure, of glacial acetic acid and the
whole shaken thoroughly. The addition of coloring matter is known by
the red or yellow coloration which appears in the lower layer of acetic
acid after the contents of the funnel have been allowed to settle. If
only a slight addition of coloring matter is suspected, the acetic acid
solution is run off into a porcelain basin and the latter heated on a
water bath, when the coloration will be seen more readily. This test
is intended for butter and margarine, but is also suitable for tallow,
lard, etc.
«Fatty Acid Fermentation Process.»—The production of fatty acids
from fats and oils by fermentation is growing in importance. These
particulars, which are the actual results from recent experiments on
a somewhat extended scale, are given: Seven hundred and fifty pounds
of cottonseed oil are mixed with 45 gallons of water and 3 1/2
pounds of acetic acid; this mixture is heated to a temperature of
85° F. Castor-oil seeds, 53 pounds, decorticated and ground, are mixed
thoroughly with 3 gallons of water and 4 1/2 gallons of the oil,
and this mixture is stirred into the oil and water; the whole mass is
then kept mixed for 12 hours by blowing air through, after which it is
allowed to stand for another 12 hours, being given a gentle stir by
hand at the end of every hour. After 24 hours the mass is heated to a
temperature of 180° F., which stops the fermentation and at the same
time allows the fatty acids to separate more freely. To assist in this
effect there is added 1 gallon of sulphuric acid (1 in 3) solution.
After 2 hours’ standing, the mass will have separated into three
layers—fatty acids on the top, glycerine water below, and a middle,
undefined layer. The glycerine water is run away, and the whole mass
left to stand for 2 hours. The middle portion is run off from the
separated fatty acids into another vessel, where it is mixed with 10
gallons of hot water, thoroughly stirred, and allowed to stand for 16
hours or more. The watery layer at the bottom, which contains some
glycerine, is then run off, while the residue is mixed with a further
quantity of 10 gallons of water, and again allowed to stand. The water
which separates out, also the layer of fatty acids that forms on the
top, are run off and mixed with the portions previously obtained. The
various glycerine waters are treated to recover the glycerine, while
the fatty acids are made marketable in any convenient way. {335}
«Preservation of Fats.»—To produce fats and oils containing both
iodine and sulphur, whereby they are preserved from going rancid, and
consequently can be utilized to more advantage for the usual purposes,
such as the manufacture of soaps, candles, etc., following is the
Loebell method:
The essential feature of the process is that the iodine is not
merely held in solution by the oil or fat, but enters into chemical
combination with the same; the sulphur also combines chemically with
the oil or fat, and from their reactions the preserving properties are
derived.
The process consists of heating, for example, 6 parts of oil with 1
part of sulphur to a temperature varying between 300° and 400° F.,
then, when at about 195° F., a solution of iodine and oil is added to
the mixture, which is constantly agitated until cool to prevent lumps
forming. A product is thus obtained which acquires the consistency of
butter, and contains both iodine and sulphur in combination.