claims of English and French, or, indeed, any other natural language, to
be accepted as an international language: (1) The vast number of
peculiarities, difficulties, and irregularities, rendering necessary so
revolutionary a change for international purposes that the language
would be almost transformed into an artificial language, and perhaps not
even then an entirely satisfactory one. (2) The extraordinary
development during recent years of the minor national languages, and the
jealousy of foreign languages which this revival has caused. This latter
factor is probably alone fatal to the adoption of any living language.
It can scarcely be disputed that neither English nor French occupies
to-day so relatively influential a position as it once occupied. The
movement against the use of French in Roumania, as detrimental to the
national language, is significant of a widespread feeling, while, as
regards English, the introduction by the Germans into commerce of the
method of approaching customers in their own tongue, has rendered
impossible the previous English custom of treating English as the
general language of commerce.
The natural languages, it became realized, fail to answer to the
requirements which must be made of an auxiliary international language.
The conditions which have to be fulfilled are thus formulated by Anna
Roberts:[244]
"_First_, a vocabulary having a maximum of internationality in its
root-words for at least the Indo-European races, living or bordering on
the confines of the old Roman Empire, whose vocabularies are already
saturated with Greek and Latin roots, absorbed during the long centuries
of contact with Greek and Roman civilization. As the centre of gravity
of the world's civilization now stands, this seems the most rational
beginning. Such a language shall then have:
"_Second_, a grammatical structure stripped of all the irregularities
found in every existing tongue, and that shall be simpler than any of
them. It shall have:
"_Third_, a single, unalterable sound for each letter, no silent
letters, no difficult, complex, shaded sounds, but simple primary
sounds, capable of being combined into harmonious words, which latter
shall have but a single stress accent that never shifts.
"_Fourth_, mobility of structure, aptness for the expression of complex
ideas, but in ways that are grammatically simple, and by means of words
that can easily be analysed without a dictionary.
"_Fifth_, it must be capable of being, not merely a literary
language,[245] but a spoken tongue, having a pronunciation that can be
perfectly mastered by adults through the use of manuals, and in the
absence of oral teachers.
"_Finally_, and as a necessary corollary and complement to all of the
above, this international auxiliary language must, to be of general
utility, be exceedingly easy of acquisition by persons of but moderate
education, and hitherto conversant with no language but their own."
Thus the way was prepared for the favourable reception of a new
artificial language, which had in the meanwhile been elaborated. Dr.
Zamenhof, a Russian physician living at Warsaw, had been from youth
occupied with the project of an international language, and in 1887 he
put forth in French his scheme for a new language to be called
Esperanto. The scheme attracted little notice; Volapük was then at the
zenith of its career, and when it fell, its fall discredited all
attempts at an artificial language. But, like Volapük, Esperanto found
its great apostle in France. M. Louis de Beaufront brought his high
ability and immense enthusiasm to the work of propaganda, and the
success of Esperanto in the world is attributed in large measure to him.
The extension of Esperanto is now threatening to rival that of Volapük.
Many years ago Max Müller, and subsequently Skeat, notwithstanding the
philologist's prejudice in favour of natural languages, expressed their
approval of Esperanto, and many persons of distinction, moving in such
widely remote spheres as Tolstoy and Sir William Ramsay, have since
signified their acceptance and their sympathy. Esperanto Congresses are
regularly held, Esperanto Societies and Esperanto Consulates are
established in many parts of the world, a great number of books and
journals are published in Esperanto, and some of the world's classics
have been translated into it.
It is generally recognized that Esperanto represents a great advance on
Volapük. Yet there are already signs that Esperanto is approaching the
climax of its reputation, and that possibly its inventor may share the
fate of the inventor of Volapük and outlive his own language. The most
serious attack on Esperanto has come from within. The most intelligent
Esperantists have realized the weakness and defects of their language
(in some measure due to the inevitable Slavonic prepossessions of its
inventor) and demand radical reforms, which the conservative party
resist. Even M. de Beaufront, to whom its success was largely due, has
abandoned primitive Esperanto, and various scientific men of high
distinction in several countries now advocate the supersession of
Esperanto by an improved language based upon it and called Ido.
Professor Lorenz, who is among the advocates of Ido, admits that
Esperanto has shown the possibility of a synthetic language, but states
definitely that "according to the concordant testimony of all unbiased
opinions" Esperanto in no wise represents the final solution of the
problem. This new movement is embodied in the Délégation pour l'Adoption
d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale, founded in Paris during the
International Exhibition in 1900 by various eminent literary and
scientific men, and having its head-quarters in Paris. The Délégation
consider that the problem demands a purely scientific and technical
solution, and it is claimed that 40 per cent of the stems of Ido are
common to six languages: German, English, French, Italian, Russian and
Spanish. The Délégation appear to have approached the question with a
fairly open mind, and it was only after study of the subject that they
finally reached the conclusion that Esperanto contained a sufficient
number of good qualities to furnish a basis on which to work.[246]
The general programme of the Délégation is that (1) an auxiliary
international language is required, adapted to written and oral language
between persons of different mother tongues; (2) such language must be
capable of serving the needs of science, daily life, commerce, and
general intercourse, and must be of such a character that it may easily
be learnt by persons of average elementary education, especially those
of civilized European nationality; (3) the decision to rest with the
International Association of Academies, and, in case of their refusal,
with the Committee of the Délégation.[247]
The Délégation is seeking to bring about an official international
Congress which would either itself or through properly appointed experts
establish an internationally and officially recognized auxiliary
language. The chief step made in this direction has been the formation
at Berne in 1911 of an international association whose object is to take
immediate steps towards bringing the question before the Governments of
Europe. The Association is pledged to observe a strict neutrality in
regard to the language to be chosen.
The whole question seems thus to have been placed on a sounder basis
than hitherto. The international language of the future cannot be, and
ought not to be, settled by a single individual seeking to impose his
own invention on the world. This is not a matter for zealous propaganda
of an almost religious character. The hasty and premature adoption of
some privately invented language merely retards progress. No individual
can settle the question by himself. What we need is calm study and
deliberation between the nations and the classes chiefly concerned,
acting through the accredited representatives of their Governments and
other professional bodies. Nothing effective can be done until the
pressure of popular opinion has awakened Governments and scientific
societies to the need for action. The question of international
arbitration has become practical; the question of the international
language ought to go hand in hand with that of international
arbitration. They are closely allied and both equally necessary.
While the educational, commercial, and official advantages of an
auxiliary international language are obvious, it seems to me that from
the standpoint of social hygiene there are at least three interests
which are especially and deeply concerned in the settlement of this
question.
The first and chief is that of international democracy in its efforts to
attain an understanding on labour questions. There can be no solution of
this question until a simpler mode of personal communication has become
widely prevalent. This matter has from time to time already been brought
before international labour congresses, and those who attend such
congresses have doubtless had occasion to realize how essential it is.
Perhaps it is a chief factor in the comparative failure of such
congresses hitherto.
Science represents the second great interest which has shown an active
concern in the settlement of this question. To follow up any line of
scientific research is already a sufficiently gigantic work, on account
of the absence of proper bibliographical organization; it becomes almost
overwhelming now that the search has to extend over at least half a
dozen languages, and still leaves the searcher a stranger to the
important investigations which are appearing in Russian and in Japanese,
and will before long appear in other languages. Sir Michael Foster once
drew a humorous picture of the woes of the physiologist owing to these
causes. In other fields--especially in the numerous branches of
anthropological research, as I can myself bear witness--the worker is
even worse off than the physiologist. Just now science is concentrating
its energies on the organization of bibliography, but much attention has
been given to this question of an international language from time to
time, and it is likely before long to come pressingly to the front.
The medical profession is also practically concerned in this question;
hitherto it has, indeed, taken a more lively interest in the effort to
secure an international language than has pure science. It is of the
first importance that new discoveries and methods in medicine and
hygiene should be rendered immediately accessible; while the now
enormously extended domain of medicine is full of great questions which
can only be solved by international co-operation on an international
basis. The responsibility of advocating a number of measures affecting
the well-being of communities lies, in the first place, with the medical
profession; but no general agreement is possible without full facilities
for discussion in international session. This has been generally
recognized; hence the numerous attempts to urge a single language on the
organizers of the international medical congresses. I have already
observed how large and active these congresses were. Yet it cannot be
said that any results are achieved commensurate with the world-wide
character of such congresses. Partly this is due to the fact that the
organizers of international congresses have not yet learnt what should
be the scope of such conferences, and what they may legitimately hope to
perform; but very largely because there is no international method of
communication; and, except for a few seasoned cosmopolitans, no truly
international exchange of opinions takes place. This can only be
possible when we have a really common and familiar method of
intercommunication.
These three interests--democratic, scientific, medical--seem at present
those chiefly concerned in the task of putting this matter on a definite
basis, and it is much to be desired that they should come to some common
agreement. They represent three immensely important modes of social and
intellectual activity, and the progress of every nation is bound up with
an international progress of which they are now the natural pioneers. It
cannot be too often repeated that the day has gone by when any progress
worthy of the name can be purely national. All the most vital questions
of national progress tend to merge themselves into international
questions. But before any question of international progress can result
in anything but noisy confusion, we need a recognized mode of
international intelligence and communication. That is why the question
of the auxiliary international language is of actual and vital interest
to all who are concerned with the tasks of social hygiene.
THE QUESTION ON INTERNATIONAL COINAGE
It must be remembered that the international auxiliary language is an
organic part of a larger internationalization which must inevitably be
effected, and is indeed already coming into being. Two related measures
of intercommunication are an international system of postage stamps, and
an international coinage, to which may be added an international system
of weights and measures, which seems to be already in course of
settlement by the increasingly general adoption of the metric system.
The introduction of the exchangeable international stamp coupon
represents the beginning of a truly international postal system; but it
is only a beginning. If a completely developed international postal
system were incidentally to deliver some nations, and especially the
English, from the depressingly ugly postage stamps they are now
condemned to use, this reform would possess a further advantage almost
as great as its practical utility. An international coinage is, again, a
prime necessity, which would possess immense commercial advantages in
addition to the great saving of trouble it would effect. The progress of
civilization is already working towards an international coinage. In an
interesting paper on this subject ("International Coinage," _Popular
Science Monthly_, March, 1910) T.F. van Wagenen writes; "Each in its
way, the great commercial nations of the day are unconsciously engaged
in the task. The English shilling is working northwards from the Cape
of Good Hope, has already come in touch with the German mark and the
Portuguese peseta which have been introduced on both the east and west
sides of the Continent, and will in due time meet the French franc and
Italian lira coming south from the shores of the Mediterranean. In Asia,
the Indian rupee, the Russian rouble, the Japanese yen, and the
American-Philippine coins are already competing for the patronage of the
Malay and the Chinaman. In South America neither American nor European
coins have any foot-hold, the Latin-American nations being well supplied
by systems of their own, all related more or less closely to the coinage
of Mexico or Portugal. Thus the plainly evolutionary task of pushing
civilization into the uneducated parts of the world through commerce is
as badly hampered by the different coins offered to the barbarian as are
the efforts of the evangelists to introduce Christianity by the
existence of the various denominations and creeds. The Church is
beginning to appreciate the wastage in its efforts, and is trying to
minimize it by combinations among the denominations having for their
object to standardize Christianity, so to speak, by reducing tenet and
dogma to the lowest possible terms. Commerce must do the same. The white
man's coins must be standardized and simplified.... The international
coin will come in a comparatively short time, just as will arrive the
international postage stamp, which, by the way, is very badly needed.
For the upper classes of all countries, the people who travel, and have
to stand the nuisance and loss of changing their money at every
frontier, the bankers and international merchants who have to cumber
their accounts with the fluctuating item of exchange between commercial
centres will insist upon it. All the European nations, with the
exception of Russia and Turkey, are ready for the change, and when these
reach the stage of real constitutionalism in their progress upward,
they will be compelled to follow, being already deeply in debt to the
French, English, and Germans. Japan may be counted upon to acquiesce
instantly in any unit agreed upon by the rest of the civilized world."
This writer points out that the opening out of the uncivilized parts of
the world to commerce will alone serve to make an international coinage
absolutely indispensable.
Without, however, introducing a really new system, an auxiliary
international money system (corresponding to an auxiliary international
language) could be introduced as a medium of exchange without
interfering with the existing coinages of the various nations. Réné de
Saussure (writing in the _Journal de Genève_, in 1907) has insisted on
the immense benefit such a system of "monnaie de compte" would be in
removing the burden imposed upon all international financial relations
by the diversity of money values. He argues that the best point of union
would be a gold piece of eight grammes--almost exactly equivalent to one
pound, twenty marks, five dollars, and twenty-five francs--being, in
fact, but one-third of a penny different from the value of a pound
sterling. For the subdivisions the point of union must be decimally
divided, and M. de Saussure would give the name of speso to a
ten-thousandth part of the gold coin.
FOOTNOTES:
[236] The history of the efforts to attain a universal language has been
written by Couturat and Leau, _Histoire de la Langue Universelle_, 1903.
[237] The distinguished French physician, Dr. Sollier, also, in an address
to the Lisbon International Medical Congress, on "La Question de la
Langue Auxiliaire Internationale," in 1906, advocating the adoption of
one of the existing Romance tongues, said: "Spanish is the simplest of
all and the easiest, and if it were chosen for this purpose I should be
the first to accept it."
[238] It has even been stated by a distinguished English man of science
that Latin is sometimes easier for the English to use than is their own
language. "I have known Englishmen who could be trusted to write a more
intelligible treatise, possibly even to make a more lucid speech, in
Latin than in English," says Dr. Miers, the Principal of London
University (_Lancet_, 7th October, 1911), and he adds: "Quite seriously,
I think some part of the cause is to be sought in the difficulty of our
language, and many educated persons get lost in its intricacies, just as
they get lost in its spelling." Without questioning the fact, however, I
would venture to question this explanation of it.
[239] Thus in one article on the growing extension of the English language
throughout the world (_Macmillan's Magazine_, March, 1892) we read:
"English is practically certain to become the language of the world....
The speech of Shakespeare and Milton, of Dryden and Swift, of Byron and
Wordsworth, will be, in a sense in which no other language has been, the
speech of the whole world." We do not nowadays meet with these wild
statements.
[240] The stumbling-stones for the foreigner presented by English words in
"ough" have often been referred to, and are clearly set forth in the
verses in which Mr. C.B. Loomis has sought to represent a French
learner's experiences--and the same time to show the criminal impulses
which these irregularities arouse in the pupil.
"I'm taught p-l-o-u-g-h
Shall be pronouncèd 'plow,'
'Zat's easy when you know,' I say,
'Mon Anglais I'll get through.'
"My teacher say zat in zat case
O-u-g-h is 'oo,'
And zen I laugh and say to him
'Zees Anglais make me cough.'
"He say, 'Not coo, but in zat word
O-u-g-h is "off,"'
Oh, _sacre bleu_! such varied sounds
Of words make me hiccough!
"He say, 'Again, mon friend ees wrong!
O-u-g-h is "up,"
In hiccough,' Zen I cry, 'No more,
You make my throat feel rough,'
"'Non! non!' he cry, 'you are not right--
O-u-g-h is "uff."'
I say, 'I try to speak your words,
I can't prononz zem though,'
"'In time you'll learn, but now you're wrong,
O-u-g-h is "owe."'
'I'll try no more. I sall go mad,
I'll drown me in ze lough!'
"'But ere you drown yourself,' said he,
'O-u-g-h is "ock."'
He taught no more! I held him fast,
And killed him wiz a rough!"
[241] It is interesting to remember that at one period in European
history, French seemed likely to absorb English, and thus to acquire, in
addition to its own motor force, all the motor force which now lies
behind English. When the Normans--a vigorous people of Scandinavian
origin, speaking a Romance tongue, and therefore well fitted to
accomplish a harmonizing task of this kind--occupied both sides of the
English Channel, it seemed probable that they would dominate the speech
of England as well as of France. "At that time," says Méray (_La Vie aux
Temps des Cours d'Amour_, p. 367), who puts forward this view, "the
people of the two coasts of the Channel were closer in customs and in
speech than were for a long time the French on the opposite banks of the
Loire.... The influential part of the English nation and all the people
of its southern regions spoke the _Romance_ of the north of France. In
the Crusades the Knights of the two peoples often mixed, and were
greeted as Franks wherever their adventurous spirit led them. If Edward
III, with the object of envenoming an antagonism which served his own
ends, had not broken this link of language, the two peoples would
perhaps have been united to-day in the same efforts of progress and of
liberty.... Of what a fine instrument of culture and of progress has not
that fatal decree of Edward III deprived civilization!"
[242] I was at one time (_Progressive Review_, April, 1897) inclined to
think that the adoption of both English and French, as joint auxiliary
international languages--the first for writing and the second for
speaking--might solve the problem. I have since recognized that such a
solution, however advantageous it might be for human culture, would
present many difficulties, and is quite impracticable.
[243] I may refer to three able papers which have appeared in recent years
in the _Popular Science Monthly_: Anna Monsch Roberts, "The Problem of
International Speech" (February, 1908); Ivy Kellerman, "The Necessity
for an International Language," (September, 1909); Albert Léon Guérard,
"English as an International Language" (October, 1911). All these
writers reject as impracticable the adoption of either English or French
as the auxiliary international language, and view with more favour the
adoption of an artificial language such as Esperanto.
[244] A.M. Roberts, _op. cit._
[245] It should be added, however, that the auxiliary language need not
be used as a medium for literary art, and it is a mistake, as Pfaundler
points out, to translate poems into such a language.
[246] See _International Language and Science_, 1910, by Couturat,
Jespersen, Lorenz, Ostwald, Pfaundler, and Donnan, five professors
living in five different countries.
[247] The progress of the movement is recorded in its official journal,
_Progreso_, edited by Couturat, and in De Beaufront's journal, _La
Langue Auxiliaire_.
XII
INDIVIDUALISM AND SOCIALISM
Social Hygiene in Relation to the Alleged Opposition between
Socialism and Individualism--The Two Parties in Politics--The
Relation of Conservatism and Radicalism to Socialism and
Individualism--The Basis of Socialism--The Basis of
Individualism--The seeming Opposition between Socialism and
Individualism merely a Division of Labour--Both Socialism and
Individualism equally Necessary--Not only Necessary but
Indispensable to each other--The Conflict between the Advocates of
Environment and Heredity--A New Embodiment of the supposed Conflict
between Socialism and Individualism--The Place of Eugenics--Social
Hygiene ultimately one with the Hygiene of the Soul--The Function
of Utopias.
The controversy between Individualism and Socialism, the claim of the
personal unit as against the claim of the collective community, is of
ancient date. Yet it is ever new and constantly presented afresh. It
even seems to become more acute as civilization progresses. Every scheme
of social reform, every powerful manifestation of individual energy,
raise anew a problem that is never out of date.