MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS.
The Person and Characteristics of Khalifa Abdullahi--The Fate of
the Mahdist Chronicler--The Princesses of Darfur--The Khalifa's
Family Life--His Harem--The Organisation of his
Body-guard--Enforced Attendance at the Mosque--The Postal
System--Military Parades--Elevation of the Western Arabs and
Oppression of the River Tribes--The Military Situation and
Strength--Guns and Ammunition--Revenue and Expenditure--Courage.
I will now say a few words regarding the Khalifa's person and his
characteristics.
Sayed Abdullahi Ibn Sayed Mohammed belongs to the Taaisha section of the
Baggaras (as all cattle-owning nomad Arabs are called). This section
inhabits the country in the southwestern portion of Darfur; and the
Khalifa himself is descended from the Aulad Om Sura of the Jubarat
family. I have already referred to Abdullahi's early life, and how he
had established a connection with the slave-hunting Arabs, when still
quite a youth. He joined the Mahdi at the age of thirty-five, and was
then a slim and active, though powerfully built man; but latterly he has
become very stout, and his lightness of gait has long since disappeared.
He is now forty-nine years of age, but looks considerably older; and the
hair of his beard is almost white. At times, the expression of his face
is one of charming amiability, but more generally it is one of dark
sternness, in which tyranny and unscrupulous resolution are unmistakably
visible. He is rash and quick-tempered, acting often without a moment's
consideration; and when in this mood, even his own brother dares not
approach him. His nature is suspicious to a degree to every one, his
nearest relatives and members of his household included. He admits that
loyalty and fidelity are rare qualities, and that those who have to deal
with him invariably conceal their real feelings in order to gain their
own ends. He is most susceptible to flattery, and consequently receives
an inordinate amount from every one. No one dares to speak to him
without referring, in the most fulsome terms, to his wisdom, power,
justice, courage, generosity, and truthfulness. He accepts this absurd
adulation with the greatest pleasure and satisfaction; but woe to him
who in the slightest degree offends his dignity.
The following episode will give the reader a fair idea of his arbitrary
nature:--
A certain Kadi named Ismail Wad Abdel Kader, who had been well educated
in Cairo, had gained great favour with the Mahdi by having written a
laudatory account of his early victories. This had so fully gratified
the great religious reformer that he instructed Abdel Kader to continue
to chronicle the various important events as they happened, and further
instructed his principal Emirs to forward to him detailed histories of
all that occurred within their respective commands. In time, these
chronicles grew into an elaborate historical and inflated statement of
Mahdist rule in the Sudan; and, after the Mahdi's death, the Khalifa,
who had installed Abdel Kader as state chronicler, ordered the
continuance of the work. One day, however, during a pleasure-party, the
historian had been overheard to say that present affairs in the Sudan,
as compared with those in Egypt, might be described by the following
simile: The Khalifa might be considered as the Khedive Ismail Pasha,
whilst, in the same proportion, he, Abdel Kader, might be likened to
Ismail Pasha el Mofettish, who had been the Viceroy's principal adviser
and friend. This thoughtless statement was immediately reported to
Abdullahi, who, furious at such a comparison, at once ordered the judges
to assemble and make a full inquiry into the matter; and if Abdel Kader
had actually made such a statement, he should be at once condemned. To
the Kadis, he argued thus: "The Mahdi is the representative of the
Prophet Mohammed, and I am his successor. Who, therefore, in the whole
world holds so high a position as I? Who can be nobler than the direct
descendant of the Prophet?" The inquiry proved the guilt of Abdel Kader,
who, at the Khalifa's command, was thrown into chains and transported to
Reggaf. "What business has he to compare affairs here with those of
Egypt?" said the pompous Khalifa. "If he wishes to compare himself to a
Pasha, then I, the descendant of the Prophet, will never demean myself
to be put on a par with the Khedive,--a mere Turk." I suppose by these
assertions he thought to impress the populace. The stupid man too, in
his offended dignity, did not stop here. He at once ordered all the
chronicles (of which several copies had been made) to be instantly
burnt; but I heard privately that his secretary, who was being
frequently referred to by the Khalifa on the subject of the early events
of his reign, secreted one copy for private reference; and if these
strange chronicles could only be procured and translated into European
languages, they would expose to the civilised world the methods of
Mahdism in all its barefaced mendacity.
Abdullahi's pride and confidence in his own powers are indescribable. He
firmly believes that he is capable of doing anything and everything; and
as he pretends to act under Divine inspiration, he never hesitates to
appropriate the merits of others as his own. For example, he stated that
the Mahdi's tomb, which had been built with immense labour and trouble
by the former Government architect Ismail, had been designed by himself
entirely in accordance with Divinely inspired plans. He ascribed Osman
Wad Adam's victory over Abu Gemmaiza, as well as Zeki Tummal's over King
John of Abyssinia, to the inspired orders which he pretended he had
issued. His character is a strange mixture of malice and cruelty. He
delights to annoy and cause disappointment; and he is never happier than
when he has brought people to complete destitution by confiscating
their property, throwing them into chains, robbing families wholesale,
seizing and executing all persons of tribal influence and authority, and
reducing entire races to a condition of powerless impotence.
During the Mahdi's lifetime, he was entirely responsible for the
severity of the proceedings enacted in his name, and for the merciless
manner in which he treated his defeated enemies. It was Abdullahi who
gave the order for no quarter at the storming of Khartum; and it was he
who subsequently authorised the wholesale massacre of the men, women,
and children. After the fall of that city, it was he who, for the period
of four days, declared the whole Shaigia tribe to be outlaws. When
distributing the captured women and children, he was utterly regardless
of their feelings. To separate children from their mothers, and to make
their re-union practically impossible by scattering them amongst
different tribes, was his principal delight. When Osman Wad Adam sent to
Omdurman the sisters of the late Sultan of Darfur, the Princesses Miriam
Isa Basi and Miriam Bakhita, he gave them their liberty, but took most
of their female relatives into his own harem, and distributed the
remainder amongst his followers; and, hearing that some Darfur people
who were residing in Omdurman had called on the Princesses, and offered
them presents, he had the latter arrested and made over as slaves to his
two Emirs, Hassib and Kanuna, who were on the point of starting for
Reggaf. In vain poor Bakhita's blind mother implored to be allowed to
accompany her daughter; but she was forcibly prevented by the Khalifa's
special orders, and died a few days later of a broken heart. Her
daughter threw herself into the river as the boat started. She was
saved, but subsequently died on the journey from fatigue and misery.
Ahmed Gurab, an Egyptian born in Khartum, who had quitted the city as a
merchant before the destruction of Hicks Pasha's army, had left behind
him his wife, who was a Sudanese, and his daughter. He eventually
returned to see them; and, on the day he arrived in Omdurman, he was
brought before the Khalifa, to whom he explained the reasons of his
return, and expressed a wish to enter his service. "I accept your
offer," said the Khalifa. "You will at once proceed to Reggaf, and fight
in the Holy Cause against the heathen." In vain the unfortunate man
begged and implored to remain with his wife and daughter, or at least to
be allowed to see them; but the Khalifa ordered his mulazemin to take
him at once on board the steamer, and guard him carefully, and on no
account permit him to see his family. With a smile of fiendish delight,
he said: "His fellow-passengers are Isa Basi and Bakhita. He may enjoy
their society as much as he likes, if their masters will allow him."
Without the smallest rhyme or reason, he has caused the death of
thousands of innocent people. He had the right hand and left foot of a
certain Omar publicly cut off in the market-place, because he had failed
to make lead, which he had said he could do, and for which purpose he
had received a small sum of money in advance. During the horrible
execution and mutilation of the Batahin, he had been present, and had
looked with pleasure on the slaughter of his victims. I have described
how his best friends and most faithful servants were victimised through
his caprice, and how he had ruthlessly seized for himself their wives
and daughters. Then what could be more cruel than his punishment of the
Ashraf? No doubt they were guilty of mutiny; but he might have exiled or
imprisoned them, instead of killing them with clubs and axes as if they
had been dogs; and yet these were the near relatives of his former lord
and master, the Mahdi.
In all intercourse with him, he demands the most complete humility and
submission. Persons entering his presence stand in front of him with
their hands crossed over their breasts and their eyes lowered to the
ground, awaiting his permission to be seated. In his audience chamber,
he is generally seated on an angareb, over which a palm-mat is spread,
and his sheepskin stretched out on it, whilst he leans against a large
roll of cotton cloth which forms a pillow. When those brought before
him are allowed to be seated, they take up a position as in prayers,
with their eyes fixed on the ground; and in this posture they answer the
questions put to them, and dare not move until permission is given them
to withdraw.
Even in the mosque, when prayers are over, and he converses on general
subjects, those in close proximity to him invariably maintain this
attitude. He is most particular that all persons brought before him
should keep their eyes downcast, whilst he himself scrutinises them most
carefully. Some years ago a Syrian named Mohammed Said, who had the
misfortune to have only one eye, happened to be near him when he was
delivering a religious lecture, and unintentionally cast his blind eye
in the direction of the Khalifa. The latter at once called me up, and
told me to tell the Syrian never to come near him again, and if he did
never to dare to look at him. At the same time he told me that every one
should be most careful to guard themselves against the evil eye. "For,"
said he, "nothing can resist the human eye. Illness and misfortunes are
generally caused by the evil eye."
In spite of his tyrannical nature, the Khalifa shows to greater
advantage in his private life. He is devoted to his eldest son Osman,
who is now twenty-one years of age, and who has been instructed in all
the commentaries of the Kuran by able Mohammedan teachers; but his
father never hesitated to change the teachers as often as his son
wished; and when Osman affirmed to his father that he was sufficiently
instructed, the latter at once withdrew his teachers. When he reached
his seventeenth year, he was married to his cousin, the daughter of his
uncle Yakub; and on this occasion the Khalifa departed from the strict
observances as regards marriage enjoined by the Mahdi, and arranged a
series of banquets extending over a period of eight days, to which
almost every inhabitant in Omdurman was invited. He had a large red
brick house built for his son in the space lying opposite to Yakub's
residence, and had it furnished with all the comfort available in the
Sudan. An attempt was even made to lay out a garden on the stony ground
within the enclosure. Shortly afterwards, he gave his son two more of
his female relatives in marriage, and innumerable concubines, which he
himself selected; but he declared, in the most emphatic manner, that he
would never permit him to marry a woman from any of the Nile valley
tribes. He watches over his son's intercourse with strangers with the
greatest jealousy, and considers it a most dangerous proceeding; and
when he heard that, in the perversity of youth, his son entirely
disregarded his injunctions, and held nightly orgies in his house, he
had a new residence built for him within the Omdurman wall close to his
own, so as to exercise greater supervision, and handed over his old
house to Yakub.
He married his own daughter to the Mahdi's son Mohammed, to whom he bore
no good will; whilst the latter was anxious to marry one of his own
relations, and had no love for the Khalifa's daughter. Abdullahi,
however, as father-in-law, guardian, and master, absolutely forbade him
to enter into any such alliance, and tried to insist on his affection
for his daughter, with the result that a complete estrangement was
brought about between man and wife, ending in a divorce; but the Khalifa
was so annoyed that, out of pure fear, Mohammed had to take her back,
and swear entire devotion to her for the rest of his life.
The Khalifa thought it incumbent on his position to maintain a large
establishment; and as this was also entirely in conformity with his own
inclinations, he gradually became possessor of a harem of over four
hundred wives. In accordance with the Mohammedan law, he has four legal
wives, who belong to free tribes; but, being a lover of change, he never
hesitates to divorce them at will, and take others in their places. The
other women of the household consist for the most part of young girls,
many of whom belong to tribes which have been forced to accept Mahdism,
and whose husbands and fathers fought against him. They are therefore
regarded as booty, and have only the rights and claims of concubines,
or, in some cases, of slaves. This large assortment of ladies varies in
colour from light brown to the deepest black, and comprises almost every
tribe in the Sudan. They are divided into groups of from fifteen to
twenty, presided over by a superior; and two or three of these groups
are placed under the orders of a free woman, who is generally a
concubine specially selected by the Khalifa. A certain amount of grain
and money is granted monthly to these superiors for the maintenance of
their charges; and they also receive means to purchase the necessary
cosmetics, consisting of various sorts of oils, grease, and scent. The
value of their clothing is regulated entirely by the comparative beauty,
position, and character of the wearers, and consists for the most part
of native-woven cotton cloth with particoloured borders, or of bright
silk or woollen shawls imported from Egypt. These are always distributed
by the Khalifa himself or by his chief eunuch. As the wearing of silver
jewellery was strictly prohibited by the Mahdi, mother-of-pearl buttons
and oblong strips of red coral and onyx, threaded together, are worn
round the wrists, ankles, and head. The hair is usually worn in
innumerable small plaits, which are arranged in all sorts of different
ways, and bedaubed with a quantity of oily and greasy scents; and to
European olfactory nerves the odour emanating from a Sudanese lady "en
grande toilette" is repulsive in the extreme. For the last few years the
wives of the upper classes have again taken to wearing gold and silver
jewellery; and the Khalifa's principal women indulge in these luxuries
to a greater extent than the rest. The latter live in a series of large
detached houses, something like barracks, surrounded by courts encircled
with high walls. Special women are maintained to watch over their state
of health; and they are obliged to report it to their master, the
Khalifa, from time to time. When he wishes to summon any lady in
particular to share his affections, he communicates his desire by means
of little boy eunuchs. Occasionally, he holds an inspection of his
entire household, and makes use of such opportunities to rid himself of
those of whom he is weary, in order to make room for new attractions.
Those disposed of in this way he generally passes on to his near
relatives, his special favourites, or his servants. The harem courts are
carefully guarded by eunuchs and the Black mulazemin. The women are
almost entirely cut off from intercourse with the outer world; and
perhaps once a year their female relations are allowed to converse with
them for only a short time.
The Khalifa's principal wife is called Sahra, and belongs to his own
tribe. She has shared with him from earliest days all his joys and
sorrows, and is the mother of his oldest children Osman and Kadija.
During the early years of his reign, he would only eat the simplest
food, cooked by her or under her superintendence. It consisted, as a
rule, merely of asida, roast meat, and chickens; but as his household
increased, he began to try the various sorts of cookery known to his new
wives, many of whom were acquainted with the Turkish and Egyptian
methods; and now, in place of the simple food, he indulges in far more
luxurious fare, though to outward appearance he still pretends to lead a
life of simplicity and abstinence. These innovations brought about a
quarrel between him and his wife Sahra, who pointed out that the new
dishes might be bewitched or poisoned, and might end in his death, with
the result that he twice sent her letters of separation; but, on the
strong representations of his brother Yakub and the other members of the
family, he was induced to cancel them.
He has in his service in all some twenty eunuchs, chief of whom is a
certain Abdel Gayum, who is also charged with the superintendence of
large quantities of land which are cultivated by slaves for the use of
the household; and it is his duty to purchase the necessary supplies of
grain, and have in readiness the sheep and cattle required for domestic
purposes. He also draws from the Beit el Mal the necessary amounts
required for the payment of the women and servants of the harem. He has
also charge of considerable sums of private money with which the Khalifa
purchases the presents he secretly makes to his Emirs and other
influential persons. To assist him in carrying out his multifarious
duties, he has a staff of clerks and servants, who are always eunuchs or
slaves, as the Khalifa will on no account allow any stranger to get an
insight into his harem.
Abdullahi's dress consists of a jibba made of superfine white cotton
cloth with a coloured border, loose cotton drawers, and on his head a
beautifully made Mecca silk skull-cap, around which a small white turban
is wound. Around his body a narrow strip of cotton, about five yards
long, called wassan, is worn, and a light shawl of the same material is
thrown across his shoulders. He formerly wore sandals; but latterly he
has taken to wearing soft leather stockings of a light brown colour, and
yellow shoes. When walking, he carries a sword in his left hand, and in
his right a beautifully worked Hadendoa spear, which he uses as a
walking-stick. He is invariably accompanied by twelve or fifteen little
boy-slaves as his personal attendants. Many of these are children of
Abyssinian Christians seized by Abu Anga and Zeki Tummal. Their duty is
to remain always near him, and act as his messengers to various parts of
the town. They usher into his presence all visitors, and must be ready
day and night to carry his orders. When they reach the age of seventeen
or eighteen, they are drafted into the ranks of the mulazemin, and their
places taken by others. The Khalifa thinks that by employing young boys,
his secrets are less likely to be betrayed; and in this he is not far
wrong, when one considers the extraordinary amount of bribery and
corruption which prevails amongst the older classes. Within the house,
into which these young boys are never admitted, he employs young
eunuchs, who wait upon him, whilst the more advanced in age of this
unfortunate class are relegated to the outer dependencies of the
household. Even these juvenile domestics suffer considerable brutality
at his hands. The slightest mistakes are punished by flogging, or the
offenders are thrown into chains and starved.
Upwards of three years ago, he conceived the idea of augmenting his
mulazemin by a species of body-guard; and for this purpose he selected a
number of Jehadia from Mahmud Ahmed's and Zeki Tummal's armies. In
addition to these, he called on the Emirs of the western tribes to
provide a number of recruits for his mulazemin; but his orders were only
partially obeyed. He selected a few of the sons of the best Jaalin
families for incorporation in the body-guard; but he rigorously excluded
all Danaglas and Egyptians, in whom he has no confidence. In this
manner, he created a force of from eleven to twelve thousand men, who,
with their wives and children, are all quartered close to his and his
son's houses, and within the newly erected wall. This force is
subdivided into three corps, under the respective commands of his son
Osman, the Khalifa's young brother Harun Abu Mohammed, who is barely
eighteen years of age, and his cousin Ibrahim Khalil, who has been
recently replaced by an Abyssinian named Rabeh, who has been brought up
in the Khalifa's household.
Osman, in all matters regarding the mulazemin, is looked upon as the
Khalifa's representative. The corps are subdivided again into sections
of one hundred men, over each of which an officer called Ras Miya (head
of the hundred), who has several assistants, has command. Over every
five or six Ras Miya an Emir presides, who is also provided with an
assistant. The Black soldiers, or Jehadia, are incorporated in the
subdivisions, not with the free Arabs, but under the special command of
the Emirs, who have therefore under their respective orders two or three
hundred Jehadia, and the remainder Arabs. Almost all these are armed
with Remington rifles, which, however, are kept in store, and are only
issued on special feasts. The monthly pay of the mulazemin consists of
half a Dervish dollar, and, every fortnight, one-eighth of an ardeb of
dhurra. The grain is received fairly regularly; but the cash payment is
merely a nominal one, and is very seldom issued. The salaries of the
Ras Miya and Emirs are proportionately higher; and they receive frequent
gifts of women and slaves from the Khalifa. The duty of the mulazemin
and body-guard is to protect the person of the Khalifa; and all must
accompany him when he rides out or holds reviews. Even when making a
comparatively small expedition into the town they must proceed with him.
They have always to remain in readiness in the open square in front of
his house. Although the Khalifa has forbidden all Egyptian music, he has
collected the former Black buglers, two of whom invariably accompany
him. The call for a Ras Miya is that of captain; for Emir that of major;
and for commander that of colonel. Abdullahi frequently inspects the
mulazemin at night, in order to see that they are in occupation of the
posts allotted to them; and he pays special attention to the outposts.
Owing to this unusually hard service, the Ras Miya and Emirs, under the
pretext of illness, frequently go secretly to their houses, and great
discontent prevails amongst them.
The Khalifa's public duties consist in saying the five prayers daily in
the large mosque. At early dawn, he begins with the morning prayers,
after which the Rateb is read in various groups, as enjoined by the
Mahdi. This consists of a selection of verses and special prayers from
the Kuran, and occupies about an hour. The Khalifa then returns, as a
rule, to his private apartments, but sometimes walks about in the mosque
in order to see for himself whether the inhabitants of Omdurman comply
with his orders to attend prayers regularly. He holds midday prayers at
about two o'clock, and two hours later follows the Asr, or evening
prayer, after which the Rateb is repeated. Prayers are said again at
sunset, and, three hours later, night prayers are held. On all these
occasions, the Khalifa attends in his mihrab (niche), which has been
erected immediately in front of the lines of believers. It is a
square-shaped structure, consisting of a series of columns connected by
open iron-work, through which he can see all that is going on around
him. Immediately behind him are the seats of his son, the Kadis, and a
few persons specially selected by himself. The mulazemin take up a
position to the right and left, whilst the Black soldiers occupy large
open enclosures which are separated from the mosque by a wall. On the
right of the mulazemin are the places of Yakub, the Emirs, and most of
the western tribes, whilst to the left are some of Yakub's followers, a
few of Khalifa Ali Wad Helu's Arabs, and the Jaalin and Danagla. Behind
these, the people are seated in ten or twelve rows, and repeat the
prayers in unison after the Khalifa. On all occasions there are several
thousand persons present; and the Khalifa is most particular that all
the principal Emirs and influential people should assist him. If he
bears any special dislike or ill-will to any persons, he invariably
condemns them to regularly attend the five daily prayers in the mosque,
under the supervision of people specially selected for this purpose. In
making these strict regulations regarding prayers, the Khalifa is by no
means actuated by devotional ideas, but utilises these occasions to keep
his followers together under his own personal control. As several of the
people live a considerable distance away from the mosque, they are
generally so tired and exhausted, after these frequent journeys to and
fro, that they do not collect in the evening in each others' houses,--a
practice which the Khalifa specially abhors, for his object is to
destroy, as far as possible, what he is pleased to call "social life;"
that is to say, social gatherings, for he is perfectly well aware that
his deeds and actions on such occasions are invariably discussed and
criticised, and not generally very favourably.
If, for any reason, such as illness, he is prevented from attending
prayers, his place is taken by one of his Kadis, or by a very pious
mulazem of the Takruri tribe; but on such occasions the substitute Imam
is never allowed to occupy the mihrab, but stands outside. Khalifa Ali
Wad Helu, who, in accordance with the religious law, should, on such
occasions, represent the Khalifa, is scarcely ever permitted to do so.
In the afternoon, or between afternoon and evening prayers, he receives
reports, news, and letters, and interviews the Kadis and Emirs whose
names have been previously submitted to him, as well as any other
persons whom he specially wishes to see.
His postal arrangements are very primitive. He keeps up from sixty to
eighty riding camels, with a specially selected staff of postmen; and
these he despatches to different parts of his Empire with orders and
instructions. Ibrahim Adlan had suggested to him that he should make
special stations for the posts along the various main roads, and
establish a more regular and less expensive system; but he utterly
refused to entertain the idea, saying that he placed special value on
the verbal accounts of the postmen who were despatched direct, and he
frequently obtained from them important information concerning the
attitude and behaviour of his Governors. The Emirs of the various
districts also have a similar postal system of their own, and despatch
camel-men with important information to Omdurman. There is no system of
postal communication for private persons, though sometimes the
camel-postmen convey letters secretly. The Khalifa being intensely
suspicious of all intercourse with strangers, any communications between
his subordinates and the outside must be carried out with the greatest
circumspection and secrecy. Utterly ignorant of reading and writing, the
Khalifa orders all letters that arrive to be handed over to his
secretaries, Abu el Gasem and Mudasser, who are obliged to explain the
contents, and write replies in accordance with his orders. These two
individuals lead a wretched life; for they know that he will not forgive
the slightest mistake, and should he have the least suspicion of their
having revealed any of his secrets, even through carelessness, he would
not hesitate to treat them as he treated their comrades Ahmedi and his
four brothers, who, having been accused of communicating with the
Ashraf, were executed.
He converses principally with his Kadis, who are, for the most part,
willing tools in his hands, and serve to give a veneer of justice to
his despotic actions. These myrmidons, submissively seated in a
semi-circle on the bare floor, their heads bowed down, listen to his
orders, which are generally given in an undertone; and rarely any one of
them dares to open his mouth or make a suggestion, no matter how
necessary he may think it. In addition to the Kadis, he occasionally
interviews Emirs and other influential persons, from whom he ascertains
the condition of the country and tribes; but he invariably stirs up
intrigue, and tries to pit one against the other. He generally consults,
immediately after night prayers, with Yakub and some of his near
relatives; and these meetings often last till long past midnight. They
are usually convened for discussing the ways and means of ridding
themselves of persons who are objectionable, or who are in the smallest
degree a menace to their authority.
Occasionally, he makes short riding excursions to various parts of the
town, or visits his houses in the north or south of Omdurman. The
melancholy notes of the ombeija and the beating of war-drums announce to
the inhabitants that their master is about to appear in public. Horses
are at once saddled in the large thatched enclosure immediately behind
the mosque. The doors are thrown open, and the mulazemin stream out from
all directions, and, last of all, follows the Khalifa, mounted, as a
rule, on horseback. A square is immediately formed around him; and the
men advance in front of him in detachments, ten or twelve abreast.
Behind them follow the horse and foot men of the town population, while
on the Khalifa's left walks an immensely powerful and well-built Arab
named Ahmed Abu Dukheka, who has the honour of lifting his master in and
out of the saddle. On his right is a strongly-made young Black, who is
chief of the slaves in the royal stables. The Khalifa is immediately
preceded by six men, who alternately blow the ombeija by his orders.
Behind him follow the buglers, who sound the advance or halt, or summon,
at his wish, the chiefs of the mulazemin. Just behind these follow his
small personal attendants, who carry the Rekwa (a leather vessel used
for religious ablutions), the sheepskin prayer-carpet, and several
spears. Sometimes, either in front or rear, as the case may be, follows
the musical band, composed of about fifty Black slaves, whose
instruments comprise antelope-horns, and drums made of the hollow trunks
of trees covered with skin. The strange African tunes they play are
remarkable rather for the hideously discordant noise they make than for
their melody. These rides are generally undertaken after midday prayer;
and the Khalifa returns at sunset. Whilst he is advancing in this solemn
state, the mulazemin generally indulge in displays of horsemanship.
Galloping four abreast, with their spears poised high in the air, they
dash up towards him at full speed, drawing up their horses almost on to
their haunches. They then slowly retire to repeat the operation.
[Illustration: The Khalifa and Cadis in Council.]
During the early years of his rule, the Khalifa was present every Friday
on the large parade ground where the ceremony of trooping the colours is
performed; but now he attends only four times a year, viz., on the
birthday of the Prophet, on the Feast of Miraj, the Feast of Bairam, and
the Feast of Kurbam Bairam; on this last date all the troops in the
neighbourhood, as well as the Darfur and Gedaref armies, are assembled
during peaceful times. On the first day of the Feast of Bairam, the
Khalifa holds prayers on the parade ground, and retires himself within a
zariba in which a small mud-brick house has been built. A few special
favourites, and a number of mulazemin, remain with him; but the rest of
the troops and populace range themselves in long lines; and when the
prayer is over he mounts a wooden pulpit, and delivers a sermon, which
is generally specially prepared for him by his secretaries. This over, a
salute of seven guns is fired, and all those who can afford it kill the
sacrificial lambs prescribed by the religion; but, owing to the
prevailing distress and poverty of the inhabitants, very few of them are
in a position to bear this expense, and are obliged to content
themselves with a sort of porridge which takes the place of a
sacrificial dish. During the three following days, a review is held.
Long before sunrise, the Emirs, with their flags and followers, collect
and march to their allotted positions on the parade ground, which is an
almost perfectly flat sandy plain, with a few stones here and there. The
troops are marshalled in long lines in rear of each other, facing east.
Yakub has the principal flag,--an immense piece of black cloth, which is
hoisted exactly opposite the Khalifa's zariba, and about four hundred
yards from it. To the right and left are ranged those of the different
Emirs, while on the north side flies the green flag of the Khalifa Ali
Wad Helu, on either side of which are the flags of his Emirs. On the
left flank, the horse and camel-men are drawn up, while on the right
flank are ranged the riflemen, consisting partly of Jehadia, and partly
of men belonging to the various Emirs, who are only specially provided
with arms for the time being. Immediately after sunrise, the Khalifa
comes out of the zariba, and, mounted on his horse, stands surrounded by
his mulazemin and body-guard, whilst the entire army passes in review
before him, the troops being generally provided with new jibbas and
turbans in honour of the feast. Sometimes the Khalifa mounts on a camel;
and, on one occasion, he drove in the carriage of one of the former
Governors-General which had been captured in Khartum, and which was kept
stored away in the Beit el Mal. Two horses were specially trained to
draw this vehicle, which the Khalifa ordered to be driven at a foot
pace, as he feared being upset; but, latterly, he has given up this
plan, and generally rides on horseback direct from the mosque along the
road leading due west towards the black flag, and, on reaching it, he
solemnly contemplates it for a few moments, and then rides to the
zariba, at the south front of which a small shelter, consisting of
trunks of trees lashed together and covered with palm-mats, has been
erected. Here he dismounts and reclines on an angareb, surrounded by his
Kadis, whilst the troops file past. Occasionally, he starts from his
own house, and, taking a southern road, marches out of the town, then
turns west and rides along the front alignment of his troops, after
which the usual march past takes place. At these reviews the horsemen
are generally clad in coats of mail, of European or Asiatic origin,
whilst on their heads they wear heavy iron helmets and curious cotton
caps of various colours and the most grotesque shapes, round which a
small turban is wound. The horses are clothed in large padded patchwork
quilts, somewhat resembling those worn by the knights of old at
tournaments; and one might almost imagine one was gazing at one of those
old mediæval displays. These reviews terminate at the end of the third
day; and the troops brought from beyond Omdurman are permitted to return
to their respective garrisons.
I propose now to briefly consider the Khalifa's political intentions and
ideas.
As I have already stated, when the Mahdi first declared himself, he
nominated three Khalifas, viz., Abdullahi, Ali Wad Helu, and Mohammed
Sherif, who were to succeed him in this order, if they survived. On his
death, Abdullahi succeeded as arranged; but, from the moment he took
over the reins of government, he did everything in his power to increase
his personal ascendancy, and make it hereditary in the family. The
mutinous Ashraf, who prided themselves on their relationship to the
Mahdi, afforded him a welcome pretext for compassing their downfall; and
he did not hesitate to possess himself of the Black troops belonging to
both his rival Khalifas. An obscure member of a western tribe, he was a
complete stranger in the country; and he knew that he could not reckon
on the Jaalin, Danagla, inhabitants of the Gezira, and other Nile valley
tribes to support his authority. He therefore sent secret emissaries to
the western Arabs to induce them to make a pilgrimage to the Mahdi's
tomb, and emigrate to the Nile valley. His agents drew a tempting
picture of the magnificent country to which they had been invited,
telling them that they were the Lord's chosen people, and that they
should go out to possess the land, the inhabitants of which were rich in
cattle and slaves, which should be theirs. Tempted by these glowing
accounts, many of these tribes emigrated of their own free-will to
Omdurman; but as this contingent was not sufficient, the Khalifa
instructed his Emirs in Darfur and Kordofan to enforce his orders; and,
in consequence of this, an immense emigration took place, and continues,
on a reduced scale, down to the present day. By this means the Khalifa
has surrounded himself with hordes of strangers who have ousted the
rightful owners of the soil, and have made themselves absolute masters
of the situation. All offices and important situations are filled by
them, and by his own relatives, the majority belonging to the Taaisha
section. Almost the only one of the old Emirs left is Osman Digna; and
the reason for this is that the eastern Arab tribes he governs speak a
language which is unknown to the western Arabs. Besides many of these
tribes are gradually coming under Egyptian and Italian influence, and
the few that are left are merely attached to Osman Digna because he is
one of them. Thus the Taaisha tribe has acquired all the power and
authority in the land; and they fill their pockets with the waning
revenues of the impoverished Sudan.
Years ago, the Emirs of Dongola and Berber had been instructed by the
Khalifa to weaken the local population as much as possible; and, in
consequence, fire-arms and weapons of all descriptions were taken from
them, and they were reduced to a condition of complete harmlessness.
Moreover, in the actions of Toski and Tokar numbers of Jaalin and
Danagla were killed, whilst large contingents of them had been sent to
Darfur and Gallabat in the hope that they may be eventually
exterminated. In this manner the Khalifa has secured their countries,
and rendered any attempt to oppose his authority almost impossible. The
same may be said of the inhabitants of the Gezira, who have also been
drafted off into various remote parts of the country, or have been
forced to come to Omdurman with their families, where they have endured
the greatest hardships and privations. Moreover, they were called upon
to give up more than half their cultivated lands, which were distributed
amongst the western Arabs; and all their best fields are now possessed
by the Khalifa's own relatives and favourites. The former owners are
often obliged to till the soil for their new masters, who have annexed
their servants, slaves, and cattle. Thus the cultivable area of the
Gezira, which, in former times, was the most populous and prosperous
part of the Sudan, has been reduced by at least a half; and such
commotion prevailed in the districts that the Khalifa was himself
obliged to intervene on behalf of the inhabitants, who were ill-treated,
tyrannised over, and oppressed to an incredible extent.
As I have before stated, his own tribes are preferred on all occasions.
Not only do they hold all the best positions and posts, but the greater
part of the money and spoil which passes into the Beit el Mal from the
provincial treasuries at Darfur, Gallabat, and Reggaf finds its way into
their hands. For their special benefit he has imposed a horse tax, which
must be paid in kind; and in this manner he has provided the majority of
the Taaisha with chargers. His own section, the Jubarat, of course gets
the lion's share of everything.
He never hesitates to make use of every description of intrigue in order
to strengthen his own side and weaken the other. For example, on the
defeat and death of Nejumi, whose flags belonged to those of Khalifa
Sherif, and from whom Abdullahi had withdrawn all power of command over
other Emirs, the remnant of the defeated force was placed under the
direction of the Emir Yunes, and, in order to replace those who had been
killed, he appointed fresh Jaalin and Emirs as well as men from
Omdurman. These he first placed under the command of their compatriot
Bedawi Wad el Ereik; but, instead of sending them to Dongola, they were
despatched to Gedaref, and as an unavoidable delay occurred in their
departure, he made out that this was a proof of disobedience, and
condemned Bedawi, with six of his Emirs, to be banished to Reggaf; and
in their place he nominated other Emirs, whom he placed under the direct
command of his cousin Hamed Wad Ali.
It is human nature to seek the protection of the most powerful; and now,
instead of being desirous to serve under their own Emirs, the greater
number of the so-called opposition party vie with one another in their
efforts to be placed under the direct command of the Khalifa or of
Yakub; even the adherents of Ali Wad Helu come under this category. As
an instance of this, I will quote the case of Hamed Wad Gar en Nebbi,
who was the principal cause of the destruction of the Batahin. He
belonged to the Hassanab tribe, which was commanded by Ali Wad Helu.
Recognising how matters stood, he wished to place himself and his tribe
under Yakub's command; but he was short-sighted enough to tell Khalifa
Ali's relatives of his plans. He even went so far as to state in public
that on the death of Abdullahi he would be succeeded by his brother
Yakub or his son Osman, and that, as they had all the power in their
hands, Khalifa Ali could expect nothing, and was, moreover, a weak man
without energy. Several of the bystanders retorted that the Mahdi had
nominated Khalifa Ali to be Abdullahi's successor, to which he replied
that times had changed, that Abdullahi was all-powerful, and that the
Mahdi's commands were never attended to or taken into consideration.
When this interview came to the ears of Khalifa Ali, he charged Gar en
Nebbi before the Kadi; and it was proved beyond a doubt that the latter
had actually made these statements. He was consequently convicted of
being "irreligious," having doubted the maintenance of the Mahdi's
doctrines and instructions. Abdullahi could not therefore publicly
interfere. Had he done so, he would have revealed his own intentions,
which were in reality well known, and would have corroborated Gar en
Nebbi's assertions. The judges sentenced him to death; and although
Abdullahi did all in his power to induce Ali Wad Helu to grant a
reprieve, the latter insisted that the sentence should be carried out;
and Gar en Nebbi was publicly executed in the market-place as an
unbeliever and a disturber of public tranquillity. All the tribes under
the command of Yakub, as well as the Khalifa's immediate followers,
received instructions to show general dissatisfaction with the execution
by openly absenting themselves from it.
Whenever it is a question between himself and his opponents, the Khalifa
invariably relies upon his arms, which are far more than sufficient to
overcome with ease any attempt to dispute his authority, whether it be
in Omdurman itself or in any other part of the country. Within the
Sudan, therefore, he is all-powerful; but he is not in a position to
offer determined resistance to outside enemies. His leaders are neither
capable nor sufficiently instructed to ensure victory. His men are not
now loyal enough to fight with that determination which early fanaticism
had inspired. They have little or no faith in the cause for which they
are supposed to be fighting; and there is little doubt that the
Khalifa's forces could not resist the advance of a foreign power bent on
re-occupying the Sudan.
The table on the next page shows approximately the forces at present at
the Khalifa's disposal. Of the forty thousand rifles shown in the table,
there are not more than twenty-two thousand Remingtons in good
condition. The remainder consist of single and double barrel
smoothbores, and other guns of a variety of pattern. Several of the
Remington barrels, however, have been cut short with the object of
lessening the weight, and with entire disregard to the altered
trajectory thus occasioned. Of the sixty-four thousand swords and spear
men, at least twenty-five per cent are either too old or too young to be
considered effective for a campaign. The seventy-five guns comprise six
Krupps of large calibre, and for which there is only a very small amount
of ammunition, eight machine guns of various patterns, and sixty-one
brass muzzle-loading guns of various shapes and sizes, the ammunition
for which is manufactured principally in Omdurman, and is of a very
inferior quality, the range being little over six or seven hundred
yards.
-----------------+-------------+---------------------------+----+--------
| | Armed Strength. | |Rifles
Position and | Emirs. +--------+--------+---------+Guns| and
Garrisons. | | | | Swords. | | Smooth
| |Jehadia.|Cavalry.|Spearmen.| | Bores.
-----------------+-------------+--------+--------+---------+----+--------
Omdurman |Osman Sheikh | | | | |
(mulazemin) | ed Din | 11,000 | | | | 11,000
" |Yakub | 4,000 | 3,500 | 45,000 | 46 | 4,000
" (in store) | | | | | | 6,000
| | | | | |
Reggaf |Arabi Wad | 1,800 | | 4,500 | 3 | 1,800
| Dafalla | | | | |
Western Sudan: | | | | | |
El Fasher } | | | | | |
El Obeid } |Mahmud, etc. | 6,000 | 350 | 2,500 | 4 | 6,000
Shakka, etc. } | | | | | |
Berber |Zeki Osman | 1,600 | 500 | 1,300 | 6 | 1,600
Abu Hamed |Nur en Nau | 400 | 100 | 700 | 4 | 400
| | | | | |
Eastern Sudan: | | | | | |
Adarama |Osman Digna | 450 | 350 | 1,000 | | 450
Gedaref |Ahmed Fedil | 4,500 | 600 | 1,000 | 4 | 4,500
El Fasher | | 1,000 | 200 | 500 | | 1,000
Asubri |Hamed Wad Ali| 900 | 400 | 1,400 | | 900
Gallabat |En Nur | 50 | | 200 | | 50
Dongola |Yunes ed | | | | |
| Degheim | 2.400 | 500 | 5.000 | 8 | 2,400
Suarda |Hammuda | 250 | 100 | 1,000 | | 250
-----------------+-------------+--------+--------+---------+----+--------
Total | | 34,350 | 6,600 | 64,000 | 75 | 40,350
-----------------+-------------+--------+--------+---------+----+--------
Let us now consider for a few moments the present limits of the
Khalifa's influence.
Until a few years ago, Dervish authority extended from near Wadi Halfa
in a southeasterly direction towards Abu Hamed, thence eastwards to the
Suakin neighbourhood, including Tokar and the Khor Baraka, thence in a
southerly direction, including Kassala, Gallabat, and the southeastern
slopes of the Beni Shangul and Gulli mountains, and from here it trended
in a southwesterly direction towards the White Nile, and included
Fashoda, Bohr, and Reggaf. On the west, it extended in a southwesterly
direction through the southern Libyan desert, including Selima, the
Dongola, Kordofan, and Darfur Provinces, up to the Wadai frontier, and
thence southward across the Bahr el Arab through Dar Runga, and included
Dar Fertit, the Bahr el Ghazal, and a portion of Equatoria.
The defeat of Nejumi obliged the Mahdists to evacuate the northern
portion of the Dongola Province; and their most northerly outpost is now
Suarda, some three days' march from Dongola. The Egyptian victories at
Tokar and Handub gave back to the local tribes the districts in the
immediate neighbourhood of Suakin and Tokar, whilst the capture of
Kassala threw into the hands of the Italians all districts lying east of
that town, in consequence of which the river Atbara may now be
considered the Khalifa's eastern frontier. The main force originally
stationed at Gallabat under Ahmed Fedil has been moved to Gedaref, and
only an insignificant force is maintained at the former station. The
chief of the Beni Shangul districts--Tur el Guri--and many of the
neighbouring Sheikhs have declared themselves independent.
In the extreme west, the Massalit, Tama, Beni Hussein, and Gimr tribes,
who formerly paid tribute, have now revolted against the Mahdi's
government, and until lately were independent. They entered into an
offensive and defensive alliance with Sultan Yusef of Wadai; and the
Khalifa was about to despatch an expedition with the object of bringing
them into subjection, when the alarming news, to which I have already
referred, regarding the appearance of Europeans in the Bahr el Ghazal
induced him to alter the destination of Khatem Musa's force to that
neighbourhood. After the retirement of the Dervishes, orders were sent
to Khatem Musa not to proceed further south until he had received
reinforcements from Omdurman.
The Shilluks and Dinkas were, as I have already stated, reduced to
subjection by Zeki Tummal, and the route opened to Reggaf, which
continues to be the most southerly of the Dervish garrisons; in
consequence of the disquieting news of European movements in these
districts, the strength of the force there is by no means
inconsiderable. The Khalifa's object in retaining these districts is to
replenish his supplies of slaves and ivory; and, under the energetic
command of Arabi Wad Dafalla, frequent expeditions are despatched south
and west, some of which have collided with the forces of the Congo Free
State; but, as I quitted the Sudan before the result of these
expeditions was known, I am not in a position to state which side was
victorious.
The Khalifa's revenue and expenditure is worked entirely on the Beit el
Mal system.
The following are the principal:--
Beit el Mal el Umumi (General Treasury).
Beit el Mal el Mulazemin (the Mulazemin Treasury).
Beit el Mal Khums el Khalifa (or the Treasury of the
Khalifa's fifth tithes).
Beit el Mal Warshat el Harbia (Treasury of the War Department).
Beit el Mal Zabtia es Suk (Treasury of the Bazaar Police).
The following are the sources of revenue of the General Treasury,
viz.:--
1. The "Zeka" and "fitra" as laid down in the Moslem Law.
2. Confiscated property.
3. The ushr (or tenth) tax paid by merchants and traders on goods.
4. The gum-tax.
5. The boat-tax.
6. Loans from merchants (which are never repaid).
7. The ferry or "meshra" tax (_i. e._ the farming out of ferries).
8. The produce of all lands on the east of the Blue Nile and the
west of the White Nile, as far south as Karkoj and Fashoda,
and as far north as Haggar el Asal.
9. A percentage of the revenues of the principal Beit el Mals.
The following are the main expenses borne by the Treasury:--
1. Transport of troops and supplies to the different provinces.
2. Pay of the troops (Jehadia).
3. Pay of the various officials.
4. Alms.
The revenues of the Mulazemin Treasury come from the Gezira lands; and
the main item of expenditure is the pay of the mulazemin.
The revenues of the Treasury of the Khalifa's fifth tithes are:--
1. The greater part of the balance revenues of the Provincial
Treasuries.
2. The revenues of all islands, including Tuti Island, and all
"Ghenima" lands, including the Halfaya and Kemlin districts,
which formerly belonged to His Highness, the Khedive.
3. The ushr on all goods coming from Berber to Omdurman.
4. All slaves sent from the provinces.
5. Revenues of the majority of steamers and boats.
The expenditure of this Treasury is devoted to the Khalifa's household.
The War Department Revenues are:--
1. The produce of the Khartum gardens.
2. The revenue of some "sakias" (water-wheels) in the vicinity
of Khartum.
3. Ivory from Equatoria.
Expenditure:--
1. Dockyard expenses.
2. Beit el Amana (arsenal) expenses.
3. Saltpetre refining.
4. Expenses in connection with the manufacture of arms and
ammunition.
Revenue of the Police Treasury:--
1. Confiscated property of drunkards and gamblers.
2. Shop-tax.
Expenditure:--
1. Pay of police officers and men.
2. Expenses connected with Yakub's guest-house.
3. Expenses in connection with the building of the great wall.
It will be readily understood, that the above system produces a
considerable revenue for the Khalifa's private treasury; and I know that
a very large sum of money has been hoarded by him, and is stored in
ammunition boxes, kept in his house; but I am unable to state, even
approximately, what the amount may be. He has also several boxes, made
of skins in which are quantities of gold and silver ornaments, collected
from all parts.
As I have stated, a show is made of keeping correct accounts; but the
system in vogue admits of endless peculation, and any persons having
business in the Beit el Mal invariably acquire considerable fortunes.
The Khalifa, however, is aware of this, and makes up for it by wholesale
confiscations of property.
When the Mahdi first acquired possession of the Sudan, he naturally
obtained considerable quantities of gold and silver money; and, with
the assistance of Ahmed Wad Suleiman, he began to make his own coinage:
he struck gold sovereigns which resembled the Egyptian sovereign; but,
as he did not understand the exact amount of alloy which should be mixed
with the gold, the weights and values varied considerably, and, as the
amount of gold in the Sudan was small, the coining of sovereigns had
soon to be suspended. Silver coining was then carried on with some
vigour; and the following table, showing the various descriptions of
dollars coined during the last ten years, is an interesting indication
of the decline of Dervish power and government; for instance, the first
dollar coined by the Mahdi was made up of seven parts silver and one
part copper, whereas, the last dollar, coined by the Khalifa about a
year ago, is composed of two parts silver and five parts
copper,--indeed, the present dollar is merely a heavy copper coin
covered over with a thin layer of silver.
+-----------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| | Weight in |
| | Dirhems. |
| +-------+-------+
| |Silver.|Copper.|
+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+-------+
| 1. The Mahdi dollar | 7 | 1 |
| 2. The first dollar made by Ibrahim Adlan | 6 | 2 |
| 3. The second dollar made by Ibrahim Adlan | 5 | 3 |
| 4. The first dollar of Nur el Gereifawi (this is | 4 | 4 |
| known as the Makbul dollar) | | |
| 5. The second dollar of Nur el Gereifawi (this is | 3 | 4 |
| known as the Abu Sidr or Makbul) | | |
| 6. The dollar of Suleiman Abdulla (this is known | 2½ | 4½ |
| as the Abu Kibs or "crossed-spear" dollar) | | |
| 7. The first dollar of Abdel Mejid (also called the | 2½ | 4½ |
| Makbul) | | |
| 8. The dollar of Weki Alla | 2½ | 4½ |
| 9. The dollar of Omla Gedida (new money) | 2 | 5 |
+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+-------+
Coining money is a lucrative trade; and, at present, the Mint is
presided over by two individuals, who pay six thousand dollars a month
each, for the privilege. All money issued by them must be accepted as
good money. The merchants, of course, object most strongly to these
arbitrary measures; but wholesale confiscation of their property,
accompanied by flogging and imprisonment, has forced them to realise the
futility of attempting to go contrary to the Khalifa's will. Maria
Theresa dollars and Medjidi dollars were the principal currency when the
Egyptian Government occupied the Sudan; and the present rate of exchange
is:--
One Maria Theresa dollar = five Omla Gedida dollars.
One Medjidi dollar = eight Omla Gedida dollars.
In consequence of this introduction of base coinage, the prices of
certain articles have risen enormously: for instance, blue cotton stuff,
which is principally used for women's dresses, and which cost formerly
three-quarters of a dollar the piece, has now risen to six dollars,
whilst ordinary linen, which was sold at a dollar for twelve yards, has
risen to eight dollars for the same amount. Half a pound of sugar costs
a dollar, and so on. In fact, all goods which come from Egypt have risen
in price, whilst local produce, such as grain and cattle, has
proportionately diminished in value: for instance,--
Dervish Dollars.
A baggage camel costs from 60 to 80
Riding camel " " 200 " 400
Abyssinian horse " " 60 " 120
Country bred horse " " 200 " 600
Ordinary cow " " 100 " 160
A calf " " 30 " 50
Milch cow " " 100 " 120
A sheep " " 5 " 20
An ardeb of dhurra " " 6 " 8
An ardeb of wheat " " 30 " 40
If the above rates were calculated in the former currency, it will be
seen that the price of these articles is less now than it was in the
days of the Egyptian Government; and it is evident that this state of
things is brought about by bad sales, depression of trade, and general
poverty. The unfortunate natives, who, at most, own only a few acres of
ground, and a small stock of domestic animals, are obliged to sell them
in order to obtain the bare necessaries of life, and pay the oppressive
taxes.